Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System - Revision history

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CAPPS I

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	== CAPPS I ==		== CAPPS I ==
	'''CAPPS I''' was first implemented in the late 1990s, in response to the perceived threat of U.S. [[Domestic terrorism in the United States\|domestic]] and [[international terrorism]]. The U.S. government started to implement [[Counterterrorism\|counter-terrorism]] measures after several bomb attacks occurred, including the 1995 [[Oklahoma City bombing]], the [[Centennial Olympic Park bombing\|1996 Olympics bombing]], and the 1998 [[East African embassy bombings\|bombings of two U.S. embassies in East Africa]]. CAPPS I was administered by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation\|Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)]] and the [[Federal Aviation Administration\|Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)]]. CAPPS screening selected passengers for additional screening of their checked baggage for explosives. CAPPS selectees did not undergo any additional screening at passenger security checkpoints.<ref name="staff">{{cite web \|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf \|title=The Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks - Staff Statement No. 3\|website=9-11commission.gov\|accessdate=2016-08-08}}</ref>		The '''Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System I''' ('''CAPPS I''') was first implemented in the late 1990s, in response to the perceived threat of U.S. [[Domestic terrorism in the United States\|domestic]] and [[international terrorism]]. The U.S. government started to implement [[Counterterrorism\|counter-terrorism]] measures after several bomb attacks occurred, including the 1995 [[Oklahoma City bombing]], the [[Centennial Olympic Park bombing\|1996 Olympics bombing]], and the 1998 [[East African embassy bombings\|bombings of two U.S. embassies in East Africa]]. CAPPS I was administered by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation\|Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)]] and the [[Federal Aviation Administration\|Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)]]. CAPPS screening selected passengers for additional screening of their checked baggage for explosives. CAPPS selectees did not undergo any additional screening at passenger security checkpoints.<ref name="staff">{{cite web \|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf \|title=The Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks - Staff Statement No. 3\|website=9-11commission.gov\|accessdate=2016-08-08}}</ref>

	=== September 11, 2001 attacks ===		=== September 11, 2001 attacks ===
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	== CAPPS II ==		== CAPPS II ==
	The Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System II was a proposal for a new CAPPS system, designed by the [[Office of National Risk Assessment]] (ONRA), a subsidiary office of the TSA, with the contracted assistance of [[Lockheed Martin]]. CAPPS II searched through information stored in [[government]] and commercial [[database]]s and assigned a color-coded level of risk to each passenger. Congress presented the TSA with a list of requirements for a successor to CAPPS I. Some of those requirements were:		The '''Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System II''' ('''CAPPS II''') was a proposal for a new CAPPS system, designed by the Office of National Risk Assessment (ONRA), a subsidiary office of the TSA, with the contracted assistance of [[Lockheed Martin]]. CAPPS II searched through information stored in [[government]] and commercial [[database]]s and assigned a color-coded level of risk to each passenger. [[United States Congress\|U.S. Congress]] presented the TSA with a list of requirements for a successor to CAPPS I. Some of those requirements were:
	* The government, not the airlines, would control and administer the system		* The government, not the airlines, would control and administer the system
	* Every ticketed passenger would be screened, not just those who check bags		* Every ticketed passenger would be screened, not just those who check bags
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	CAPPS II grounded innocent [[United States\|Americans]] due to false positives. One notable example is the grounding of Senator [[Ted Kennedy]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news \|title=Kennedy: Airline security risk? Senator tells of screening stops at airport \|url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/08/19/kennedy.airlines/index.html \|author=Ed Henry \|author2=Mike Ahlers \|name-list-style=amp \|work=[[CNN]] \|location=Washington \|date=August 19, 2004}}</ref>		CAPPS II grounded innocent [[United States\|Americans]] due to false positives. One notable example is the grounding of Senator [[Ted Kennedy]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news \|title=Kennedy: Airline security risk? Senator tells of screening stops at airport \|url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/08/19/kennedy.airlines/index.html \|author=Ed Henry \|author2=Mike Ahlers \|name-list-style=amp \|work=[[CNN]] \|location=Washington \|date=August 19, 2004}}</ref>

	The CAPPS II system was criticized in a report by the United States [[General Accounting Office]] in early 2004, and faced increased opposition from watchdog groups like the [[ACLU\|American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)]]<ref>{{Cite web \|title=The Seven Problems With CAPPS II \|url=https://www.aclu.org/documents/seven-problems-capps-ii \|date=2004-04-06 \|access-date=2025-05-24 \|website=[[American Civil Liberties Union]]}}</ref>, [[ReclaimDemocracy.org]], [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]], and the [[Electronic Privacy Information Center\|Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC)]]. These advocacy groups expressed concern that the system violated people's [[Right to privacy\|privacy rights]] and that it was possibly [[Constitutionality\|unconstitutional]]. They also believed it could actually undermine safety, as terrorists could use it to their advantage.		The CAPPS II system was criticized in a report by the United States [[General Accounting Office]] in early 2004, and faced increased opposition from watchdog groups like the [[ACLU\|American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)]],<ref>{{Cite web \|title=The Seven Problems With CAPPS II \|url=https://www.aclu.org/documents/seven-problems-capps-ii \|date=2004-04-06 \|access-date=2025-05-24 \|website=[[American Civil Liberties Union]]}}</ref> [[ReclaimDemocracy.org]], [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]], and the [[Electronic Privacy Information Center\|Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC)]]. These advocacy groups expressed concern that the system violated people's [[Right to privacy\|privacy rights]] and that it was possibly [[Constitutionality\|unconstitutional]]. They also believed it could actually undermine safety, as terrorists could use it to their advantage.

	===Cancellation===		===Cancellation===
	CAPPS II was cancelled by the TSA in the summer of 2004 due to privacy concerns with the intent of creating a new system.<ref name=infoweek/><ref>{{Cite web \|title=Life After Death for CAPPS II? \|url=https://www.wired.com/2004/07/life-after-death-for-capps-ii/ \|date=2004-07-16 \|access-date=2025-05-24 \|website=[[Wired (magazine)]]}}</ref> Shortly thereafter, the TSA announced a successor program, called [[Secure Flight]], that would work in a way similar to CAPPS II. TSA hoped to test Secure Flight in August 2005 using two airlines, but it was blocked by Congress until the government could prove that the system can pass 10 tests for accuracy and privacy protection as follows:		CAPPS II was cancelled by the TSA in the summer of 2004 due to privacy concerns with the intent of creating a new system.<ref name=infoweek/><ref>{{Cite web \|title=Life After Death for CAPPS II? \|url=https://www.wired.com/2004/07/life-after-death-for-capps-ii/ \|date=2004-07-16 \|access-date=2025-05-24 \|website=[[Wired (magazine)\|Wired]]}}</ref> Shortly thereafter, the TSA announced a successor program, called [[Secure Flight]], that would work in a way similar to CAPPS II. TSA hoped to test Secure Flight in August 2005 using two airlines, but it was blocked by Congress until the government could prove that the system can pass 10 tests for accuracy and privacy protection as follows:
	# Redress process - A system of due process exists whereby aviation passengers determined to pose a threat are either delayed or prohibited from boarding their scheduled flights by TSA may appeal such decisions and correct erroneous information contained in CAPPS II or Secure Flight or other follow-on/successor programs.		# Redress process - A system of due process exists whereby aviation passengers determined to pose a threat are either delayed or prohibited from boarding their scheduled flights by TSA may appeal such decisions and correct erroneous information contained in CAPPS II or Secure Flight or other follow-on/successor programs.
	# Accuracy of databases and effectiveness of Secure Flight - The underlying error rate of the government and private databases that will be used to both establish identity and assign a risk level to a passenger will not produce a large number of false positives that will result in a significant number of passengers being treated mistakenly or security resources being diverted.		# Accuracy of databases and effectiveness of Secure Flight - The underlying error rate of the government and private databases that will be used to both establish identity and assign a risk level to a passenger will not produce a large number of false positives that will result in a significant number of passengers being treated mistakenly or security resources being diverted.

imported>Treeditor: Reword lead, reword CAPPS II parts, new section, remove duplicate information

2025-05-25T03:27:11Z

Reword lead, reword CAPPS II parts, new section, remove duplicate information

New page

{{Short description|US counter-terrorism system}}
{{Redirect|CAPPS}}
The '''Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System''' ('''CAPPS''') was a [[counter-terrorism]] system in place in the United States [[air transport|air travel industry]] that matches passenger information with other data sources. The United States [[Transportation Security Administration]] (TSA) maintains a [[No Fly List|watchlist]], pursuant to 49 [[United States Code|USC]] § 114 (h)(2),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/49/114-#h_2 |title=49 U.S. Code § 114 - Transportation Security Administration | US Law | LII / Legal Information Institute |website=Law.cornell.edu |date= |accessdate=2016-08-08}}</ref> of "individuals known to pose, or suspected of posing, a risk of air piracy or terrorism or a threat to airline or passenger safety." The list is used to pre-emptively identify terrorists attempting to buy airline tickets or board aircraft traveling in the United States, and to mitigate perceived threats. These functions are now conducted through the [[Secure Flight]] program.

== Overview ==
CAPPS systems rely on what is known as a [[passenger name record]] (PNR). When a person books a plane ticket, certain identifying information is collected by the airline: full name, date of birth, address, etc. This information is used to check against another data source (including the TSA [[No Fly List|No-Fly List]], the [[FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives|FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitive List]], and other databases) and assign a terrorism "risk score" to that person. High risk scores require the airline to subject the person to extended baggage and/or personal screening, and to contact law enforcement, if necessary.

== CAPPS I ==
'''CAPPS I''' was first implemented in the late 1990s, in response to the perceived threat of U.S. [[Domestic terrorism in the United States|domestic]] and [[international terrorism]]. The U.S. government started to implement [[Counterterrorism|counter-terrorism]] measures after several bomb attacks occurred, including the 1995 [[Oklahoma City bombing]], the [[Centennial Olympic Park bombing|1996 Olympics bombing]], and the 1998 [[East African embassy bombings|bombings of two U.S. embassies in East Africa]]. CAPPS I was administered by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)]] and the [[Federal Aviation Administration|Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)]]. CAPPS screening selected passengers for additional screening of their checked baggage for explosives. CAPPS selectees did not undergo any additional screening at passenger security checkpoints.<ref name="staff">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |title=The Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks - Staff Statement No. 3|website=9-11commission.gov|accessdate=2016-08-08}}</ref>

=== September 11, 2001 attacks ===
On the morning of the [[September 11 attacks]] (9/11), several of the [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] were selected by CAPPS. [[Wail al-Shehri]] and [[Satam al-Suqami]] were selected for extra screening of their checked bags before they boarded [[American Airlines Flight 11]] at [[Logan International Airport]] in [[Boston]], Massachusetts. [[Waleed al-Shehri]] was also selected, but since he had checked no bags, the CAPPS selection had no effect on him.<ref name="staff"/> [[Mohamed Atta]] was selected by CAPPS when he checked in at [[Portland International Jetport]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |title=9/11 Commission Report (Chapter 1)|website=9-11commission.gov |date=July 2004|accessdate=2016-08-08}}</ref>

All five of the hijackers on [[American Airlines Flight 77]] were CAPPS selectees, with [[Hani Hanjour]], [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]], and [[Majed Moqed]] chosen by the CAPPS criteria. [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] and [[Salem al-Hazmi]] were selected because they did not provide adequate identification, and had their checked bags held until they boarded the aircraft.<ref name="staff"/>

[[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] was the only hijacker selected of those on [[United Airlines Flight 93]], and none of the hijackers of [[United Airlines Flight 175]] were selected by CAPPS.<ref name="staff"/>

===After 9/11===
In response to the 9/11 attacks, the U.S. government authorized the creation of the [[Transportation Security Administration]] (TSA) to oversee airport security, which was previously handled by private contractors. It was signed into law by President [[George W. Bush]] on November 19, 2001. The agency was initially placed under the [[United States Department of Transportation]] but was moved to the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] when that department was formed on March 9, 2003. In November 2001, control of CAPPS was transferred to the TSA, where it has "... expanded almost daily as Intelligence Community (IC) agencies and the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Office of Homeland Security]] continue to request the addition of individuals ..."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epic.org/foia_docs/airtravel/memo-10-16-02.pdf |title=INformation : TSA "Watchlists" |website=Epic.org|accessdate=2016-08-08}}</ref>

== CAPPS II ==
The Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System II was a proposal for a new CAPPS system, designed by the [[Office of National Risk Assessment]] (ONRA), a subsidiary office of the TSA, with the contracted assistance of [[Lockheed Martin]]. CAPPS II searched through information stored in [[government]] and commercial [[database]]s and assigned a color-coded level of risk to each passenger. Congress presented the TSA with a list of requirements for a successor to CAPPS I. Some of those requirements were:
* The government, not the airlines, would control and administer the system
* Every ticketed passenger would be screened, not just those who check bags
* Every airline and every airport would be covered by the system

Like its predecessor, the CAPPS II proposal would rely on the PNR to uniquely identify people attempting to board aircraft. It would expand the PNR field to include a few extra fields, like a full street address, date of birth, and a home telephone number. It would then cross-reference these fields with government records and private sector databases to ascertain the identity of the person, and then determine a number of details about that person. Law enforcement would be contacted in the event that the person was either present on a terrorist or most-wanted list or had outstanding federal or state arrest warrants for a violent crime.<ref name=infoweek>{{Cite web |title=CAPPS II Is Dead, Says Ridge, But Door Is Open For CAPPS III |url=https://www.informationweek.com/it-leadership/capps-ii-is-dead-says-ridge-but-door-is-open-for-capps-iii |last=Greenemeier |first=Larry |date=2004-07-15 |access-date=2025-05-24 |website=[[InformationWeek]]}}</ref>

Otherwise, the software would calculate a "risk score" and then print a code on the boarding pass indicating the appropriate "screening level" for that person: green (no threat) indicates no additional screening, yellow (unknown or possible threat) indicates additional screening, and red (high-risk) indicates prevention from boarding and deferral to law enforcement. Exactly how this risk score would be calculated was never disclosed nor subject to public oversight of any kind outside of the TSA.

CAPPS II grounded innocent [[United States|Americans]] due to false positives. One notable example is the grounding of Senator [[Ted Kennedy]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kennedy: Airline security risk? Senator tells of screening stops at airport |url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/08/19/kennedy.airlines/index.html |author=Ed Henry |author2=Mike Ahlers |name-list-style=amp |work=[[CNN]] |location=Washington |date=August 19, 2004}}</ref>

The CAPPS II system was criticized in a report by the United States [[General Accounting Office]] in early 2004, and faced increased opposition from watchdog groups like the [[ACLU|American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Seven Problems With CAPPS II |url=https://www.aclu.org/documents/seven-problems-capps-ii |date=2004-04-06 |access-date=2025-05-24 |website=[[American Civil Liberties Union]]}}</ref>, [[ReclaimDemocracy.org]], [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]], and the [[Electronic Privacy Information Center|Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC)]]. These advocacy groups expressed concern that the system violated people's [[Right to privacy|privacy rights]] and that it was possibly [[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]]. They also believed it could actually undermine safety, as terrorists could use it to their advantage.

===Cancellation===
CAPPS II was cancelled by the TSA in the summer of 2004 due to privacy concerns with the intent of creating a new system.<ref name=infoweek/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Life After Death for CAPPS II? |url=https://www.wired.com/2004/07/life-after-death-for-capps-ii/ |date=2004-07-16 |access-date=2025-05-24 |website=[[Wired (magazine)]]}}</ref> Shortly thereafter, the TSA announced a successor program, called [[Secure Flight]], that would work in a way similar to CAPPS II. TSA hoped to test Secure Flight in August 2005 using two airlines, but it was blocked by Congress until the government could prove that the system can pass 10 tests for accuracy and privacy protection as follows:
# Redress process - A system of due process exists whereby aviation passengers determined to pose a threat are either delayed or prohibited from boarding their scheduled flights by TSA may appeal such decisions and correct erroneous information contained in CAPPS II or Secure Flight or other follow-on/successor programs.
# Accuracy of databases and effectiveness of Secure Flight - The underlying error rate of the government and private databases that will be used to both establish identity and assign a risk level to a passenger will not produce a large number of false positives that will result in a significant number of passengers being treated mistakenly or security resources being diverted.
# Stress testing - TSA has stress-tested and demonstrated the efficacy and accuracy of all search technologies in CAPPS II or Secure Flight or other follow-on/successor programs and has demonstrated that CAPPS II or Secure Flight or other follow-on/successor programs can make an accurate predictive assessment of those passengers who may constitute a threat to aviation.
# Internal oversight - The Secretary of Homeland Security has established an internal oversight board to monitor the manner in which CAPPS II or Secure Flight or other follow-on/successor programs are being developed and prepared.
# Operational safeguards - TSA has built in sufficient operational safeguards to reduce the opportunities for abuse.
# Security measures - Substantial security measures are in place to protect CAPPS II or Secure Flight or other follow-on/successor programs from unauthorized access by hackers or other intruders.
# Oversight of system use and operation - TSA has adopted policies establishing effective oversight of the use and operation of the system.
# Privacy concerns - There are no specific privacy concerns with the technological architecture of the system.
# Modifications with respect to intrastate travel to accommodate states with unique air transportation needs - TSA has, in accordance with the requirements of section 44903 (j)(2)(B) of title 49, United States Code, modified CAPPS II or Secure Flight or other follow-on/successor programs with respect to intrastate transportation to accommodate states with unique air transportation needs and passengers who might otherwise regularly trigger primary selectee status.
# Life-cycle cost estimates and expenditure plans - Appropriate life-cycle cost estimates, and expenditure and program plans exist.
The [[Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act]] (IRTPA) of 2004 required the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to assume from aircraft operators the function of conducting pre-flight comparisons of airline passenger information to federal government watch lists for international and domestic flights. TSA published the Secure Flight Final Rule on October 28, 2008, which went into effect on December 29, 2008, creating the [[Secure Flight]] program.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Register |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2008/10/28/E8-25432/secure-flight-program |website=Secure Flight Program}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=All airline passengers are now checked against watch lists, Homeland Security says - Los Angeles Times |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-dec-06-la-fi-travel-briefcase-20101206-story.html |access-date=9 October 2021 |date=8 December 2010|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101208090446/http://articles.latimes.com/2010/dec/06/business/la-fi-travel-briefcase-20101206 |archive-date=2010-12-08 }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment]]
* [[Secondary Security Screening Selection]]
* [[No Fly List]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* The Electronic Privacy Information Center (April 2003). [http://www.epic.org/privacy/airtravel/foia/watchlist_foia_analysis.html Documents Show Errors in TSA's "No-Fly" Watchlist].
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060412081945/http://www.tsa.gov/public/interapp/editorial/editorial_1829.xml TSA customer service]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121116083420/http://www.thedenverchannel.com/news/9559707/detail.html DenverChannel.com, accessed 7-25-2006: article on SDR]

===CAPPS II===
* [https://www.aclu.org/Privacy/Privacy.cfm?ID=14947&c=130 CAPPS II Section of HR 2115, the "Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051119000637/http://www.aclu.org/Privacy/Privacy.cfm?ID=14947&c=130 |date=2005-11-19 }} The language of proposed legislation (aclu.org)
* [http://tsa.gov The Transportation Security Administration, promoters of CAPPS II]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929105234/http://www.eff.org/Privacy/cappsii/background.php EFF Backgrounder on CAPPS II]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120525155350/http://reclaimdemocracy.org/civil_rights/capps_2_illusion_safety.html The Dangerous Illusion of CAPPS II] A critical article exploring multiple concerns with CAPPS II (reclaimdemocracy.org)
* [https://www.aclu.org/Privacy/Privacy.cfm?ID=13453&c=130 ACLU page on CAPPS II]
* [http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04385.pdf "Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System Faces Significant Implementation Challenges" (pdf)] summary of report on CAPPS II by the General Accounting Office
* [http://hasbrouck.org/blog/index.html blog providing regular updates on CAPPS II]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061215072313/http://inthesetimes.com/comments.php?id=197_0_1_0_M%20 "In These Times" 2003 article on CAPPS II]
*[https://www.aclu.org/Privacy/Privacy.cfm?ID=13453&c=130 ACLU's page on CAPPS II]
*[http://www.epic.org/privacy/airtravel/profiling.html EPIC's Page on Passenger Prescreening Programs]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080516203647/http://www.eff.org/Privacy/cappsii/ EFF's Page on CAPPS II]
*[http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/08/19/kennedy.airlines/index.html Senator Kennedy's grounding by CNN.com]

[[Category:Identity documents of the United States]]
[[Category:Aviation in the United States]]
[[Category:Counterterrorism intelligence]]
[[Category:Crime prevention]]
[[Category:Aviation security]]
[[Category:Lockheed Martin]]
[[Category:Transportation Security Administration]]
[[Category:United States Department of Homeland Security]]
[[Category:Legal issues related to the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:Counterterrorism in the United States]]
[[Category:Mass surveillance]]
[[Category:Privacy in the United States]]
[[Category:Surveillance]]