imported>MomedWiki: Formatting fix

2025-12-30T08:59:18Z

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imported>Grungeosmunge: /* Al-Qaeda and the Iraq War (2001–2011) */ prose and readability fixes

2025-06-24T05:21:08Z

Al-Qaeda and the Iraq War (2001–2011): prose and readability fixes

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imported>OAbot: Open access bot: url-access updated in citation with #oabot.

2025-06-19T23:41:22Z

Open access bot: url-access updated in citation with #oabot.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 23:41, 19 June 2025
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	The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the Abbasid caliphs of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years, despite brief intermissions created by the Safavids and [[Afsharids]].{{sfn\|Quataert\|2000}} By this time the Ottomans also held Greece, the [[Balkans]], and most of [[Hungary]], setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the [[Danube]]. Regions such as [[Albania]] and [[Bosnia Eyalet\|Bosnia]] saw many conversions to Islam, but Ottoman Europe was not culturally absorbed into the Muslim world.		The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the Abbasid caliphs of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years, despite brief intermissions created by the Safavids and [[Afsharids]].{{sfn\|Quataert\|2000}} By this time the Ottomans also held Greece, the [[Balkans]], and most of [[Hungary]], setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the [[Danube]]. Regions such as [[Albania]] and [[Bosnia Eyalet\|Bosnia]] saw many conversions to Islam, but Ottoman Europe was not culturally absorbed into the Muslim world.

	By 1699, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary, the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\|Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and parts of the western Balkans in the [[Great Turkish War]]. In the [[Great Divergence]], Europe had overtaken the Muslim world in wealth, population and technology. Some historians argue that science had already been in decline in the Muslim world since the 14th century<ref>{{Citation \|title=Islamic Science and Renaissance Europe: The Copernican Connection \|date=2007 \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 \|work=Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance \|pages=193–232 \|publisher=The MIT Press \|doi=10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 \|isbn=9780262282888 \|access-date=21 January 2023}}</ref> while other argue that sciences still continued until the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=El-Rouayheb \|first=Khaled \|title=The Myth of "The Triumph of Fanaticism" in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire \|journal=Die Welt des Islams \|volume=48 \|year=2008 \|issue=2 \|pages=196–221 \|doi=10.1163/157006008x335930}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last=El-Rouayheb \|first=Khaled \|title=Opening the Gate of Verification: The Forgotten Arab-Islamic Florescence of the 17th Century \|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies \|volume=38 \|year=2006 \|issue=2 \|pages=263–81 \|doi=10.1017/s0020743806412344 \|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 \|s2cid=162679546}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last=El-Rouhayeb \|first=Khaled \|title=Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb \|date=2015 \|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] \|place=Cambridge \|isbn=978-1-107-04296-4 \|pages=1–10}}</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] and growth of [[capitalism]] magnified the divergence, and from 1768 to 1918, the Ottomans gradually lost territory.		By 1699, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary, the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\|Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and parts of the western Balkans in the [[Great Turkish War]]. In the [[Great Divergence]], Europe had overtaken the Muslim world in wealth, population and technology. Some historians argue that science had already been in decline in the Muslim world since the 14th century<ref>{{Citation \|title=Islamic Science and Renaissance Europe: The Copernican Connection \|date=2007 \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 \|work=Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance \|pages=193–232 \|publisher=The MIT Press \|doi=10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 \|isbn=9780262282888 \|access-date=21 January 2023\|url-access=subscription }}</ref> while other argue that sciences still continued until the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=El-Rouayheb \|first=Khaled \|title=The Myth of "The Triumph of Fanaticism" in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire \|journal=Die Welt des Islams \|volume=48 \|year=2008 \|issue=2 \|pages=196–221 \|doi=10.1163/157006008x335930}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last=El-Rouayheb \|first=Khaled \|title=Opening the Gate of Verification: The Forgotten Arab-Islamic Florescence of the 17th Century \|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies \|volume=38 \|year=2006 \|issue=2 \|pages=263–81 \|doi=10.1017/s0020743806412344 \|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 \|s2cid=162679546}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last=El-Rouhayeb \|first=Khaled \|title=Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb \|date=2015 \|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] \|place=Cambridge \|isbn=978-1-107-04296-4 \|pages=1–10}}</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] and growth of [[capitalism]] magnified the divergence, and from 1768 to 1918, the Ottomans gradually lost territory.

	== 18th century ==		== 18th century ==
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	The British found an ally in [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca\|Sharif Hussein]], the hereditary ruler of Mecca believed by many to be a descendant of Muhammad, who led an [[Arab Revolt]] against Ottoman rule, after being promised independence.		The British found an ally in [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca\|Sharif Hussein]], the hereditary ruler of Mecca believed by many to be a descendant of Muhammad, who led an [[Arab Revolt]] against Ottoman rule, after being promised independence.

	The Entente won the war and the Ottoman Empire was abolished with most of its territories ceded to Britain and France; Turkey just managed to survive. The war transformed the region in terms of shattering Ottoman power which was supplanted by increased British and French involvement; the creation of the Middle Eastern state system as seen in Turkey and Saudi Arabia; the emergence of explicitly more nationalist politics, as seen in Turkey and Egypt; and the expansion of oil industry, particularly in the Gulf States.<ref>{{Cite journal\|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhu031\|doi=10.1093/dh/dhu031\|title=World War I: A War (And Peace?) for the Middle East\|year=2014\|last1=Jacobs\|first1=M. F.\|journal=Diplomatic History\|volume=38\|issue=4\|pages=776–785}}</ref>		The Entente won the war and the Ottoman Empire was abolished with most of its territories ceded to Britain and France; Turkey just managed to survive. The war transformed the region in terms of shattering Ottoman power which was supplanted by increased British and French involvement; the creation of the Middle Eastern state system as seen in Turkey and Saudi Arabia; the emergence of explicitly more nationalist politics, as seen in Turkey and Egypt; and the expansion of oil industry, particularly in the Gulf States.<ref>{{Cite journal\|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhu031\|doi=10.1093/dh/dhu031\|title=World War I: A War (And Peace?) for the Middle East\|year=2014\|last1=Jacobs\|first1=M. F.\|journal=Diplomatic History\|volume=38\|issue=4\|pages=776–785\|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

	=== Aftermath of World War I ===		=== Aftermath of World War I ===
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	In 1977, the right-wing political party [[Likud]] won the [[1977 Israeli legislative election\|Israeli elections]], leading to Israel expropriating more land and furthering settlements in the West Bank. Palestinian protests following the invasion of Lebanon increased Israel's repression in Gaza and the West Bank. The conditions for a Palestinian uprising were greater as certain Palestinians challenged the PLO's leadership and viewed Israel, which in the mid-1980s had a significant number vying for peace, as more receptive to Palestinian protests.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" />		In 1977, the right-wing political party [[Likud]] won the [[1977 Israeli legislative election\|Israeli elections]], leading to Israel expropriating more land and furthering settlements in the West Bank. Palestinian protests following the invasion of Lebanon increased Israel's repression in Gaza and the West Bank. The conditions for a Palestinian uprising were greater as certain Palestinians challenged the PLO's leadership and viewed Israel, which in the mid-1980s had a significant number vying for peace, as more receptive to Palestinian protests.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" />

	In December 1987, an Israeli caused a vehicle crash that killed four Palestinians, as revenge for the fatal stabbing of an Israeli in Gaza years prior. The crash led to the [[First Intifada]], a Palestinian uprising—involving the PLO—against Israel. It started as protests and turned into a military conflict against the occupiers. 2,000 people died, around three quarters being Palestinian deaths. In 1988, the PLO denied the U.S.' deal of making peace with Israel on the condition that the PLO acknowledge "Israel’s right 'to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries'". The Intifada politically and economically hurt Israel, who elected politicians favoring peace in the [[1992 Israeli legislative election\|1992 elections]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite web \|date=8 December 2024 \|title=Intifada {{!}} History, Meaning, Cause, & Significance {{!}} Britannica \|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/intifada \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=www.britannica.com \|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite web \|title=Intifada begins on Gaza Strip {{!}} 9 December 1987 \|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/intifada-begins-on-gaza-strip \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=HISTORY \|date=9 February 2010 \|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web \|last=Medina \|first=Jacqueline \|date=22 March 2019 \|title=What you need to know about the 1987 Intifada {{!}} Women, War and Peace {{!}} PBS \|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/uncategorized/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-1987-intifada/ \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=Women, War and Peace}}</ref>		In December 1987, an Israeli caused a vehicle crash that killed four Palestinians, as revenge for the fatal stabbing of an Israeli in Gaza years prior. The crash led to the [[First Intifada]], a Palestinian uprising—involving the PLO—against Israel. It started as protests and turned into a military conflict against the occupiers. 2,000 people died, around three quarters being Palestinian deaths. In 1988, the PLO denied the U.S.' deal of making peace with Israel on the condition that the PLO acknowledge "Israel’s right 'to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries'". The Intifada politically and economically hurt Israel, who elected politicians favoring peace in the [[1992 Israeli legislative election\|1992 elections]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite web \|date=8 December 2024 \|title=Intifada {{!}} History, Meaning, Cause, & Significance {{!}} Britannica \|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/intifada \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=www.britannica.com \|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite web \|title=Intifada begins on Gaza Strip {{!}} 9 December 1987 \|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/intifada-begins-on-gaza-strip \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=HISTORY \|date=9 February 2010 \|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web \|last=Medina \|first=Jacqueline \|date=22 March 2019 \|title=What you need to know about the 1987 Intifada {{!}} Women, War and Peace {{!}} PBS \|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/uncategorized/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-1987-intifada/?repeat=w3tc \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=Women, War and Peace}}</ref>

	=== Dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991) ===		=== Dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991) ===
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	* {{citation\|last=Guzman\|first=Gregory\|title=Christian Europe and Mongol Asia: First Medieval Intercultural Contact Between East and West\|journal=Essays in Medieval Studies\|year=1985\|volume=2\|url=http://www.illinoismedieval.org/EMS/EMSpdf/V2/V2Guzman.pdf}}		* {{citation\|last=Guzman\|first=Gregory\|title=Christian Europe and Mongol Asia: First Medieval Intercultural Contact Between East and West\|journal=Essays in Medieval Studies\|year=1985\|volume=2\|url=http://www.illinoismedieval.org/EMS/EMSpdf/V2/V2Guzman.pdf}}
	* {{citation\|last=Hourani\|first=Albert\|title=A History of the Arab Peoples\|year=2013\|publisher=Faber and Faber\|isbn=978-0-571-30249-9\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irtb55WDsjMC\|edition=Updated\|author-link=Albert Hourani}}		* {{citation\|last=Hourani\|first=Albert\|title=A History of the Arab Peoples\|year=2013\|publisher=Faber and Faber\|isbn=978-0-571-30249-9\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irtb55WDsjMC\|edition=Updated\|author-link=Albert Hourani}}
	* {{citation\|last=~~Stearns~~\|first=~~Peter N.\|year=2007~~\|title=A Brief History of the ~~World~~\|publisher=[~~[The Teaching Company]~~]\|~~author~~-~~link~~=Peter ~~Stearns~~}}		* {{citation\|last=[[Bernard Lewis\|Lewis]]\|first=Bernard\|title=The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years\|location=New York\|publisher=Scribner\|year=1995}}
			* Monroe, Elizabeth. '' Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956'' (1963) [https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 online] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921121807/https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 \|date=21 September 2018 }}
			* {{citation\|title=A History of the Middle East\|last1=Mansfield\|first1=Peter\|last2=Pelham\|first2=Nicolas\|year=2013\|edition=4\|publisher=Penguin Books\|isbn=978-0-7181-9967-8}}
			* {{citation\|last=Quataert\|first=Donald\|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|year=2000\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC\|isbn=978-1-139-44591-7}}
	* {{citation \|last1=Stearns \|first1=Peter N. \|author-link1=Peter Stearns \|last2=Adas \|first2=Michael \|author-link2=Michael Adas \|last3=Schwartz \|first3=Stuart B. \|author-link3=Stuart B. Schwartz \|last4=Gilbert \|first4=Marc Jason \|title=World Civilizations: The Global Experience \|year=2011 \|publisher=Longman \|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ \|isbn=978-0-13-136020-4 \|edition=6th}}		* {{citation \|last1=Stearns \|first1=Peter N. \|author-link1=Peter Stearns \|last2=Adas \|first2=Michael \|author-link2=Michael Adas \|last3=Schwartz \|first3=Stuart B. \|author-link3=Stuart B. Schwartz \|last4=Gilbert \|first4=Marc Jason \|title=World Civilizations: The Global Experience \|year=2011 \|publisher=Longman \|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ \|isbn=978-0-13-136020-4 \|edition=6th}}
	* {{citation\|last=Wawro\|first=Geoffrey\|title=Historical Atlas: A Comprehensive History of the World\|year=2008\|publisher=Millennium House\|location=Elanora Heights, NSW, Australia\|isbn=978-1-921209-23-9\|author-link=Geoffrey Wawro}}		* {{citation\|last=Wawro\|first=Geoffrey\|title=Historical Atlas: A Comprehensive History of the World\|year=2008\|publisher=Millennium House\|location=Elanora Heights, NSW, Australia\|isbn=978-1-921209-23-9\|author-link=Geoffrey Wawro}}
Line 477:		Line 480:
	* Issawi, Charles, ed. ''The Economic History of the Middle East 1800–1914: A Book of Readings'' (1966) [https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo0000unse_o2c3 online]		* Issawi, Charles, ed. ''The Economic History of the Middle East 1800–1914: A Book of Readings'' (1966) [https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo0000unse_o2c3 online]
	* Kirk, George Eden. ''A short history of the Middle East: from the rise of Islam to modern times''(Methuen, 1964) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206224/page/n5/mode/2up online]		* Kirk, George Eden. ''A short history of the Middle East: from the rise of Islam to modern times''(Methuen, 1964) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206224/page/n5/mode/2up online]
	* {{citation\|last=~~[[Bernard Lewis~~\|~~Lewis]]~~\|~~first~~=~~Bernard~~\|title=~~The Middle East:~~ A Brief History of the ~~Last 2,000 Years\|location=New York~~\|publisher=~~Scribner\|year=1995}}~~		* {{citation\|last=Stearns\|first=Peter N.\|year=2007\|title=A Brief History of the World\|publisher=[[The Teaching Company]]\|author-link=Peter Stearns}}
	* Monroe, Elizabeth. '' Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956'' (1963) [~~https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 online~~] ~~{{Webarchive~~\|~~url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921121807/https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain~~-~~s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 \|date=21 September 2018 }}~~
	* {{citation\|title=A History of the Middle East\|last1=Mansfield\|first1=Peter~~\|last2=Pelham\|first2=Nicolas\|year=2013\|edition=4\|publisher=Penguin Books\|isbn=978-0-7181-9967-8}}~~
	* {{citation\|last=Rogan\|first=Eugene\|year=2009\|title=The Arabs: A History}}
	* {{citation\|last=Quataert\|first=Donald\|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|year=2000\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC\|isbn=978-1-139-44591-7}}
	* Vasiliev, Alexey. ''Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin'' (Routledge, 2018).		* Vasiliev, Alexey. ''Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin'' (Routledge, 2018).
	* [[Robert F. Worth\|Worth, Robert F.]], "Syria's Lost Chance" (review of Elizabeth F. Thompson, ''How the West Stole Democracy from the Arabs: the Syrian Arab Congress of 1920 and the Destruction of Its Historic Liberal-Islamic Alliance'', Atlantic Monthly, 466 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVII, no. 15 (8 October 2020), pp. 31–33. Worth writes (p. 33): "Perhaps things would have been different if the Syrians had been left to govern themselves a century ago."		* [[Robert F. Worth\|Worth, Robert F.]], "Syria's Lost Chance" (review of Elizabeth F. Thompson, ''How the West Stole Democracy from the Arabs: the Syrian Arab Congress of 1920 and the Destruction of Its Historic Liberal-Islamic Alliance'', Atlantic Monthly, 466 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVII, no. 15 (8 October 2020), pp. 31–33. Worth writes (p. 33): "Perhaps things would have been different if the Syrians had been left to govern themselves a century ago."

imported>Harielichai: added term; Israel independence, Jewish state

2025-05-21T23:46:41Z

added term; Israel independence, Jewish state

Show changes

← Previous revision		Revision as of 23:41, 19 June 2025
Line 202:		Line 202:
	The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the Abbasid caliphs of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years, despite brief intermissions created by the Safavids and [[Afsharids]].{{sfn\|Quataert\|2000}} By this time the Ottomans also held Greece, the [[Balkans]], and most of [[Hungary]], setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the [[Danube]]. Regions such as [[Albania]] and [[Bosnia Eyalet\|Bosnia]] saw many conversions to Islam, but Ottoman Europe was not culturally absorbed into the Muslim world.		The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the Abbasid caliphs of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years, despite brief intermissions created by the Safavids and [[Afsharids]].{{sfn\|Quataert\|2000}} By this time the Ottomans also held Greece, the [[Balkans]], and most of [[Hungary]], setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the [[Danube]]. Regions such as [[Albania]] and [[Bosnia Eyalet\|Bosnia]] saw many conversions to Islam, but Ottoman Europe was not culturally absorbed into the Muslim world.

	By 1699, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary, the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\|Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and parts of the western Balkans in the [[Great Turkish War]]. In the [[Great Divergence]], Europe had overtaken the Muslim world in wealth, population and technology. Some historians argue that science had already been in decline in the Muslim world since the 14th century<ref>{{Citation \|title=Islamic Science and Renaissance Europe: The Copernican Connection \|date=2007 \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 \|work=Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance \|pages=193–232 \|publisher=The MIT Press \|doi=10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 \|isbn=9780262282888 \|access-date=21 January 2023}}</ref> while other argue that sciences still continued until the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=El-Rouayheb \|first=Khaled \|title=The Myth of "The Triumph of Fanaticism" in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire \|journal=Die Welt des Islams \|volume=48 \|year=2008 \|issue=2 \|pages=196–221 \|doi=10.1163/157006008x335930}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last=El-Rouayheb \|first=Khaled \|title=Opening the Gate of Verification: The Forgotten Arab-Islamic Florescence of the 17th Century \|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies \|volume=38 \|year=2006 \|issue=2 \|pages=263–81 \|doi=10.1017/s0020743806412344 \|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 \|s2cid=162679546}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last=El-Rouhayeb \|first=Khaled \|title=Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb \|date=2015 \|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] \|place=Cambridge \|isbn=978-1-107-04296-4 \|pages=1–10}}</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] and growth of [[capitalism]] magnified the divergence, and from 1768 to 1918, the Ottomans gradually lost territory.		By 1699, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary, the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\|Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and parts of the western Balkans in the [[Great Turkish War]]. In the [[Great Divergence]], Europe had overtaken the Muslim world in wealth, population and technology. Some historians argue that science had already been in decline in the Muslim world since the 14th century<ref>{{Citation \|title=Islamic Science and Renaissance Europe: The Copernican Connection \|date=2007 \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 \|work=Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance \|pages=193–232 \|publisher=The MIT Press \|doi=10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 \|isbn=9780262282888 \|access-date=21 January 2023\|url-access=subscription }}</ref> while other argue that sciences still continued until the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=El-Rouayheb \|first=Khaled \|title=The Myth of "The Triumph of Fanaticism" in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire \|journal=Die Welt des Islams \|volume=48 \|year=2008 \|issue=2 \|pages=196–221 \|doi=10.1163/157006008x335930}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last=El-Rouayheb \|first=Khaled \|title=Opening the Gate of Verification: The Forgotten Arab-Islamic Florescence of the 17th Century \|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies \|volume=38 \|year=2006 \|issue=2 \|pages=263–81 \|doi=10.1017/s0020743806412344 \|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 \|s2cid=162679546}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last=El-Rouhayeb \|first=Khaled \|title=Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb \|date=2015 \|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] \|place=Cambridge \|isbn=978-1-107-04296-4 \|pages=1–10}}</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] and growth of [[capitalism]] magnified the divergence, and from 1768 to 1918, the Ottomans gradually lost territory.

	== 18th century ==		== 18th century ==
Line 237:		Line 237:
	The British found an ally in [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca\|Sharif Hussein]], the hereditary ruler of Mecca believed by many to be a descendant of Muhammad, who led an [[Arab Revolt]] against Ottoman rule, after being promised independence.		The British found an ally in [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca\|Sharif Hussein]], the hereditary ruler of Mecca believed by many to be a descendant of Muhammad, who led an [[Arab Revolt]] against Ottoman rule, after being promised independence.

	The Entente won the war and the Ottoman Empire was abolished with most of its territories ceded to Britain and France; Turkey just managed to survive. The war transformed the region in terms of shattering Ottoman power which was supplanted by increased British and French involvement; the creation of the Middle Eastern state system as seen in Turkey and Saudi Arabia; the emergence of explicitly more nationalist politics, as seen in Turkey and Egypt; and the expansion of oil industry, particularly in the Gulf States.<ref>{{Cite journal\|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhu031\|doi=10.1093/dh/dhu031\|title=World War I: A War (And Peace?) for the Middle East\|year=2014\|last1=Jacobs\|first1=M. F.\|journal=Diplomatic History\|volume=38\|issue=4\|pages=776–785}}</ref>		The Entente won the war and the Ottoman Empire was abolished with most of its territories ceded to Britain and France; Turkey just managed to survive. The war transformed the region in terms of shattering Ottoman power which was supplanted by increased British and French involvement; the creation of the Middle Eastern state system as seen in Turkey and Saudi Arabia; the emergence of explicitly more nationalist politics, as seen in Turkey and Egypt; and the expansion of oil industry, particularly in the Gulf States.<ref>{{Cite journal\|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhu031\|doi=10.1093/dh/dhu031\|title=World War I: A War (And Peace?) for the Middle East\|year=2014\|last1=Jacobs\|first1=M. F.\|journal=Diplomatic History\|volume=38\|issue=4\|pages=776–785\|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

	=== Aftermath of World War I ===		=== Aftermath of World War I ===
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	In 1977, the right-wing political party [[Likud]] won the [[1977 Israeli legislative election\|Israeli elections]], leading to Israel expropriating more land and furthering settlements in the West Bank. Palestinian protests following the invasion of Lebanon increased Israel's repression in Gaza and the West Bank. The conditions for a Palestinian uprising were greater as certain Palestinians challenged the PLO's leadership and viewed Israel, which in the mid-1980s had a significant number vying for peace, as more receptive to Palestinian protests.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" />		In 1977, the right-wing political party [[Likud]] won the [[1977 Israeli legislative election\|Israeli elections]], leading to Israel expropriating more land and furthering settlements in the West Bank. Palestinian protests following the invasion of Lebanon increased Israel's repression in Gaza and the West Bank. The conditions for a Palestinian uprising were greater as certain Palestinians challenged the PLO's leadership and viewed Israel, which in the mid-1980s had a significant number vying for peace, as more receptive to Palestinian protests.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" />

	In December 1987, an Israeli caused a vehicle crash that killed four Palestinians, as revenge for the fatal stabbing of an Israeli in Gaza years prior. The crash led to the [[First Intifada]], a Palestinian uprising—involving the PLO—against Israel. It started as protests and turned into a military conflict against the occupiers. 2,000 people died, around three quarters being Palestinian deaths. In 1988, the PLO denied the U.S.' deal of making peace with Israel on the condition that the PLO acknowledge "Israel’s right 'to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries'". The Intifada politically and economically hurt Israel, who elected politicians favoring peace in the [[1992 Israeli legislative election\|1992 elections]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite web \|date=8 December 2024 \|title=Intifada {{!}} History, Meaning, Cause, & Significance {{!}} Britannica \|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/intifada \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=www.britannica.com \|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite web \|title=Intifada begins on Gaza Strip {{!}} 9 December 1987 \|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/intifada-begins-on-gaza-strip \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=HISTORY \|date=9 February 2010 \|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web \|last=Medina \|first=Jacqueline \|date=22 March 2019 \|title=What you need to know about the 1987 Intifada {{!}} Women, War and Peace {{!}} PBS \|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/uncategorized/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-1987-intifada/ \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=Women, War and Peace}}</ref>		In December 1987, an Israeli caused a vehicle crash that killed four Palestinians, as revenge for the fatal stabbing of an Israeli in Gaza years prior. The crash led to the [[First Intifada]], a Palestinian uprising—involving the PLO—against Israel. It started as protests and turned into a military conflict against the occupiers. 2,000 people died, around three quarters being Palestinian deaths. In 1988, the PLO denied the U.S.' deal of making peace with Israel on the condition that the PLO acknowledge "Israel’s right 'to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries'". The Intifada politically and economically hurt Israel, who elected politicians favoring peace in the [[1992 Israeli legislative election\|1992 elections]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite web \|date=8 December 2024 \|title=Intifada {{!}} History, Meaning, Cause, & Significance {{!}} Britannica \|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/intifada \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=www.britannica.com \|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite web \|title=Intifada begins on Gaza Strip {{!}} 9 December 1987 \|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/intifada-begins-on-gaza-strip \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=HISTORY \|date=9 February 2010 \|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web \|last=Medina \|first=Jacqueline \|date=22 March 2019 \|title=What you need to know about the 1987 Intifada {{!}} Women, War and Peace {{!}} PBS \|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/uncategorized/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-1987-intifada/?repeat=w3tc \|access-date=11 December 2024 \|website=Women, War and Peace}}</ref>

	=== Dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991) ===		=== Dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991) ===
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	* {{citation\|last=Guzman\|first=Gregory\|title=Christian Europe and Mongol Asia: First Medieval Intercultural Contact Between East and West\|journal=Essays in Medieval Studies\|year=1985\|volume=2\|url=http://www.illinoismedieval.org/EMS/EMSpdf/V2/V2Guzman.pdf}}		* {{citation\|last=Guzman\|first=Gregory\|title=Christian Europe and Mongol Asia: First Medieval Intercultural Contact Between East and West\|journal=Essays in Medieval Studies\|year=1985\|volume=2\|url=http://www.illinoismedieval.org/EMS/EMSpdf/V2/V2Guzman.pdf}}
	* {{citation\|last=Hourani\|first=Albert\|title=A History of the Arab Peoples\|year=2013\|publisher=Faber and Faber\|isbn=978-0-571-30249-9\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irtb55WDsjMC\|edition=Updated\|author-link=Albert Hourani}}		* {{citation\|last=Hourani\|first=Albert\|title=A History of the Arab Peoples\|year=2013\|publisher=Faber and Faber\|isbn=978-0-571-30249-9\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irtb55WDsjMC\|edition=Updated\|author-link=Albert Hourani}}
	* {{citation\|last=~~Stearns~~\|first=~~Peter N.\|year=2007~~\|title=A Brief History of the ~~World~~\|publisher=[~~[The Teaching Company]~~]\|~~author~~-~~link~~=Peter ~~Stearns~~}}		* {{citation\|last=[[Bernard Lewis\|Lewis]]\|first=Bernard\|title=The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years\|location=New York\|publisher=Scribner\|year=1995}}
			* Monroe, Elizabeth. '' Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956'' (1963) [https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 online] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921121807/https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 \|date=21 September 2018 }}
			* {{citation\|title=A History of the Middle East\|last1=Mansfield\|first1=Peter\|last2=Pelham\|first2=Nicolas\|year=2013\|edition=4\|publisher=Penguin Books\|isbn=978-0-7181-9967-8}}
			* {{citation\|last=Quataert\|first=Donald\|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|year=2000\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC\|isbn=978-1-139-44591-7}}
	* {{citation \|last1=Stearns \|first1=Peter N. \|author-link1=Peter Stearns \|last2=Adas \|first2=Michael \|author-link2=Michael Adas \|last3=Schwartz \|first3=Stuart B. \|author-link3=Stuart B. Schwartz \|last4=Gilbert \|first4=Marc Jason \|title=World Civilizations: The Global Experience \|year=2011 \|publisher=Longman \|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ \|isbn=978-0-13-136020-4 \|edition=6th}}		* {{citation \|last1=Stearns \|first1=Peter N. \|author-link1=Peter Stearns \|last2=Adas \|first2=Michael \|author-link2=Michael Adas \|last3=Schwartz \|first3=Stuart B. \|author-link3=Stuart B. Schwartz \|last4=Gilbert \|first4=Marc Jason \|title=World Civilizations: The Global Experience \|year=2011 \|publisher=Longman \|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ \|isbn=978-0-13-136020-4 \|edition=6th}}
	* {{citation\|last=Wawro\|first=Geoffrey\|title=Historical Atlas: A Comprehensive History of the World\|year=2008\|publisher=Millennium House\|location=Elanora Heights, NSW, Australia\|isbn=978-1-921209-23-9\|author-link=Geoffrey Wawro}}		* {{citation\|last=Wawro\|first=Geoffrey\|title=Historical Atlas: A Comprehensive History of the World\|year=2008\|publisher=Millennium House\|location=Elanora Heights, NSW, Australia\|isbn=978-1-921209-23-9\|author-link=Geoffrey Wawro}}
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	* Issawi, Charles, ed. ''The Economic History of the Middle East 1800–1914: A Book of Readings'' (1966) [https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo0000unse_o2c3 online]		* Issawi, Charles, ed. ''The Economic History of the Middle East 1800–1914: A Book of Readings'' (1966) [https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo0000unse_o2c3 online]
	* Kirk, George Eden. ''A short history of the Middle East: from the rise of Islam to modern times''(Methuen, 1964) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206224/page/n5/mode/2up online]		* Kirk, George Eden. ''A short history of the Middle East: from the rise of Islam to modern times''(Methuen, 1964) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206224/page/n5/mode/2up online]
	* {{citation\|last=~~[[Bernard Lewis~~\|~~Lewis]]~~\|~~first~~=~~Bernard~~\|title=~~The Middle East:~~ A Brief History of the ~~Last 2,000 Years\|location=New York~~\|publisher=~~Scribner\|year=1995}}~~		* {{citation\|last=Stearns\|first=Peter N.\|year=2007\|title=A Brief History of the World\|publisher=[[The Teaching Company]]\|author-link=Peter Stearns}}
	* Monroe, Elizabeth. '' Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956'' (1963) [~~https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 online~~] ~~{{Webarchive~~\|~~url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921121807/https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain~~-~~s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 \|date=21 September 2018 }}~~
	* {{citation\|title=A History of the Middle East\|last1=Mansfield\|first1=Peter~~\|last2=Pelham\|first2=Nicolas\|year=2013\|edition=4\|publisher=Penguin Books\|isbn=978-0-7181-9967-8}}~~
	* {{citation\|last=Rogan\|first=Eugene\|year=2009\|title=The Arabs: A History}}
	* {{citation\|last=Quataert\|first=Donald\|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|year=2000\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC\|isbn=978-1-139-44591-7}}
	* Vasiliev, Alexey. ''Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin'' (Routledge, 2018).		* Vasiliev, Alexey. ''Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin'' (Routledge, 2018).
	* [[Robert F. Worth\|Worth, Robert F.]], "Syria's Lost Chance" (review of Elizabeth F. Thompson, ''How the West Stole Democracy from the Arabs: the Syrian Arab Congress of 1920 and the Destruction of Its Historic Liberal-Islamic Alliance'', Atlantic Monthly, 466 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVII, no. 15 (8 October 2020), pp. 31–33. Worth writes (p. 33): "Perhaps things would have been different if the Syrians had been left to govern themselves a century ago."		* [[Robert F. Worth\|Worth, Robert F.]], "Syria's Lost Chance" (review of Elizabeth F. Thompson, ''How the West Stole Democracy from the Arabs: the Syrian Arab Congress of 1920 and the Destruction of Its Historic Liberal-Islamic Alliance'', Atlantic Monthly, 466 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVII, no. 15 (8 October 2020), pp. 31–33. Worth writes (p. 33): "Perhaps things would have been different if the Syrians had been left to govern themselves a century ago."

History of the Middle East - Revision history

imported>MomedWiki: Formatting fix

imported>Grungeosmunge: /* Al-Qaeda and the Iraq War (2001–2011) */ prose and readability fixes

imported>OAbot: Open access bot: url-access updated in citation with #oabot.

imported>Harielichai: added term; Israel independence, Jewish state