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Distributed generation - Revision history

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← Previous revision		Revision as of 20:21, 19 June 2025
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	DER systems typically use [[renewable energy]] sources, including [[small hydro]], [[biomass]], [[biogas]], [[solar power]], [[wind power]], and [[geothermal power]], and increasingly play an important role for the [[electric power distribution]] system. A grid-connected device for [[Grid energy storage\|electricity storage]] can also be classified as a DER system and is often called a '''distributed energy storage system''' ('''DESS''').<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Nadeem \|first1=Talha Bin \|last2=Siddiqui \|first2=Mubashir \|last3=Khalid \|first3=Muhammad \|last4=Asif \|first4=Muhammad \|title=Distributed energy systems: A review of classification, technologies, applications, and policies \|journal=Energy Strategy Reviews \|date=2023 \|volume=48 \|pages=101096 \|doi=10.1016/j.esr.2023.101096 \|doi-access=free\|bibcode=2023EneSR..4801096N }}</ref> By means of an interface, DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a [[smart grid]]. Distributed generation and storage enables the collection of energy from many sources and may lower environmental impacts{{Citation needed\|date=November 2024\|reason=small diesel generators can be very polluting}} and improve the security of supply.<ref>{{Cite news \|last=Koshiw \|first=Isobel \|date=2024-04-08 \|title=Russia changes tack on targeting Ukraine's energy plants \|url=https://www.ft.com/content/18882abd-6277-4aae-bc43-f3e5fa786445 \|access-date=2024-11-29 \|work=Financial Times\|location=London}}</ref>		DER systems typically use [[renewable energy]] sources, including [[small hydro]], [[biomass]], [[biogas]], [[solar power]], [[wind power]], and [[geothermal power]], and increasingly play an important role for the [[electric power distribution]] system. A grid-connected device for [[Grid energy storage\|electricity storage]] can also be classified as a DER system and is often called a '''distributed energy storage system''' ('''DESS''').<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Nadeem \|first1=Talha Bin \|last2=Siddiqui \|first2=Mubashir \|last3=Khalid \|first3=Muhammad \|last4=Asif \|first4=Muhammad \|title=Distributed energy systems: A review of classification, technologies, applications, and policies \|journal=Energy Strategy Reviews \|date=2023 \|volume=48 \|pages=101096 \|doi=10.1016/j.esr.2023.101096 \|doi-access=free\|bibcode=2023EneSR..4801096N }}</ref> By means of an interface, DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a [[smart grid]]. Distributed generation and storage enables the collection of energy from many sources and may lower environmental impacts{{Citation needed\|date=November 2024\|reason=small diesel generators can be very polluting}} and improve the security of supply.<ref>{{Cite news \|last=Koshiw \|first=Isobel \|date=2024-04-08 \|title=Russia changes tack on targeting Ukraine's energy plants \|url=https://www.ft.com/content/18882abd-6277-4aae-bc43-f3e5fa786445 \|access-date=2024-11-29 \|work=Financial Times\|location=London}}</ref>

	One of the major issues with the integration of the DER such as solar power, wind power, etc. is the uncertain nature of such electricity resources. This uncertainty can cause a few problems in the distribution system: (i) it makes the supply-demand relationships extremely complex, and requires complicated optimization tools to balance the network, and (ii) it puts higher pressure on the transmission network,<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Mohammadi Fathabad\|first1=Abolhassan\|last2=Cheng\|first2=Jianqiang\|last3=Pan\|first3=Kai\|last4=Qiu\|first4=Feng\|date=2020\|title=Data-driven Planning for Renewable Distributed Generation in Distribution Systems\|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9112707\|journal=IEEE Transactions on Power Systems\|volume=35\|issue=6\|pages=4357–4368\|doi=10.1109/TPWRS.2020.3001235\|s2cid=225734643\|issn=1558-0679\|hdl=10397/89857\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and (iii) it may cause reverse power flow from the distribution system to transmission system.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=De Carne\|first1=Giovanni\|last2=Buticchi\|first2=Giampaolo\|last3=Zou\|first3=Zhixiang\|last4=Liserre\|first4=Marco\|date=July 2018\|title=Reverse Power Flow Control in a ST-Fed Distribution Grid\|journal=IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid\|volume=9\|issue=4\|pages=3811–3819\|doi=10.1109/TSG.2017.2651147\|s2cid=49354817\|issn=1949-3061\|url=https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:gbv:8-publ-14890}}</ref>		One of the major issues with the integration of the DER such as solar power, wind power, etc. is the uncertain nature of such electricity resources. This uncertainty can cause a few problems in the distribution system: (i) it makes the supply-demand relationships extremely complex, and requires complicated optimization tools to balance the network, and (ii) it puts higher pressure on the transmission network,<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Mohammadi Fathabad\|first1=Abolhassan\|last2=Cheng\|first2=Jianqiang\|last3=Pan\|first3=Kai\|last4=Qiu\|first4=Feng\|date=2020\|title=Data-driven Planning for Renewable Distributed Generation in Distribution Systems\|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9112707\|journal=IEEE Transactions on Power Systems\|volume=35\|issue=6\|pages=4357–4368\|doi=10.1109/TPWRS.2020.3001235\|s2cid=225734643\|issn=1558-0679\|hdl=10397/89857\|hdl-access=free\|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and (iii) it may cause reverse power flow from the distribution system to transmission system.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=De Carne\|first1=Giovanni\|last2=Buticchi\|first2=Giampaolo\|last3=Zou\|first3=Zhixiang\|last4=Liserre\|first4=Marco\|date=July 2018\|title=Reverse Power Flow Control in a ST-Fed Distribution Grid\|journal=IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid\|volume=9\|issue=4\|pages=3811–3819\|doi=10.1109/TSG.2017.2651147\|s2cid=49354817\|issn=1949-3061\|url=https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:gbv:8-publ-14890}}</ref>

	[[Microgrid]]s are modern, localized, small-scale grids,<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Saleh\|first1=M.\|last2=Esa\|first2=Y.\|last3=Mhandi\|first3=Y.\|last4=Brandauer\|first4=W.\|last5=Mohamed\|first5=A.\|title=2016 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting \|chapter=Design and implementation of CCNY DC microgrid testbed \|date=October 2016\|pages=1–7\|doi=10.1109/IAS.2016.7731870\|isbn=978-1-4799-8397-1\|s2cid=16464909\|chapter-url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1722&context=cc_pubs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Saleh\|first1=M. S.\|last2=Althaibani\|first2=A.\|last3=Esa\|first3=Y.\|last4=Mhandi\|first4=Y.\|last5=Mohamed\|first5=A. A.\|title=2015 International Conference on Smart Grid and Clean Energy Technologies (ICSGCE) \|chapter=Impact of clustering microgrids on their stability and resilience during blackouts \|date=October 2015\|pages=195–200\|doi=10.1109/ICSGCE.2015.7454295\|isbn=978-1-4673-8732-3\|s2cid=25664994\|chapter-url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1623&context=cc_pubs}}</ref> contrary to the traditional, centralized [[electricity grid]] (macrogrid). Microgrids can disconnect from the centralized grid and operate autonomously, strengthen grid resilience, and help mitigate grid disturbances. They are typically low-voltage AC grids, often use [[diesel generator]]s, and are installed by the community they serve. Microgrids increasingly employ a mixture of different distributed energy resources, such as [[solar hybrid power systems]], which significantly reduce the amount of carbon emitted.		[[Microgrid]]s are modern, localized, small-scale grids,<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Saleh\|first1=M.\|last2=Esa\|first2=Y.\|last3=Mhandi\|first3=Y.\|last4=Brandauer\|first4=W.\|last5=Mohamed\|first5=A.\|title=2016 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting \|chapter=Design and implementation of CCNY DC microgrid testbed \|date=October 2016\|pages=1–7\|doi=10.1109/IAS.2016.7731870\|isbn=978-1-4799-8397-1\|s2cid=16464909\|chapter-url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1722&context=cc_pubs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Saleh\|first1=M. S.\|last2=Althaibani\|first2=A.\|last3=Esa\|first3=Y.\|last4=Mhandi\|first4=Y.\|last5=Mohamed\|first5=A. A.\|title=2015 International Conference on Smart Grid and Clean Energy Technologies (ICSGCE) \|chapter=Impact of clustering microgrids on their stability and resilience during blackouts \|date=October 2015\|pages=195–200\|doi=10.1109/ICSGCE.2015.7454295\|isbn=978-1-4673-8732-3\|s2cid=25664994\|chapter-url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1623&context=cc_pubs}}</ref> contrary to the traditional, centralized [[electricity grid]] (macrogrid). Microgrids can disconnect from the centralized grid and operate autonomously, strengthen grid resilience, and help mitigate grid disturbances. They are typically low-voltage AC grids, often use [[diesel generator]]s, and are installed by the community they serve. Microgrids increasingly employ a mixture of different distributed energy resources, such as [[solar hybrid power systems]], which significantly reduce the amount of carbon emitted.
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	== Integration with the grid ==		== Integration with the grid ==

	For reasons of reliability, distributed generation resources would be interconnected to the same transmission grid as central stations. Various technical and economic issues occur in the integration of these resources into a grid. Technical problems arise in the areas of [[power quality]], voltage stability, harmonics, reliability, protection, and control.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Contribution to Bulk System Control and Stability by Distributed Energy Resources connected at Distribution Network \|url=http://resourcecenter.ieee-pes.org/pes/product/technical-publications/PESTRPDFMRH0022 \|publisher=IEEE PES Technical Report\|date=15 January 2017}}</ref><ref>Tomoiagă, B.; Chindriş, M.; Sumper, A.; Sudria-Andreu, A.; Villafafila-Robles, R. [http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/6/3/1439/pdf Pareto Optimal Reconfiguration of Power Distribution Systems Using a Genetic Algorithm Based on NSGA-II.] Energies 2013, 6, 1439-1455.</ref> Behavior of protective devices on the grid must be examined for all combinations of distributed and central station generation.<ref>P. Mazidi, G. N. Sreenivas; ''Reliability Assessment of A Distributed Generation Connected Distribution System''; International Journal of Power System Operation and Energy Management(IJPSOEM), Nov. 2011</ref> A large scale deployment of distributed generation may affect grid-wide functions such as frequency control and allocation of reserves.<ref>Math H. Bollen, Fainan Hassan ''Integration of Distributed Generation in the Power System'', John Wiley & Sons, 2011		For reasons of reliability, distributed generation resources would be interconnected to the same transmission grid as central stations. Various technical and economic issues occur in the integration of these resources into a grid. Technical problems arise in the areas of [[power quality]], voltage stability, harmonics, reliability, protection, and control.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Contribution to Bulk System Control and Stability by Distributed Energy Resources connected at Distribution Network \|url=http://resourcecenter.ieee-pes.org/pes/product/technical-publications/PESTRPDFMRH0022 \|publisher=IEEE PES Technical Report \|date=15 January 2017 \|access-date=15 May 2019 \|archive-date=15 May 2019 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515082823/http://resourcecenter.ieee-pes.org/pes/product/technical-publications/PESTRPDFMRH0022 \|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Tomoiagă, B.; Chindriş, M.; Sumper, A.; Sudria-Andreu, A.; Villafafila-Robles, R. [http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/6/3/1439/pdf Pareto Optimal Reconfiguration of Power Distribution Systems Using a Genetic Algorithm Based on NSGA-II.] Energies 2013, 6, 1439-1455.</ref> Behavior of protective devices on the grid must be examined for all combinations of distributed and central station generation.<ref>P. Mazidi, G. N. Sreenivas; ''Reliability Assessment of A Distributed Generation Connected Distribution System''; International Journal of Power System Operation and Energy Management(IJPSOEM), Nov. 2011</ref> A large scale deployment of distributed generation may affect grid-wide functions such as frequency control and allocation of reserves.<ref>Math H. Bollen, Fainan Hassan ''Integration of Distributed Generation in the Power System'', John Wiley & Sons, 2011
	{{ISBN\|1-118-02901-1}}, pages v-x</ref> As a result, [[smart grid]] functions, [[virtual power plant]]s<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270821401_Decision_Making_Tool_for_Virtual_Power_Plants_Considering_Midterm_Bilateral_Contracts/ Decision Making Tool for Virtual Power Plants Considering Midterm Bilateral Contracts]</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279849005_The_Design_of_a_Risk-hedging_Tool_for_Virtual_Power_Plants_via_Robust_Optimization_Approach/ The Design of a Risk-hedging Tool for Virtual Power Plants via Robust Optimization Approach]</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296307377_A_Medium-Term_Coalition-Forming_Model_of_Heterogeneous_DERs_for_a_Commercial_Virtual_Power_Plant/ A Medium-Term Coalition-Forming Model of Heterogeneous DERs for a Commercial Virtual Power Plant]</ref> and [[grid energy storage]] such as [[power to gas]] stations are added to the grid. Conflicts occur between utilities and resource managing organizations.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Bandyk \|first1=Matthew \|title=Propelling the transition: The battle for control of virtual power plants is just beginning \|url=https://www.utilitydive.com/news/propelling-the-transition-the-battle-for-control-of-virtual-power-plants-i/581875/ \|website=Utility Dive \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819022737/https://www.utilitydive.com/news/propelling-the-transition-the-battle-for-control-of-virtual-power-plants-i/581875/ \|archive-date=19 August 2020 \|date=18 August 2020 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		{{ISBN\|1-118-02901-1}}, pages v-x</ref> As a result, [[smart grid]] functions, [[virtual power plant]]s<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270821401_Decision_Making_Tool_for_Virtual_Power_Plants_Considering_Midterm_Bilateral_Contracts/ Decision Making Tool for Virtual Power Plants Considering Midterm Bilateral Contracts]</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279849005_The_Design_of_a_Risk-hedging_Tool_for_Virtual_Power_Plants_via_Robust_Optimization_Approach/ The Design of a Risk-hedging Tool for Virtual Power Plants via Robust Optimization Approach]</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296307377_A_Medium-Term_Coalition-Forming_Model_of_Heterogeneous_DERs_for_a_Commercial_Virtual_Power_Plant/ A Medium-Term Coalition-Forming Model of Heterogeneous DERs for a Commercial Virtual Power Plant]</ref> and [[grid energy storage]] such as [[power to gas]] stations are added to the grid. Conflicts occur between utilities and resource managing organizations.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Bandyk \|first1=Matthew \|title=Propelling the transition: The battle for control of virtual power plants is just beginning \|url=https://www.utilitydive.com/news/propelling-the-transition-the-battle-for-control-of-virtual-power-plants-i/581875/ \|website=Utility Dive \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819022737/https://www.utilitydive.com/news/propelling-the-transition-the-battle-for-control-of-virtual-power-plants-i/581875/ \|archive-date=19 August 2020 \|date=18 August 2020 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Each distributed generation resource has its own integration issues. Solar PV and wind power both have intermittent and unpredictable generation, so they create many stability issues for voltage and frequency. These voltage issues affect mechanical grid equipment, such as load tap changers, which respond too often and wear out much more quickly than utilities anticipated.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Agalgaonkar\|first1=Y.P. \|display-authors=etal \|title=Distribution Voltage Control Considering the Impact of PV Generation on Tap Changers and Autonomous Regulators\|journal=IEEE Transactions on Power Systems\|date=16 September 2013\|volume=29\|issue=1\|pages=182–192\|doi=10.1109/TPWRS.2013.2279721\|hdl=10044/1/12201 \|s2cid=16686085 \|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Also, without any form of energy storage during times of high solar generation, companies must rapidly increase generation around the time of sunset to compensate for the loss of solar generation. This high ramp rate produces what the industry terms the ''[[duck curve]]'' that is a major concern for grid operators in the future.<ref>{{cite web\|title=What the Duck Curve Tells Us About Managing A Green Grid\|url=https://www.caiso.com/Documents/FlexibleResourcesHelpRenewables_FastFacts.pdf \|website=caiso.com\|publisher=California ISO\|access-date=29 April 2015}}</ref> Storage can fix these issues if it can be implemented. Flywheels have shown to provide excellent frequency regulation.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Lazarewicz\|first1=Matthew \|last2=Rojas\|first2=Alex \|title=IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2004 \|chapter=Grid frequency regulation by recycling electrical energy in flywheels \|journal=Power Engineering Society General Meeting\|volume=2\|date=10 June 2004\|pages=2038–2042 \|doi=10.1109/PES.2004.1373235\|isbn=0-7803-8465-2\|s2cid=20032334 }}</ref> Also, flywheels are highly cyclable compared to batteries, meaning they maintain the same energy and power after a significant amount of cycles( on the order of 10,000 cycles).<ref>{{cite web \|title=Flywheels \|url=http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/technologies/flywheels \|publisher=Energy Storage Association \|access-date= }}</ref> Short term use batteries, at a large enough scale of use, can help to flatten the duck curve and prevent generator use fluctuation and can help to maintain voltage profile.<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Lazar\|first1=Jim \|title=Teaching the "Duck" to Fly\|url=http://www.ripuc.ri.gov/eventsactions/docket/4443-EERMC-Presentation2_5-8-14.pdf \|publisher=RAP\|access-date=29 April 2015}}</ref> However, cost is a major limiting factor for energy storage as each technique is prohibitively expensive to produce at scale and comparatively not energy dense compared to liquid fossil fuels.		Each distributed generation resource has its own integration issues. Solar PV and wind power both have intermittent and unpredictable generation, so they create many stability issues for voltage and frequency. These voltage issues affect mechanical grid equipment, such as load tap changers, which respond too often and wear out much more quickly than utilities anticipated.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Agalgaonkar\|first1=Y.P. \|display-authors=etal \|title=Distribution Voltage Control Considering the Impact of PV Generation on Tap Changers and Autonomous Regulators\|journal=IEEE Transactions on Power Systems\|date=16 September 2013\|volume=29\|issue=1\|pages=182–192\|doi=10.1109/TPWRS.2013.2279721\|hdl=10044/1/12201 \|s2cid=16686085 \|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Also, without any form of energy storage during times of high solar generation, companies must rapidly increase generation around the time of sunset to compensate for the loss of solar generation. This high ramp rate produces what the industry terms the ''[[duck curve]]'' that is a major concern for grid operators in the future.<ref>{{cite web\|title=What the Duck Curve Tells Us About Managing A Green Grid\|url=https://www.caiso.com/Documents/FlexibleResourcesHelpRenewables_FastFacts.pdf \|website=caiso.com\|publisher=California ISO\|access-date=29 April 2015}}</ref> Storage can fix these issues if it can be implemented. Flywheels have shown to provide excellent frequency regulation.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Lazarewicz\|first1=Matthew \|last2=Rojas\|first2=Alex \|title=IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2004 \|chapter=Grid frequency regulation by recycling electrical energy in flywheels \|journal=Power Engineering Society General Meeting\|volume=2\|date=10 June 2004\|pages=2038–2042 \|doi=10.1109/PES.2004.1373235\|isbn=0-7803-8465-2\|s2cid=20032334 }}</ref> Also, flywheels are highly cyclable compared to batteries, meaning they maintain the same energy and power after a significant amount of cycles( on the order of 10,000 cycles).<ref>{{cite web \|title=Flywheels \|url=http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/technologies/flywheels \|publisher=Energy Storage Association \|access-date= \|archive-date=21 November 2017 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121013319/http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/technologies/flywheels \|url-status=dead }}</ref> Short term use batteries, at a large enough scale of use, can help to flatten the duck curve and prevent generator use fluctuation and can help to maintain voltage profile.<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Lazar\|first1=Jim \|title=Teaching the "Duck" to Fly\|url=http://www.ripuc.ri.gov/eventsactions/docket/4443-EERMC-Presentation2_5-8-14.pdf \|publisher=RAP\|access-date=29 April 2015}}</ref> However, cost is a major limiting factor for energy storage as each technique is prohibitively expensive to produce at scale and comparatively not energy dense compared to liquid fossil fuels.
	Finally, another method of aiding in integration is in the use of [[intelligent hybrid inverter\|intelligent inverter]]s that have the capability to also store the energy when there is more energy production than consumption.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Smart Grid, Smart Inverters for a Smart Energy Future\|url=https://www.nrel.gov/state-local-tribal/blog/posts/smart-grid-smart-inverters-for-a-smart-energy-future.html \|publisher=National Renewable Energy Labortatory }}</ref>		Finally, another method of aiding in integration is in the use of [[intelligent hybrid inverter\|intelligent inverter]]s that have the capability to also store the energy when there is more energy production than consumption.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Smart Grid, Smart Inverters for a Smart Energy Future\|url=https://www.nrel.gov/state-local-tribal/blog/posts/smart-grid-smart-inverters-for-a-smart-energy-future.html \|publisher=National Renewable Energy Labortatory }}</ref>

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	== External links ==		== External links ==
	{{Div col start\|colwidth=30em}}		{{Div col start\|colwidth=30em}}
	* [http://www.migrids.com/ MIGRIDS -Worldwide Business and Marketing Microgrid Directory]		* [http://www.migrids.com/ MIGRIDS -Worldwide Business and Marketing Microgrid Directory] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730012714/http://www.migrids.com/ \|date=30 July 2020 }}
	* [http://www.ukdea.org.uk/ The UK District Energy Association – advocating the construction of locally distributed energy networks]		* [http://www.ukdea.org.uk/ The UK District Energy Association – advocating the construction of locally distributed energy networks]
	* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030622211043/http://www.newrules.org/electricity/planningfordg.html Decentralized Power as Part of Local and Regional Plans]		* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030622211043/http://www.newrules.org/electricity/planningfordg.html Decentralized Power as Part of Local and Regional Plans]