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{{Short description|Species of bacterium}}

{{Speciesbox
| taxon =Cardiobacterium hominis
| authority = <small> Slotnick et al. 1964</small>
}}

'''''Cardiobacterium hominis''''' /ˌkɑːrdiəʊbækˈtɪəriəm ˈhɒmɪnɪs/ (KAR-dee-oh-bak-TEER-ee-um HOM-i-nis) is a [[microaerophilic]], [[Pleomorphism (microbiology)|pleomorphic]], [[fastidious]], [[Gram-negative]] [[bacterium]] part of the [[Cardiobacteriaceae]] family and the [[HACEK]] group.<ref name=":Pusch" /> It is most commonly found in the human [[microbiota]], specifically the [[oropharyngeal]] region including the mouth and upper part of the [[respiratory tract]]. It is one of the causes of [[endocarditis]], a life-threatening [[inflammation]] close to the heart's inner lining and valves.<ref name=":Malani">{{cite journal |last1= Malani |first1= AN |last2= Aronoff |first2= DM |last3= Bradley |first3= SF |last4= Kauffman |first4= CA |title=Cardiobacterium hominis endocarditis: Two cases and a review of the literature |journal=[[European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases]] |volume=25 |issue=9 |pages=587–95 |date=September 2006 |pmid=16955250 |pmc=2276845 |doi=10.1007/s10096-006-0189-9 }}</ref> While infections caused by ''Cardiobacterium hominis'' are uncommon, various clinical manifestations are linked to the bacterium, including [[meningitis]], [[sepsis]], and bone infections.<ref name=":Malani" />

==Etymology==
In 1964, researchers I. J. Slotnick and Mary Dougherty named the species after their research on a 54-year-old male patient.<ref name=": Slotnick">{{cite journal |last1=Slotnick |first1=I. J. |last2=Dougherty |first2=M. |title=Further characterization of an unclassified group of bacteria causing endocarditis in man:Cardiobacterium hominis gen. Et sp. N. |journal=Antonie van Leeuwenhoek |date=1964 |volume=30 |pages=261–272 |doi=10.1007/BF02046732 |pmid=14218438 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14218438/ |issn=0003-6072}}</ref> The [[genus]] ''Cardiobacterium'' is a phrase combined with two foreign words, kardia and [[bacterium]]. The feminine noun "kardia" translates to heart, and the Latin [[Neuter gender|neuter]] noun "bacterium" has a meaning of small rod. ''Hominis'' is a Latin [[genitive]] masculine noun which is translated as human being, of a man.<ref>{{cite web |title=Charlton T. Lewis, An Elementary Latin Dictionary, homō |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0060%3Aentry%3Dhomo&highlight=homo |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> The full genus and species can be translated into English as a ''bacterium of the heart of a human being'', reflecting the original isolation that occurred from the [[Infective endocarditis]] in the [[heart valves]].<ref name=":Malani" />

==Discovery==
''Cardiobacterium hominis'' was originally discovered in 1962 based on analysis of four cases of [[Infective endocarditis]] over ten months.<ref name="Tucker" /> Upon its first isolation, researchers described ''Cardiobacterium hominis'', which was unrecognized then, as a [[Pasteurella]]-like organism and categorized as group "II-D" by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]].<ref name="Tucker">{{cite journal |last1=Tucker |first1=Daniel N. |last2=Slotnick |first2=Irving J. |last3=King |first3=Elizabeth O. |last4=Tynes |first4=Bayard |last5=Nicholson |first5=James |last6=Crevasse |first6=Lamar |title=Endocarditis Caused by a Pasteurella-like Organism: Report of Four Cases |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=November 1962 |volume=267 |issue=18 |pages=913–916 |doi=10.1056/NEJM196211012671804 |pmid=13994684 |url=https://www.nejm.org/doi/abs/10.1056/NEJM196211012671804 |language=en |issn=0028-4793|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In 1964, researchers I. J. Slotnick and M. Dougherty from the Laboratory of Bacteriology, St. Jude Hospital and Department of Microbiology, [[University of Tennessee]] found ''Cardiobacterium hominis'' in a 54-year-old male patient with [[infective endocarditis]].<ref name=": Slotnick" /> Surgeons found a large hole in the [[aortic valve]], and the researchers later cultured the [[aortic]] [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]]. Gram-negative bacteria with a rod [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] were isolated from the tissue after 48 hours.<ref name=": Slotnick" /> ''Cardiobacterium hominis'' was later identified using [[mass spectroscopy]]. Incidentally, the bacteria was later characterized to be another species in the genus ''Cardiobacterium'', because it was found in cardiac tissue and found to be a cause of [[infective endocarditis]].<ref name="Radovanovic">{{cite journal |last1=Radovanovic |first1=Milan |last2=Marthaler |first2=Brodie R. |last3=Nordstrom |first3=Charles W. |last4=Petrovic |first4=Marija |last5=Dumic |first5=Igor |last6=Barsoum |first6=Michel K. |title=Cardiobacterium hominis endocarditis incidentally diagnosed following an aortic valve replacement surgery |journal=IDCases |date=2022 |volume=29 |pages=e01529 |doi=10.1016/j.idcr.2022.e01529 |pmid=35693329 |pmc=9184553 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idcr.2022.e01529 |issn=2214-2509}}</ref> Identifying this bacterium proved to be challenging because of its [[Pleomorphism (microbiology)|pleomorphic]] nature. ''Cardiobacterium hominis'' was classified into the [[HACEK]] group because of its similar infectious profile to the rest of the [[HACEK]] organisms, such as genera groups, ''[[Haemophilus]]'', ''[[Aggregatibacter]]'', ''[[Eikenella]]'', and ''[[Kingella]]'', which have all been known to cause [[endocarditis]] in humans.<ref name="Manderwad">{{cite journal |last1=Manderwad |first1=Guru Prasad |last2=Kodiganti |first2=Manjulatha |last3=Ali |first3=Mohammad Javed |title=Cardiobacterium hominis-induced acute dacryocystitis and lacrimal abscess |journal=Indian Journal of Ophthalmology |date=April 2014 |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=495–497 |doi=10.4103/0301-4738.116461 |doi-access=free |pmid=24008805 |pmc=4064233 |issn=0301-4738}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==

''Cardiobacterium hominis'' belongs to the [[Domain (biology)|domain]] [[Bacteria]] and [[phylum]] [[Pseudomonadota]].<ref name=":Pusch" /> The organism is a member of [[class (biology)|class]] [[Gammaproteobacteria]], [[order (biology)|order]] [[Cardiobacteriales]], [[family (biology)|family]] [[Cardiobacteriaceae]], and [[genus]] ''[[Cardiobacterium]]''.<ref name=":Pusch" /> The only other species of the ''[[Cardiobacterium]]'' genus is ''[[Cardiobacterium valvarum]]'', known for the [[oropharyngeal]] flora and similar causative organism to [[infective endocarditis]].<ref name=":Pusch">{{cite journal |last1=Pusch |first1=Tobias |last2=Fisher |first2=Mark A. |last3=Gander |first3=Rita M. |title=Cardiobacterium valvarum, an Emerging New HACEK Organism, as the Causative Agent of Infective Endocarditis: Case Report and Review of the Literature |journal=Clinical Microbiology Newsletter |date=August 2015 |volume=37 |issue=16 |pages=127–132 |doi=10.1016/j.clinmicnews.2015.07.006}}</ref> Therefore, ''[[Cardiobacterium valvarum]]'' is the organism's closest [[phylogenetic]] neighbor. The next closest neighbors to the bacteria are in the family of [[Pseudomonadota]], which are commonly referred to as [[proteobacteria]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonavent |first1=Tina Bennett |last2=Nielsen |first2=Xiaohui Chen |last3=Kristensen |first3=Kjeld Skødebjerg |last4=Ihlemann |first4=Nikolaj |last5=Moser |first5=Claus |last6=Christensen |first6=Jens Jørgen |title=and : Two Case Stories with Infective Episodes in Pacemaker Treated Patients |journal=The Open Microbiology Journal |date=30 November 2016 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=183–187 |doi=10.2174/1874285801610010183 |pmid=28077974 |pmc=5204057 |url=https://openmicrobiologyjournal.com/VOLUME/10/PAGE/183/ |language=en}}</ref> Some [[Gram-negative bacteria]] that are in this phylum are ''[[Escherichia]]'', ''[[Salmonella]]'', and ''[[Vibrio]]''.

==Genomics==

[[Genomic DNA]] was extracted using the Wizard genomic DNA purification kit from the company [[Promega]].<ref name=": Tagini">{{cite journal |last1=Tagini |first1=Florian |last2=Pillonel |first2=Trestan |last3=Asner |first3=Sandra |last4=Prod'hom |first4=Guy |last5=Greub |first5=Gilbert |title=Draft Genome Sequence of a Cardiobacterium hominis Strain Isolated from Blood Cultures of a Patient with Infective Endocarditis |journal=Genome Announcements |date=27 October 2016 |volume=4 |issue=5 |doi=10.1128/genomeA.00999-16|pmid=27660783 |pmc=5034134 }}</ref> [[DNA sequencing]] produced 150-bp paired-end reads, with reads shorter than 150 bp disregarded. Assembly was performed by SPAdes genome assembler using different k-mer values from 43-127 and Quast using [[N50, L50, and related statistics|N50 and L50]] scores and the lowest quantity of [[contigs]] greater than 1000 bp.<ref name=": Tagini" /> [[Annotation]] of these assemblies was done using RSAT and analyzed using SEED viewer. Searching for antibiotic resistance genes and [[prophage]] sequences were completed via PHAST while identification, using a method that compared translated coding sequences and proteins that correspond to them, was done using the CLUSTAL-W database. It was found after sequencing 2,456,795 15-bp paired-end reads and assembling them, it was found that the RAST system predicted 2,489 CoDing Sequences [[Coding DNA sequence|CDS]]s with some of the functions being cell wall metabolism, [[virulence]] and defense, [[carbohydrate]] metabolism, [[protein]] metabolism, [[RNA]] metabolism, [[lipid]] metabolism, and DNA metabolism.<ref name=": Tagini" /> After further annotation, some CDSs revealed potential function involved in antibiotic resistance but Resfinder demonstrated a higher sensitivity to [[antibiotics]] such as [[ceftriaxone]] and [[gentamicin]].<ref name=": Tagini" /> Lastly, one complete and two incomplete [[prophage]] sequences appeared as well.<ref name=": Tagini" />

[[DNA sequencing]] produced 150-bp paired-end reads, with reads shorter than 150-bp disregarded. Annotation of assemblies was done using RAST and analyzed using SEED viewer.<ref name=": Tagini" /> Searching of [[antibiotic resistance]] genes and [[prophage]] sequences was completed via PHAST while identification, using a method that compared translated coding sequences and proteins that are correspondent to them, was done using the CLUSTAL-W database.<ref name=": Tagini" />

Overall, the sequenced T05791 strain of ''Cardiobacterium hominis'' was found to have one circular [[chromosome]] with a genome size of 2.7 [[Megabases]] (Mb) and a [[G+C content]] of 59%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cardiobacterium hominis genome assembly 50618_F02 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/datasets/genome/GCF_900637305.1/ |website=NCBI |language=en}}</ref> The assembly level is a complete [[genome]] consisting over around 2670755 [[nucleotides]] and a total gene count of 2474, 2412 being protein genes and 42 being RNA genes.<ref>{{cite web |title=KEGG GENOME: Cardiobacterium hominis |url=https://www.kegg.jp/entry/gn:T05791 |website=www.kegg.jp}}</ref> The RAST system predicted genes encoding for functions such as cell wall metabolism, defense, [[carbohydrate]] metabolism, protein metabolism, RNA metabolism, [[lipid]] metabolism, and DNA metabolism<ref name=": Tagini" /> In regards to its [[pathogenicity]], ''Cardiobacterium hominis'' has very low [[virulence]] and minimal genes aid in its pathogenic abilities.<ref name="Walkty">{{cite journal |last1=Walkty |first1=Andrew |title=Cardiobacterium hominis Endocarditis: A Case Report and Review of the Literature |journal=Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology |date=26 Feb 2005 |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=293–297 |doi=10.1155/2005/716873 |doi-access=free |pmid=18159562 |pmc=2095039 |language=en |issn=1712-9532}}</ref> Further annotation revealed potential functions involved in [[antibiotic resistance]], but Resfinder demonstrated a higher sensitivity to antibiotics such as [[ceftriaxone]] and [[gentamicin]].<ref name=": Tagini" /> One complete and two incomplete [[prophage]] sequences appeared as well.

==Morphology and physiology==
''Cardiobacterium hominis'' has inconsistent [[rod-shaped]] morphology due to its [[Pleomorphism (microbiology)|pleomorphic]] nature.<ref name=": Slotnick" /> The rods typically have rounded ends, with one or both being frequently enlarged and are 0.5-0.6 μm in width and 1.0-2.2 μm in length.<ref name=": Slotnick" /> Other morphological features that have been observed are pairs, short chains, teardrop-shaped, and clusters.<ref name=": Slotnick" /> The organism thrives in concentrations of around 2-10% oxygen and possesses [[gluconeogenesis]] pathways and enzymes necessary to produce [[nucleotide]] precursors.<ref name="Fuduche">{{cite journal |last1=Fuduche |first1=Maxime |last2=Davidson |first2=Sylvain |last3=Boileau |first3=Céline |last4=Wu |first4=Long-Fei |last5=Combet-Blanc |first5=Yannick |title=A Novel Highly Efficient Device for Growing Micro-Aerophilic Microorganisms |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |date=2019 |volume=10 |page=534 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2019.00534 |doi-access=free |pmid=31001208 |pmc=6434946 |issn=1664-302X}}</ref> Its [[metabolite]] utilization includes the ability to build acid from [[glucose]], [[fructose]], and [[maltose]] and it possesses some of the physiological and morphological advantages relative to this genus of bacteria including, the ability to live in low oxygen environments, heat and cold resistance ([[mesophilic]]), [[spore]] formation, and [[antibiotic resistance]] except to [[penicillin]].<ref name=":Malani" /> The cell envelope of ''Cardiobacterium hominis'' is characterized by a thin [[peptidoglycan layer]] surrounded by an outer layer made out of [[lipopolysaccharides]] related to [[Gram-negative]] bacteria.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silhavy |first1=Thomas J. |last2=Kahne |first2=Daniel |last3=Walker |first3=Suzanne |title=The Bacterial Cell Envelope |url=https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a000414 |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |pages=a000414 |language=en |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a000414 |date=1 May 2010|volume=2 |issue=5 |pmid=20452953 |pmc=2857177 }}</ref>

==Clinical applications==

===Infective endocarditis===

As a bacterium in the [[respiratory tract]], there have been 61 reported infection cases.<ref name=":Malani" /> These cases include occurrence of [[infective endocarditis]] that led to [[aortic root]] complications which severely threatened the patient's life.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal |last1=Holden |first1=Robert |last2=Lewkenbandara |first2=Rashmi |last3=Pasztor |first3=Monika |last4=Okonkwo |first4=Ekene Kenneth |title=Cardiobacterium hominis endocarditis complicated by aortic root abscess: a case report |journal=Access Microbiology |date=1 November 2019 |volume=1 |issue=9 |pages=e000051 |doi=10.1099/acmi.0.000051|doi-access=free |pmid=32974556 |pmc=7472547 }}</ref> However, based on early identification and surgical procedures that followed, the patient was cured entirely after two years of treatment.<ref name=":6" /> This is evidence that early and appropriate diagnosis of ''Cardiobacterium hominis'' can lead to successful treatment. Annual occurrence of the disease is 3 to 10 cases per 100,000 people.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yallowitz |first1=Aaron W. |last2=Decker |first2=Lawrence C. |title=StatPearls |date=2024 |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32491573/ |chapter=Infectious Endocarditis|pmid=32491573 }}</ref> Researchers found out of 56 patients with [[infective endocarditis]] caused by [[Gram-negative bacteria]] from 1958 through 1979 at the [[Mayo Clinic]], 6 cases were linked to ''Cardiobacterium hominis''.<ref name="Berbari" /> As part of the HACEK, ''Cardiobacterium'' represents the "C" in the acronym. HACEK endocarditis targets patients with a prior heart disease or artificial valves with often an insidious course showing a diagnosis delay of 3 months.<ref name=":11">{{cite journal |last1=Revest |first1=Matthieu |last2=Egmann |first2=Gérald |last3=Cattoir |first3=Vincent |last4=Tattevin |first4=Pierre |title=HACEK endocarditis: state-of-the-art |journal=Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy |date=3 May 2016 |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=523–530 |doi=10.1586/14787210.2016.1164032|pmid=26953488 |url=https://hal-univ-rennes1.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01296779/file/HACEK%20endocarditis-1.pdf }}</ref> Fastidious [[Gram-negative bacteria]] such as ''Cardiobacterium hominis'' along with ''[[Eikenella corrodens]]'' and ''[[Kingella kingae]]'' mainly inhabiting in the oral and upper respiratory tract in humans are responsible for 1–3% of [[infective endocarditis]].<ref name=":11" /> Treatment of the disease involves third-generation [[cephalosporin]] with more than 80-90% success rate.<ref name=":11" />

===Therapy===

[[Penicillin]] and [[ampicillin]] were used in the past as treatment options for [[HACEK]] organisms like ''Cardiobacterium hominis''.<ref name="Geraci">{{cite journal |last1=Geraci |first1=J. E. |last2=Wilson |first2=W. R. |title=Symposium on infective endocarditis. III. Endocarditis due to gram-negative bacteria. Report of 56 cases |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |date=March 1982 |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=145–148 |pmid=7062778 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7062778/ |issn=0025-6196}}</ref> The emergence of [[β-lactamase]] producing strains led to the standard treatment being [[cefotaxime]] or [[ceftriaxone]].<ref name="Berbari">{{cite journal |last1=Berbari |first1=E. F. |last2=Cockerill |first2=F. R. |last3=Steckelberg |first3=J. M. |title=Infective endocarditis due to unusual or fastidious microorganisms |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |date=June 1997 |volume=72 |issue=6 |pages=532–542 |doi=10.4065/72.6.532 |pmid=9179137 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9179137/ |issn=0025-6196}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Gram-negative proteobacterial bacterial diseases}}
{{Portal bar|Biology}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2938074}}

[[Category:Gram-negative bacteria]]
[[Category:Gammaproteobacteria]]
[[Category:Bacteria described in 1964]]

Cardiobacterium hominis - Revision history

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