View source for Zambezi

{{short description|Major river in southern Africa}}
{{About|the river}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox river
| name              = Zambezi River
| native_name       = 
| native_name_lang  = 
| name_other        = ''Zambesi'', ''Zambeze''
| name_etymology    = 
| nickname          = Besi
| image             = Zambezi River at junction of Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe & Botswana.jpg
| image_size        = 
| image_caption     = The Zambezi at the junction of Namibia (upper left), Zambia (right), Zimbabwe (bottom) and Botswana (center left). Since this photo was taken, the [[Kazungula Bridge]] has been built across the river between Zambia and Botswana.
| map               = Zambezi.svg
| map_size          = 
| map_caption       = 
| pushpin_map       = 
| pushpin_map_size  = 
| pushpin_map_caption = 
| mapframe          = yes
| mapframe-zoom     = 4
| subdivision_type1 = Countries
| subdivision_name1 = {{hlist|[[Zambia]]|[[Angola]]|[[Namibia]]|[[Botswana]]|[[Zimbabwe]]|[[Mozambique]]}}
| subdivision_type2 = 
| subdivision_name2 = 
| subdivision_type3 = 
| subdivision_name3 = 
| subdivision_type4 = 
| subdivision_name4 = 
| subdivision_type5 = 
| subdivision_name5 = 
| length = {{cvt|2,574|km|mi}}
| width_min = 
| width_avg = 
| width_max = 
| depth_min = 
| depth_avg = 
| depth_max = 
| discharge1_location = Zambezi Delta, [[Indian Ocean]]
| discharge1_avg = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|4,296.5|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Zambezi-Lake Malawi">{{cite web |url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=164&catid=326&Itemid=179 |title=Zambezi-Lake Malawi |website=www.riversnetwork.org}}</ref>
(Period: 1962–2002){{cvt|4,134.7|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref name="The Zambezi River Basin - A Multi Sector Investment Opportunities - Volume 4-Modelling, Analysis and Input Data">{{cite web |url=http://web.worldbank.org/archive/website01321/WEB/IMAGES/ZAMBEZ-4.PDF |title=The Zambezi River Basin - A Multi Sector Investment Opportunities - Volume 4-Modelling, Analysis and Input Data |date=Jun 2010 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220075100/http://web.worldbank.org/archive/website01321/WEB/IMAGES/ZAMBEZ-4.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref>
| discharge2_location = [[Marromeu]], [[Mozambique]] (Basin size: {{cvt|1,377,492|km2|abbr=on}}
| discharge2_min = (Period: 1998–2022){{cvt|1,378|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes Using Satellite Microwave Radiometry">{{cite web |url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/257data.htm |title=River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes Using Satellite Microwave Radiometry |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307231439/https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/257data.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{cvt|920|m3/s|cuft/s}}
| discharge2_avg = (Period: 1998–2022){{cvt|4,217|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes Using Satellite Microwave Radiometry">{{cite web |url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/257data.htm |title=River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes Using Satellite Microwave Radiometry |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307231439/https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/257data.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
(Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|4,256.1|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Zambezi-Lake Malawi"/>
(Period: 1960–1962){{cvt|3,424|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref name="Beilfuss">{{Cite web |url=http://files.gorongosa.net/filestore/348-patterns_hydrological_change_zambezi_delta.pdf |title=Richard Beilfuss & David dos Santos: Patterns of Hydrological Change in the Zambezi Delta, Monogram for the Sustainable Management of Cahora Bassa Dam and The Lower Zambezi Valley (2001). Estimated mean flow rate 3424 m³/s |access-date=18 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217180850/http://files.gorongosa.net/filestore/348-patterns_hydrological_change_zambezi_delta.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2008 }}</ref><ref name="INBO">[http://www.riob.org/transfrontalier/Bilanglobal.PDF International Network of Basin Organisations/Office International de L'eau:] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327102256/http://www.riob.org/transfrontalier/Bilanglobal.PDF |date=27 March 2009}} "Développer les Compétences pour mieux Gérer l'Eau: Fleuves Transfrontaliers Africains: Bilan Global." (2002). Estimated annual discharge 106&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>, equal to mean flow rate 3360 m<sup>3</sup>/s</ref>
| discharge2_max = (Period: 1998–2022){{cvt|11,291|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes Using Satellite Microwave Radiometry">{{cite web |url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/257data.htm |title=River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes Using Satellite Microwave Radiometry |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307231439/https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/257data.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{cvt|18,600|m3/s|cuft/s}}
| source1 = Main stem source. Zambezi Source National Forest
| source1_location = [[Ikelenge District]], [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]], [[Zambia]]
| source1_coordinates = {{coord|11|22|11|S|24|18|30|E|display=inline}}
| source1_elevation = {{cvt|1,500|m|abbr=on}}
| source2 = Most distant source of the Zambezi-Lungwebungu system
| source2_location = [[Moxico (municipality)|Moxico Municipality]], [[Moxico Province]], [[Angola]]
| source2_coordinates = {{coord|12|40|34|S|18|24|47|E|display=inline}}
| source2_elevation = {{cvt|1,440|m|abbr=on}}
| mouth = [[Indian Ocean]]
| mouth_location = [[Zambezia Province]] and [[Sofala Province]], Mozambique
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|18|34|14|S|36|28|13|E|type:_river|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation = {{cvt|0|m|abbr=on}}
| progression = 
| river_system = [[Zambezi Basin]]
| basin_size = {{cvt|1,390,000|km2}}<ref name="Beilfuss"/><ref name="INBO"/>
| tributaries_left = [[Kabompo River|Kabompo]], [[Kafue River|Kafue]], [[Luangwa River|Luangwa]], Capoche, [[Shire River|Shire]]
| tributaries_right = [[Luena River, Angola|Luena]], [[Lungwebungu River|Lungwebungu]], [[Luanginga River|Luanginga]], [[Chobe River|Chobe]], [[Gwayi River|Gwayi]], [[Sanyati River|Sanyati]], [[Panhane River|Panhane]], [[Luenha River|Luenha]]
| discharge3_location = [[Cahora Bassa Dam]] (Basin size: {{cvt|1,068,422.8|km2}}
| discharge3_avg = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|2,653.9|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref name="Zambezi-Lake Malawi"/>
| discharge4_location = [[Kariba Dam]] (Basin size: {{cvt|679,495.9|km2}}
| discharge4_avg = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|1,313.6|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref name="Zambezi-Lake Malawi"/>
| discharge5_location = [[Victoria Falls]] (Basin size: {{cvt|521,315.5|km2|abbr=on}}
| discharge5_avg = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|1,066|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref name="Zambezi-Lake Malawi"/>
| extra = 
}}

The '''Zambezi''' (also spelled '''Zambeze''' and '''Zambesi''') is the [[List of rivers by length|fourth-longest]] [[river]] in Africa, the longest east-flowing river in Africa and the largest flowing into the [[Indian Ocean]] from Africa. Its [[drainage basin]] covers {{cvt|1,390,000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}},<ref name="Beilfuss"/><ref name="INBO"/> slightly less than half of the [[Nile]]'s. The {{cvt|2,574|km|mi|abbr=on}} river rises in [[Zambia]] and flows through eastern [[Angola]], along the north-eastern border of [[Namibia]] and the northern border of [[Botswana]], then along the border between Zambia and [[Zimbabwe]] to [[Mozambique]], where it crosses the country to empty into the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambezi River {{!}} river, Africa |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambezi-River |access-date=2021-05-20 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |archive-date=2 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502232720/https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambezi-River |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambezi River Facts and Information |url=https://www.victoriafalls-guide.net/zambezi-river.html |access-date=2021-05-27 |website=www.victoriafalls-guide.net |archive-date=7 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507055636/https://www.victoriafalls-guide.net/zambezi-river.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Zambezi's most noted feature is [[Victoria Falls]]. Its other falls include [[Chavuma Falls]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chavuma Falls {{!}} waterfall, Zambia {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Chavuma-Falls |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=26 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626032309/https://www.britannica.com/place/Chavuma-Falls |url-status=live }}</ref> at the border between Zambia and Angola and [[Ngonye Falls]] near [[Sioma]] in western Zambia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambia Tourism: Waterfalls |url=https://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/waterfalls/ngonye-falls/ |access-date=2022-06-25 |website=Zambia Tourism |language=en-US |archive-date=7 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407045055/https://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/waterfalls/ngonye-falls/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The two main sources of [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] power on the river are the [[Kariba Dam]], which provides power to Zambia and Zimbabwe, and the [[Cahora Bassa Dam]] in Mozambique, which provides power to Mozambique and [[South Africa]]. Additionally, two smaller power stations are along the Zambezi River in Zambia, one at Victoria Falls and the other in [[Zengamina]], near [[Kalene Hill]] in the [[Ikelenge District]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pasanisi |first1=Francesco |last2=Tebano |first2=Carlo |last3=Zarlenga |first3=Francesco |date=March 2016 |title=A Survey near Tambara along the Lower Zambezi River |journal=Environments |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=6 |doi=10.3390/environments3010006 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Zengamina Hydro Project {{!}} North West Zambia Development Trust |url=http://www.nwzdt.org/?page_id=22 |access-date=2022-04-18 |language=en-US |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423080555/http://www.nwzdt.org/?page_id=22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Course==

===Origins===
[[File:Zambezi river basin-en.svg|thumb|450px|The Zambezi and its [[Zambezi Basin|river basin]]]]

The river rises in a black, marshy [[dambo]] in dense, undulating [[miombo]] woodland {{cvt|50|km|mi|sigfig=2}} north of [[Mwinilunga]] and {{cvt|20|km|mi|sigfig=2}} south of Ikelenge in the [[Ikelenge District]] of [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]], Zambia, at about {{convert|1524|m|ft|sigfig=3}} above [[sea level]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Dilapidated Zambezi Source Site Worry Ikelenge DC |url=http://www.muvitv.com/dilapidated-zambezi-source-site-worry-ikelenge-dc/ |website=muvitv.com |publisher=Muvi TV |access-date=1 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904101922/http://www.muvitv.com/dilapidated-zambezi-source-site-worry-ikelenge-dc/ |archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref> The area around the source is a national monument, forest reserve, and [[important bird area]].<ref>{{cite web |title=ZM002 Source of the Zambezi |url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=7178 |website=birdlife.org |publisher=Birdlife International |access-date=1 August 2015 |archive-date=4 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904101922/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=7178 }}</ref>

Eastward of the source, the watershed between the [[Congo Basin|Congo]] and [[Zambezi Basin]]s is a well-marked belt of high ground, running nearly east–west and falling abruptly to the north and south. This distinctly cuts off the basin of the [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] (the main branch of the upper Congo) from the Zambezi. In the neighborhood of the source, the watershed is not as clearly defined, but the two river systems do not connect.<ref name=Dorling>Dorling Kindersley, pp. 84–85</ref>

The region drained by the Zambezi is a vast, broken-edged plateau 900–1,200 m high, composed in the remote interior of [[metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] beds and fringed with the [[igneous rock]]s of the Victoria Falls. At [[Chupanga]], on the lower Zambezi, thin strata of grey and yellow [[sandstone]]s, with an occasional band of [[limestone]], crop out on the bed of the river in the dry season, and these persist beyond [[Tete, Mozambique|Tete]], where they are associated with extensive seams of coal. Coal is also found in the district just below Victoria Falls. Gold-bearing rocks occur in several places.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ashton |first1=Peter |last2=Love |first2=David |last3=Mahachi |first3=Harriet |last4=Dirks |first4=Paul |title=An Overview of the Impacts of Mining and Mineral Processing Operations on Water Resources and Water Quality in the Zambezi, Limpopo AND Olifant Catchments in Southern Africa |url=https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G00599.pdf |website=International Institute for Environment and Development |publisher=Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development Project, Southern Africa |access-date=13 November 2020 |archive-date=14 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114231525/https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G00599.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Upper Zambezi===
The river flows to the southwest into Angola for about {{cvt|240|km|mi}}, then is joined by sizeable [[tributary|tributaries]] such as the [[Luena River, Angola|Luena]] and the Chifumage flowing from highlands to the north-west.<ref name=Dorling/> It turns south and develops a [[floodplain]], with extreme width variation between the dry and rainy seasons. It enters dense evergreen [[Zambezian dry evergreen forest|''Cryptosepalum ''dry forest]], though on its western side, [[Western Zambezian grasslands]] also occur. Where it re-enters Zambia, it is nearly {{cvt|400|m|ft}} wide in the rainy season and flows rapidly, with [[rapids]] ending in the [[Chavuma Falls]], where the river flows through a rocky fissure. The river drops about {{cvt|400|m|ft}} in elevation from its source at {{cvt|1500|m|ft}} to the Chavuma Falls at {{cvt|1100|m|ft}}, over a distance of about {{cvt|400|km|mi}}. From this point to the Victoria Falls, the level of the basin is very uniform, dropping only by another {{cvt|180|m|ft}} across a distance of around {{cvt|800|km|mi}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Page |first=Geology |date=2014-11-25 |title=Zambezi River |url=https://www.geologypage.com/2014/11/zambezi-river.html |access-date=2021-05-20 |website=Geology Page |language=en-US |archive-date=20 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520095950/https://www.geologypage.com/2014/11/zambezi-river.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Circular reference|date=June 2022}}

The first of its large tributaries to enter the Zambezi is the [[Kabompo River]] in the [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]] of Zambia. The [[savanna]] through which the river flows gives way to a wide floodplain, studded with ''[[Borassus]]'' [[fan palm]]s. A little farther south is the [[confluence]] with the [[Lungwebungu River]]. This is the beginning of the [[Barotse Floodplain]], the most notable feature of the upper Zambezi, but this northern part does not flood so much and includes islands of higher land in the middle.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambezi River Facts and Information |url=https://www.victoriafalls-guide.net/zambezi-river.html |access-date=2021-05-22 |website=www.victoriafalls-guide.net |archive-date=7 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507055636/https://www.victoriafalls-guide.net/zambezi-river.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

About 30&nbsp;km below the confluence of the Lungwebungu, the country becomes very flat, and the typical Barotse Floodplain landscape unfolds, with the flood reaching a width of 25&nbsp;km in the rainy season. For more than 200&nbsp;km downstream, the annual flood cycle dominates the natural environment and human life, society, and culture. About 80&nbsp;km further down, the [[Luanginga River|Luanginga]], which with its tributaries drains a large area to the west, joins the Zambezi. A short distance higher up on the east, the main stream is joined in the rainy season by overflow of the [[Luampa River|Luampa]]/[[Luena River (Zambia)|Luena]] system.<ref name="Dorling" />

A short distance downstream of the confluence with the Luanginga is [[Lealui]], one of the capitals of the [[Lozi people]], who populate the Zambian region of [[Barotseland]] in the Western Province. The chief of the Lozi maintains one of his two compounds at Lealui; the other is at [[Limulunga]], which is on high ground and serves as the capital during the rainy season. The annual move from Lealui to Limulunga is a major event, celebrated as one of Zambia's best-known festivals, the [[Kuomboka]].

After Lealui, the river turns south-southeast. From the east, it continues to receive numerous small streams, but on the west, it is without major tributaries for 240&nbsp;km. Before this, the [[Ngonye Falls]] and subsequent rapids interrupt navigation. South of Ngonye Falls, the river briefly borders Namibia's [[Caprivi Strip]].<ref name=Dorling/> Below the junction of the [[Cuando River]] and the Zambezi, the river bends almost due east. Here, the river is broad and shallow and flows slowly, but as it flows eastward towards the border of the great central plateau of Africa, it reaches a chasm into which the Victoria Falls plunge.

===Middle Zambezi===
[[File:Victoria Falls aerial view September 2003.jpg|thumb|[[Victoria Falls]], the end of the upper Zambezi and beginning of the middle Zambezi]]
The Victoria Falls are considered the boundary between the upper and middle Zambezi. Below them, the river continues to flow due east for about {{cvt|200|km}}, cutting through perpendicular walls of [[basalt]] {{cvt|20|to|60|m|ft}} apart in hills {{cvt|200|to|250|m|ft}} high. The river flows swiftly through the Batoka Gorge, the current being continually interrupted by reefs. It has been described<ref>{{Cite web |last=Edington |first=Sean |date=2020-12-29 |title=Is rafting on the Zambezi River below The Victoria Falls Dangerous? |url=https://safpar.com/is-rafting-on-the-zambezi-river-below-the-victoria-falls-dangerous/ |access-date=2021-05-20 |website=SAFPAR |language=en-US |archive-date=20 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520102959/https://safpar.com/is-rafting-on-the-zambezi-river-below-the-victoria-falls-dangerous/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} as one of the world's most spectacular [[Whitewater kayaking|whitewater]] trips, a tremendous challenge for kayakers and rafters alike. Beyond the gorge are a succession of rapids that end {{cvt|240|km|mi}} below Victoria Falls. Over this distance, the river drops {{cvt|250|m|ft}}.

At this point, the river enters [[Lake Kariba]], created in 1959 following the completion of the [[Kariba Dam]]. The lake is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, and the hydroelectric power-generating facilities at the dam provide electricity to much of Zambia and Zimbabwe.

The [[Luangwa River|Luangwa]] and [[Kafue River|Kafue]] rivers are the two largest left-hand tributaries of the Zambezi. The Kafue joins the main river in a quiet, deep stream about {{cvt|180|m|ft}} wide. From this point, the northward bend of the Zambezi is checked, and the stream continues due east. At the confluence of the Luangwa (15°37' S), it enters Mozambique.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Figure 1: Map showing location of Luangwa Valley and Greater Kafue Ecosystem in Zambia. |journal=PeerJ |date=20 April 2021 |volume=9 |pages=e11313 |doi=10.7717/peerj.11313/fig-1 |last1=Valkenburgh |first1=Blaire Van |last2=White |first2=Paula A. |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The middle Zambezi ends where the river enters Lake [[Cahora Bassa]], formerly the site of dangerous rapids known as Kebrabassa; the lake was created in 1974 by the construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GAZ Term "Zambezi River" (GAZ:00044898) |url=https://archive.gramene.org/db/ontology/search?id=44313 |access-date=2021-05-20 |website=archive.gramene.org |archive-date=20 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520101311/https://archive.gramene.org/db/ontology/search?id=44313 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}

===Lower Zambezi===
The lower Zambezi's {{convert|650|km}} from Cahora Bassa to the Indian Ocean is navigable, although the river is shallow in many places during the dry season. This shallowness arises as the river enters a broad valley and spreads out over a large area. Only at one point, the [[Lupata Gorge]], {{convert|320|km}} from its mouth, is the river confined between high hills. Here, it is scarcely {{convert|200|m}} wide. Elsewhere it is from {{convert|5|to|8|km|0}} wide, flowing gently in many streams. The river bed is sandy, and the banks are low and reed-fringed. At places, however, and especially in the rainy season, the streams unite into one broad, fast-flowing river.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}

About {{convert|160|km}} from the sea, the Zambezi receives the drainage of [[Lake Malawi]] through the [[Shire River]]. On approaching the Indian Ocean, the river splits up into a [[River delta|delta]].<ref name=Dorling/> Each of the primary distributaries, Kongone, Luabo, and Timbwe, is obstructed by a [[Shoal|sand bar]]. A more northerly branch, called the [[Chinde River|Chinde]] mouth, has a minimum depth at low water of {{convert|2|m|0}} at the entrance and {{convert|4|m|0}} further in, and is the branch used for navigation. About {{convert|100|km}} further north is a river called the [[Quelimane]], after the town at its mouth. This stream, which is silting up, receives the overflow of the Zambezi in the rainy season.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambezi - Encyclopedia |url=https://theodora.com/encyclopedia/z/zambezi.html |access-date=2021-05-20 |website=theodora.com |language=en |archive-date=20 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520105706/https://theodora.com/encyclopedia/z/zambezi.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}
[[File:Mighty Zambezi afternoon view.jpg|alt=#Wiki Loves Africa in Namibia 2023#|thumb|Mighty Zambezi]]

==Discharge==
Average, minimum and maximum discharge of the Zambezi River at [[Marromeu]] (Lower Zambezi). Period from 1998 to 2022.<ref name="River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes Using Satellite Microwave Radiometry">{{cite web |url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/257data.htm |title=River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes Using Satellite Microwave Radiometry |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307231439/https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/257data.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
 ! rowspan="2" |Year
! colspan="3" |Discharge (m<sup>3</sup>/s)
! rowspan="2" |Year
! colspan="3" |Discharge (m<sup>3</sup>/s)
|-
!Min
! Mean
 ! Max
 !Min
!Mean
!Max
|-
|1998
|1,141
|3,335
|11,183
|2011
|17
|2,619
|6,117
|-
|1999
|600
|4,259
|11,084
|2012
|1,383
|3,522
|7,553
|-
|2000
|338
|3,041
|6,696
|2013
|1,243
|3,877
|8,622
|-
|2001
|112
|9,151
|39,802
|2014
|2,394
|4,161
|8,946
|-
|2002
|631
|2,536
|4,910
|2015
|3,307
|6,095
|15,826
|-
|2003
|329
|2,536
|8,952
|2016
|1,754
|4,418
|9,124
|-
|2004
|79
|2,013
|4,824
|2017
|2,133
|4,686
|9,215
|-
|2005
|888
|3,030
|7,973
|2018
|2,177
|4,988
|8,802
|-
|2006
|1,549
|3,651
|7,575
|2019
|2,867
|5,942
|12,091
|-
|2007
|2,208
|4,636
|14,141
|2020
|3,001
|5,131
|10,031
|-
|2008
|2,881
|6,949
|31,975
|2021
|2,331
|5,977
|10,196
|-
|2009
|154
|2,648
|5,930
|2022
|868
|4,953
|14,361
|-
|2010
|58
|2,284
|6,342
|
|''17''
|'''''4,217'''''
|''39,802''
|}

==Delta==<!-- This section is linked from redirect "[[Zambezian coastal flooded savanna]]" -->
The delta of the Zambezi is today about half as broad as it was before the construction of the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams controlled the seasonal variations in the flow rate of the river.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} Before the dams were built, seasonal flooding of the Zambezi had quite a different impact on the ecosystems of the delta from today, as it brought nutrient-rich fresh water down to the Indian Ocean coastal wetlands. The lower Zambezi experienced a small flood surge early in the dry season as rain in the [[Gwembe]] catchment and north-eastern Zimbabwe rushed through while rain in the upper Zambezi, Kafue, and Lake Malawi basins, and Luangwa to a lesser extent, is held back by swamps and floodplains.

The discharges of these systems contribute to a much larger flood in March or April, with a mean monthly maximum for April of {{cvt|6700|m3|cuft}} per second at the delta. The record flood was more than three times as big, {{cvt|22500|m3|cuft}} per second being recorded in 1958. By contrast, the discharge at the end of the dry season averaged just {{cvt|500|m3|cuft}} per second.<ref name="Beilfuss"/>

In the 1960s and 1970s, the building of dams changed that pattern completely. Downstream, the mean monthly minimum–maximum was {{cvt|500|to|6000|m3|cuft}} per second; now it is {{cvt|1000|to|3900|m3|cuft}} per second. Medium-level floods especially, of the kind to which the ecology of the lower Zambezi was adapted, happen less often and have a shorter duration. As with the [[Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]]'s deleterious effects on the Kafue Flats, this has these effects:
* Fish, bird, and other wildlife feeding and breeding patterns were disrupted.
* Less grassland remains after flooding for [[grazing]] wildlife and cattle.
* Traditional farming and fishing patterns were disrupted.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eiR_RLPB6GAC&q=traditional+farming+and+fishing+patterns+disrupted&pg=PA41 |title=Revise AS Level Geography for Edexcel Specification B |last=Knifton |first=Dulcie |date=July 2004 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-10154-1}}</ref>

===Ecology of the delta===
{{main|Zambezian coastal flooded savanna}}
[[File:Zambezi River Delta.jpg|thumb|300px|Annotated view of the Zambezi River Delta from space<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82361 |title=Zambezi River Delta: Image of the Day |date=29 August 2013 |website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov |access-date=12 December 2013 |archive-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106173513/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82361 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[File:Zambezi Barotse floodplain.jpg|thumb|NASA false-colour image of the upper Zambezi and [[Barotseland|Barotse]] (Balozi) floodplain during an extreme flood in 2003]]
The Zambezi Delta has extensive seasonally and permanently flooded grasslands, savannas, and swamp forests. Together with the floodplains of the [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Buzi]], [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]], and [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] Rivers, the Zambezi's floodplains make up the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|World Wildlife Fund]]'s [[Zambezian coastal flooded savanna]] [[ecoregion]] in Mozambique. The flooded savannas lie close to the Indian Ocean coast. [[East African mangroves|Mangroves]] fringe the delta's shoreline.

Although the dams have stemmed some of the annual flooding of the lower Zambezi and caused the area of floodplain to be greatly reduced, they have not removed flooding completely. They cannot control extreme floods, and they have only made medium-level floods less frequent. When heavy rain in the lower Zambezi combines with significant runoff upstream, massive floods still happen, and the wetlands are still an important habitat. The shrinking of the wetlands, though, resulted in uncontrolled hunting of animals such as [[African buffalo|buffalo]] and [[waterbuck]] during the [[Mozambican Civil War]].

Although the region has had a reduction in the populations of the large mammals, it is still home to some, including the [[reedbuck]] and migrating [[common eland|eland]]. Carnivores found here include [[lion]] (''Panthera leo''), [[leopard]] (''Panthera pardus''), [[cheetah]] (''Acinonyx jubatus''), [[spotted hyena]] (''Crocuta crocuta''), and [[side-striped jackal]] (''Canis adustus''). The floodplains are a haven for migratory waterbirds, including [[northern pintail|pintails]], [[garganey]], [[African openbill]] (''Anastomus lamelligerus''), [[saddle-billed stork]] (''Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis''), [[wattled crane]] (''Bugeranus carunculatus''), and [[great white pelican]] (''Pelecanus onocrotalus'').<ref name = wwf>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Zambezian coastal flooded savanna|id=at0906}}</ref>

Reptiles include [[Nile crocodile]] (''Crocodylus niloticus''), [[Nile monitor]] lizard (''Varanus niloticus''), [[Python sebae|African rock python]] (''Python sebae''), the endemic Pungwe worm snake (''Leptotyphlops pungwensis''), and three other snakes that are nearly endemic - floodplain water snake (''Lycodonomorphus whytei obscuriventris''), dwarf wolf snake (''Lycophidion nanus''), and swamp viper (''[[Proatheris]]'').<ref name = wwf/>

Several butterfly species are endemic.
{{gallery|mode=packed|align=center
|Image:Zambezi delta.jpg|The Zambezi's delta
|Image:ISS009-E-7622- Zambezi river near Mongu.jpg|The river and its floodplain near Mongu in Zambia
|Image:Zambezi Flood Plain, Namibia (MODIS).jpg|Water is black in this false-colour image of the Zambezi flood plain.
|Image:Zambezi Flood Plain, Namibia (EO-1).jpg|This detailed true-colour image shows the stark eastern edge of the Zambezi floodplain.
}}

== Climate ==
The north of the Zambezi basin has a mean annual rainfall of 1100 to 1400&nbsp;mm, which declines towards the south, reaching about half that figure in the south-west. The rain falls in a 4-to-6-month summer rainy season when the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]] moves over the basin from the north between October and March.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chaudhary |first=Huma |date=2024-03-03 |title=Canoeing on the Zambezi River |url=https://www.thetravelvibes.com/canoeing-on-the-zambezi-river/ |access-date=2024-03-17 |website=The Travel Vibes |language=en-US}}</ref> Evaporation rates are high (1600&nbsp;mm-2300&nbsp;mm), and much water is lost this way in swamps and floodplains, especially in the south-west of the basin.<ref>[http://www.gorongosa.net/research/research_documents/Patterns_Hydrological_Change_Zambezi_Delta.pdf Richard Beilfuss & David dos Santos: Patterns of Hydrological Change in the Zambezi Delta, Mozambique.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080102105856/http://www.gorongosa.net/research/research_documents/Patterns_Hydrological_Change_Zambezi_Delta.pdf |date=2 January 2008 }} Working Paper No 2 Program for the Sustainable Management of Cahora Bassa Dam and The Lower Zambezi Valley (2001)</ref>

== Wildlife ==
[[File:Zambezi – Elephants crossing the river- 1 ca 12.11.2009.jpg|250px|thumb|Elephants crossing the river]]
[[File:Hippopotamus in the Zambezi.jpg|thumb|Hippopotamus in the Zambezi River]]
The river supports large populations of many animals. [[Hippopotamus]]es are abundant along most of the calm stretches of the river, as well as Nile crocodiles. [[Monitor lizard]]s are found in many places. Birds are abundant, with species including [[heron]], [[pelican]], [[egret]], [[lesser flamingo]], and [[African fish eagle]] present in large numbers. Riverine woodland also supports many large animals, such as [[African buffalo|buffalo]], [[zebra]]s, [[giraffe]]s, and [[African elephant|elephants]].{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}

The Zambezi also supports several hundred species of fish, some of which are endemic to the river. Important species include [[cichlid]]s, which are fished heavily for food, as well as catfish, tigerfish, [[Upper Zambezi yellowfish|yellowfish]], and other large species. The [[bull shark]] is sometimes known as the Zambezi shark after the river, not to be mistaken with [[River shark|''Glyphis'']] freshwater shark genus that inhabit the river, as well.

== Tributaries ==
'''''Upper Zambezi: 507,200&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, discharges 1044 m<sup>3</sup>/s at Victoria Falls, comprising:'''''

: ''Northern Highlands catchment, 222,570&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 850 m<sup>3</sup>/s at [[Lukulu]]:''
:* Chifumage River: [[Angola]]n central plateau
:* [[Luena River, Angola|Luena River]]: Angolan central plateau
:* [[Kabompo River]]: 72,200&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, NW highlands of Zambia
:* [[Lungwebungu River]]: 47,400&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, Angolan central plateau
:''Central Plains catchment, 284,630&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 196 m<sup>3</sup>/s (Victoria Falls–Lukulu):''
:* [[Luanginga River]]: 34,600&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, Angolan central plateau
:* Luampa River/[[Luena River, Zambia]]: 20,500&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, eastern side of Zambezi
:* [[Cuando River|Cuando /Linyanti/Chobe River]]: 133,200&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, Angolan S plateau & [[Caprivi Strip|Caprivi]]

'''''Middle Zambezi cumulatively 1,050,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 2442 m<sup>3</sup>/s, measured at Cahora Bassa Gorge'''''
[[File:Río Zambeze, Zambia-Zimbabue, 2018-07-27, DD 14.jpg|thumb|View of the Middle Zambezi]]
: (Middle section by itself: 542,800&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, discharges 1398 m<sup>3</sup>/s (C. Bassa–Victoria Falls)
:''Gwembe Catchment, 156,600&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 232 m<sup>3</sup>/s (Kariba Gorge–Vic Falls):''
:* [[Gwayi River]]: 54,610&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, NW Zimbabwe
:* [[Sengwa River]]: 25,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, North-central Zimbabwe
:* [[Sanyati River]]: 43,500&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, North-central Zimbabwe
:''Kariba Gorge to C. Bassa catchment, 386200 km<sup>2</sup>, 1166 m<sup>3</sup>/s (C. Bassa–Kariba Gorge):''
:* [[Kafue River]]: 154,200&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 285 m<sup>3</sup>/s, West-central Zambia & [[Copperbelt]]
:* [[Luangwa River]]: 151,400&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 547 m<sup>3</sup>/s, Luangwa Rift Valley & plateau NW of it
:* [[Panhane River]]: 23,897&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, North-central Zimbabwe plateau

'''''Lower Zambezi cumulatively, 1,378,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 3424 m<sup>3</sup>/s, measured at Marromeu'''''

: (Lower section by itself: 328,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 982 m<sup>3</sup>/s (Marromeu–C. Bassa))
:* Luia River: 28,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, Moravia-Angonia plateau, N of Zambezi
:* Luenha River/[[Mazoe River]]: 54,144&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 152 m<sup>3</sup>/s, Manica plateau, NE Zimbabwe
:* [[Shire River]], 154,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 539 m<sup>3</sup>/s, [[Lake Malawi]] basin
: Zambezi Delta, 12,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>

'''Total [[Zambezi Basin|Zambezi river basin]]: 1,390,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, 3424 m<sup>3</sup>/s discharged into delta'''

''Source: Beilfuss & Dos Santos (2001)''<ref name="Beilfuss"/> The [[Kalahari Basin|Okavango Basin]] is not included in the figures because it only occasionally overflows to any extent into the Zambezi.

Because of the rainfall distribution, northern tributaries contribute much more water than southern ones; for example: The Northern Highlands catchment of the upper Zambezi contributes 25%, Kafue 8%, Luangwa and Shire Rivers 16% each, total 65% of Zambezi discharge. The large Cuando basin in the south-west, though, contributes only about 2 m<sup>3</sup>/s because most is lost through evaporation in its swamp systems. The 1940s and 1950s were particularly wet decades in the basin. Since 1975, it has been drier, the average discharge being only 70% of that for the years 1930 to 1958.<ref name="Beilfuss"/>

== Geological history ==
[[File:Victoria Falls National Park marker.jpg|thumb|Victoria Falls National Park marker]]
Up to the [[Piacenzian|Late Pliocene]] or [[Pleistocene]] (more than two million years ago), the upper Zambezi flowed south through what is now the [[Makgadikgadi Pan]] to the [[Limpopo River]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goudie |first1=A.S. |author-link=Andrew Goudie (geographer) |date=2005 |title=The drainage of Africa since the Cretaceous |journal=[[Geomorphology (journal)|Geomorphology]] |volume=67 |issue=3–4 |pages=437–456 |doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.11.008 |bibcode=2005Geomo..67..437G}}</ref> The change of the river course is the result of [[epeirogenic movement]]s that lifted up the surface at the present-day water divide between both rivers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moore |first1=A.E. |date=1999 |title=A reapprisal of epeirogenic flexure axes in southern Africa |journal=[[South African Journal of Geology]] |volume=102 |issue=4 |pages=363–376}}</ref>

Meanwhile, {{cvt|1000|km|mi}} east, a western tributary of the Shire River in the [[East African Rift]]'s southern extension through [[Malawi]] eroded a deep valley on its western escarpment. At a slow rate, the middle Zambezi started cutting back the bed of its river towards the west, aided by [[graben]]s ([[rift valley]]s) forming along its course in an east–west axis. As it did so, it [[Stream capture|captured]] several south-flowing rivers such as the Luangwa and Kafue.

Eventually, the large lake trapped at Makgadikgadi (or a tributary of it) was captured by the middle Zambezi cutting back towards it, and emptied eastwards. The upper Zambezi was captured, as well. The middle Zambezi was about {{cvt|300|m|ft}} lower than the upper Zambezi, and a high waterfall formed at the edge of the basalt plateau across which the upper river flows. This was the first Victoria Falls, somewhere down the Batoka Gorge near where Lake Kariba is now.<ref>[http://www.zamsoc.org/documents/Summary%20of%20Technical%20Reviews%20Part%202.pdf AWF Four Corners Biodiversity Information Package No 2: Summary of Technical Reviews] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217063008/http://www.zamsoc.org/documents/Summary%20of%20Technical%20Reviews%20Part%202.pdf |date=17 February 2012 }} Accessed 1 March 2007.</ref>

== History ==

=== Etymology ===
The first European to come across the Zambezi River was [[Vasco da Gama]] in January 1498, who anchored at what he called ''Rio dos Bons Sinais'' (River of Good Omens), now the [[Quelimane]] or Quá-Qua, a small river on the northern end of the delta, which at that time was connected by navigable channels to the Zambezi River proper (the connection silted up by the 1830s). In a few of the oldest maps, the entire river is denoted as such. By the 16th century, a new name emerged, the ''Cuama'' River (sometimes "Quama" or "Zuama"). Cuama was the local name given by the dwellers of the [[Swahili coast]] for an outpost located on one of the southerly islands of the delta (near the Luabo channel). Most old nautical maps denote the Luabo entry as Cuama, the entire delta as the "rivers of Cuama", and the Zambezi proper as the "Cuama River".{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}

In 1552, Portuguese chronicler [[João de Barros]] noted that the same Cuama River was called ''Zembere'' by the inland people of [[Kingdom of Mutapa|Monomatapa]].<ref>Barros, ''Da Asia'', Dec. I, Lib. X, vol. 2, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BJ42AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA374 p.374])</ref> The Portuguese Dominican friar [[João dos Santos]], visiting Monomatapa in 1597 reported it as ''Zambeze'' (Bantu languages frequently shifts between z and r) and inquired into the origins of the name; he was told it was named after a people.

[[File:Monomotapa Map.jpg|thumb|This map by [[Willem Janszoon Blaeu]], dated 1635, shows the course of the Zambezi, and its source in a great lake.]]
{{blockquote|"The River Cuama is by them called Zambeze; the head whereof is so farre within Land that none of them know it, but by tradition of their Progenitors say it comes from a Lake in the midst of the continent which yeelds also other great Rivers, divers ways visiting the Sea. They call it Zambeze, of a Nation of Cafres dwelling neere that Lake which are so called." —J. Santos ''Ethiopia Oriental'', 1609<ref>Fr. J. dos Santos (1609), ''Ethiopia Oriental e varia historia de cousas Notaveis do Oriente'', Pt. III. English translation is from [[Samuel Purchas]]'s 1625 ''Haklyutus Posthumus'', (1905) ed., Glasgow, vol. 10: [https://books.google.com/books?id=ekIMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA220 p.220-21]</ref>}}

Thus, the term "Zambezi" is after a people who live by a great lake to the north. The most likely candidates are the "M'biza", or Bisa people (in older texts given as Muisa, Movisa, Abisa, Ambios, and other variations), a Bantu people who live in what is now central-eastern Zambia, between the Zambezi River and [[Lake Bangweulu|Lake Bangweolo]] (at the time, before the [[Kingdom of Lunda|Lunda]] invasion, the Bisa would have likely stretched further north, possibly to [[Lake Tanganyika]]). The Bisa had a reputation as great cloth traders throughout the region.<ref>The connection between Santos/Monomatapa "Zambezi" and the "M'biza" is suggested in Cooley (1845).</ref>

In a curious note, Goese-born Portuguese trader Manuel Caetano Pereira, who traveled to the Bisa homelands in 1796, was surprised to be shown a second, separate river referred to as the "Zambezi".<ref>"Notícias dadas por Manoel Caetano Pereira, comerciante, que se entranhou pelo interior da África", as published in José Acúrsio das Neves (1830) ''Considerações Políticas e Comerciais sobre os Descobrimentos e Possessões na África e na Ásia''. Lisbon: Imprensa Regia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=01Tpl2WqoqgC&pg=PA373 p.373]</ref> This "other Zambezi" that puzzled Pereira is most likely what modern sources spell the [[Chambeshi River]] in northern Zambia.

The Monomatapa notion (reported by Santos) that the Zambezi was sourced from a great internal lake might be a reference to one of the [[African Great Lakes]]. One of the names reported by early explorers for [[Lake Malawi]] was "Lake Zambre" (probably a corruption of "Zambezi"), possibly because Lake Malawi is connected to the lower Zambezi via the Shire River. The Monomatapa story resonated with the old European notion, drawn from classical antiquity, that all the great African rivers—the Nile, the [[Senegal River|Senegal]], the Congo, and the Zambezi—were all sourced from the same great internal lake. The Portuguese were also told that the Mozambican Espirito Santo "river" (actually an estuary formed by the [[Umbeluzi]], [[Matola River|Matola]], and [[Tembe River|Tembe]] Rivers) was sourced from a lake (hence its outlet became known as [[Maputo Bay|Delagoa Bay]]). As a result, several old maps depict the Zambezi and the "Espirito Santo" Rivers converging deep in the interior, at the same lake.

However, the Bisa-derived etymology is not without dispute. In 1845, W.D. Cooley, examining Pereira's notes, concluded the term "Zambezi" derives not from the Bisa people, but rather from the Bantu term "mbege"/"mbeze" ("fish"), and consequently it probably means merely "river of fish".<ref>W.D. Cooley (1845) "The Geography of N'yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern Africa, investigated, with an account of the overland route from the Quanza in Angola to the Zambezi in the government of Mozambique", ''Journal of the Royal Geographical Society'', p.185-235.</ref> [[David Livingstone]], who reached the upper Zambezi in 1853, refers to it as "Zambesi", but also makes note of the local name "Leeambye" used by the [[Lozi people]], which he says means "large river or river par excellence". Livingstone records other names for the Zambezi—Luambeji, Luambesi, Ambezi, Ojimbesi, and Zambesi—applied by different peoples along its course, and asserts they "all possess a similar signification and express the native idea of this magnificent stream being the main drain of the country".<ref>David Livingstone (1857) ''Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa'' ([https://archive.org/details/missionarytrave00unkngoog/page/n250 p.208])</ref>

Other historical records show that the river was called Kasambabezi by the Tonga people, which means "only those who know the river can bath in it."  a name which is still in use to this day.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVEqCgAAQBAJ&dq=Kasambabezi&pg=PA243 | title=Harnessing Cultural Capital for Sustainability: A Pan Africanist Perspective | isbn=978-9956-762-50-7 | last1=Mawere | first1=Munyaradzi | last2=Awuah-Nyamekye | first2=Samuel | date=20 June 2015 | publisher=Langaa RPCIG }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://davinajogi.com/kasambabezi/ | title=Kasambabezi | date=25 November 2017 }}</ref>

In Portuguese records, the "Cuama River" term disappeared and gave way to the term "Sena River" (''Rio de Sena''), a reference to the Swahili (and later Portuguese) upriver trade station at [[Vila de Sena|Sena]]. In 1752, the Zambezi Delta, under the name "Rivers of Sena" (''Rios de Sena'') formed a colonial administrative district of [[Portuguese Mozambique]], but common usage of "Zambezi" led eventually to a royal decree in 1858 officially renaming the district "[[Zambezia Province|Zambézia]]".

===Exploration===
[[File:Satellite view of Victoria Falls.jpg|thumb|Satellite image showing [[Victoria Falls]] and subsequent series of zigzagging gorges]]
The Zambezi region was known to medieval geographers as the [[Kingdom of Mutapa|Empire of Monomotapa]], and the course of the river, as well as the position of lakes [[Lake Ngami|Ngami]] and [[Lake Malawi|Nyasa]], were generally accurate in early maps. These were probably constructed from Arab information.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Zambezi|volume=28|pages=951–953|first=Frank|last=Cana}}</ref>

The first European to visit the inland Zambezi River was the Portuguese ''[[degredado]]'' [[Álvaro Fernandes|António Fernandes]] in 1511 and again in 1513, with the objective of reporting on commercial conditions and activities of the interior of Central Africa. The final report of these explorations revealed the importance of the ports of the upper Zambezi to the local trade system, in particular to East African gold trade.<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400-1668 |page=81 |first=Malyn |last=Newitt |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=0-203-32404-8}}</ref>

The first recorded exploration of the upper Zambezi was made by David Livingstone in his exploration from [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]] between 1851 and 1853. Two or three years later, he descended the Zambezi to its mouth and in the course of this journey found the Victoria Falls. During 1858–60, accompanied by [[John Kirk (explorer)|John Kirk]], Livingstone ascended the river by the Kongone mouth as far as the falls, and also traced the course of its tributary the Shire and reached Lake Malawi.<ref name="EB1911"/>

For the next 35 years, very little exploration of the river took place. Portuguese explorer [[Alexandre de Serpa Pinto|Serpa Pinto]] examined some of the western tributaries of the river and made measurements of the Victoria Falls in 1878.<ref name="EB1911"/> In 1884, Scottish-born [[Plymouth Brethren]] missionary [[Frederick Stanley Arnot]] traveled over the height of land between the watersheds of the Zambezi and the Congo and identified the source of the Zambezi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dacb.org/stories/demrepcongo/arnot_stanley.html |work=Dictionary of African Christian Biography |title=Arnot, Frederick Stanley |year=2005 |first=Dr. J. Keir |last=Howard |access-date=14 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927002516/http://www.dacb.org/stories/demrepcongo/arnot_stanley.html |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref> He considered that the nearby high and cool [[Kalene Hill]] was a particularly suitable place for a mission.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q0Avs0RFRtMC&pg=PA29 |pages=29–31 |title=Friends for life, friends for death: cohorts and consciousness among the Lunda-Ndembu |first=James Anthony |last=Pritchett |publisher=University of Virginia Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8139-2624-7}}</ref> Arnot was accompanied by Portuguese trader and army officer [[António da Silva Porto]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0lMZovHqD4kC&pg=PA30 |page=30 |title=Angola, 1880 to the present: slavery, exploitation, and revolt |first1=Bruce |last1=Fish |first2=Becky Durost |last2=Fish |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=0-7910-6197-3}}</ref>

In 1889, the Chinde channel north of the main mouths of the river was seen. Two expeditions led by Major A. St Hill Gibbons in 1895 to 1896 and 1898 to 1900 continued the work of exploration begun by Livingstone in the upper basin and central course of the river.<ref name="EB1911" />
[[File:2 locals in a canoe in the Zambezi river.jpg|thumb|Two locals are in the Zambezi River near Victoria Falls, Zambia.]]

==Economy==
The population of the Zambezi River Valley is estimated to be about 32 million.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} About 80% of the population of the valley is dependent on agriculture, and the upper river's floodplains provide good agricultural land.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Horta |first=Loro |date=20 May 2008 |title=The Zambezi Valley: China's First Agricultural Colony? |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/zambezi-valley-chinas-first-agricultural-colony |access-date=11 May 2024}}</ref>

Communities by the river fish it extensively, and many people travel from far afield to fish. Some Zambian towns on roads leading to the river levy unofficial "fish taxes" on people taking Zambezi fish to other parts of the country. Game fishing, as well as fishing for food, is a significant activity on some parts of the river. Between [[Mongu]] and [[Livingstone, Zambia|Livingstone]], several [[safari]] lodges cater to tourists who want to fish for exotic species, and many also catch fish to sell to [[Public aquarium|aquaria]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-11-30 |title=The Zambezi River, Drained Bone Dry |url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/news/blog-the-zambezi-river-drained-bone-dry/ |access-date=2021-05-20 |website=International Rivers |language=en-US |archive-date=20 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520091130/https://www.internationalrivers.org/news/blog-the-zambezi-river-drained-bone-dry/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mikva |first=Keren |date=2016-06-30 |title=12 Things You Didn't Know About the Economy of the Zambezi River - Page 4 of 14 |url=https://moguldom.com/128710/12-things-didnt-know-economy-zambezi-river/ |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=Moguldom |language=en-US}}</ref>

The river valley is rich in mineral deposits and fossil fuels, and coal mining is important in places. The dams along its length also provide employment for many people near them, in maintaining the hydroelectric power stations and the dams themselves. Several parts of the river are also very popular tourist destinations. Victoria Falls receives over 100,000 visitors annually, with 141,929 visitors reported in 2015.<ref>[http://www.mota.gov.zm/index.php/downloads/data-and-statistics/34-2015-tourism-statistical-digest/file 2015 Tourism Statistical Digest] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325175218/http://www.mota.gov.zm/index.php/downloads/data-and-statistics/34-2015-tourism-statistical-digest/file|date=25 March 2018}} www.mota.gov.zm, Republic of Zambia Ministry of Tourism and Arts</ref> [[Mana Pools National Park|Mana Pools]] and Lake Kariba also draw substantial tourist numbers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydroelectric Power: Advantages of Production and Usage |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/hydroelectric-power-advantages-production-and-usage?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |access-date=2021-05-20 |website=www.usgs.gov |language=en |archive-date=20 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520091447/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/hydroelectric-power-advantages-production-and-usage?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Zimbabwe |url=https://www.inventtour.com/Countries/15/Zimbabwe |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=InventTour |language=en}}</ref>

==Transport==
[[File:Victoria Falls Bridge over Zambesi.jpg|thumb|1975 photo of [[Victoria Falls Bridge]] ]]
The river is frequently interrupted by rapids, so has never been an important long-distance transport route.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Zambezi River {{!}} Zimbabwe Field Guide |url=https://zimfieldguide.com/matabeleland-north/zambezi-river |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=zimfieldguide.com}}</ref> David Livingstone's Zambezi expedition attempted to open up the river to navigation by [[paddle steamer]], but was defeated by the Cahora Bassa rapids.<ref>{{Cite web |title=David Livingstone - Zambezi Expedition, Missionary, Explorer {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Livingstone/The-Zambezi-expedition |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

In the 1930s and 40s, a paddle-barge service operated on the stretch between the Katombora Rapids, about {{cvt|50|km|mi}} upstream from Livingstone, and the rapids just upstream from Katima Mulilo. Depending on the water level, boats could be paddled through—Lozi paddlers, a dozen or more in a boat, could deal with most of them—or they could be pulled along the shore or carried around the rapids, and teams of oxen pulled barges {{cvt|5|km|mi}} over land around the Ngonye Falls.<ref>E. C. Mills: [http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V1N2/V1N2.htm "Overlanding Cattle from Barotse to Angola"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803091300/http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V1N2/V1N2.htm |date=3 August 2018 }}, ''The [[Northern Rhodesia Journal]]'', Vol 1 No 2, pp 53–63 (1950). Accessed 16 December 2017.</ref>

Road, rail, and other crossings of the river, once few and far between, are proliferating. They are, in order from the river's source:
* [[Cazombo]] road bridge, Angola, bombed in the civil war and not yet reconstructed<ref>Visible on Google Earth at latitude -11.906 longitude 22.831.</ref>
* [[Chinyingi|Chinyingi suspension footbridge]] near the town of [[Zambezi, Zambia|Zambezi]], a {{cvt|300|m|ft|adj=on}} footbridge built as a community project
* Lubosi Imwiko II Bridge linking the towns of [[Mongu]] and [[Kalabo]], a 1,005 meter long concrete/steel road bridge including 38.5&nbsp;km of embanked highway through Barotse Floodplain constructed between 2011 and 2016.<ref>Visible on Google Earth at longitude 22.924 latitude -15.214.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zedcorner.com/mongu-kalabo-road-zambias-engineering-marvel/ |title=Mongu-Kalabo Road - Zambia's Engineering Marvel |date=13 April 2016 |website=zedcorner.com |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=2 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180302163608/http://www.zedcorner.com/mongu-kalabo-road-zambias-engineering-marvel/ }}</ref> It is an extension of the [[Lusaka–Mongu Road]], meant to be a connection between Lusaka and Angola.
* Sioma Bridge near the [[Ngonye Falls]], anew 260 metres long road bridge ([[Zambian kwacha|K]] 108 mln), opened in 2016 as part of the [[M10 Road (Zambia)|M10 Road]] ([[Sesheke]] - [[Senanga]] road).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.daily-mail.co.zm/president-launches-k108m-sioma-bridge/ |title=President launches K108m Sioma Bridge – Zambia Daily Mail |website=daily-mail.co.zm |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=16 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216204802/https://www.daily-mail.co.zm/president-launches-k108m-sioma-bridge/ }}</ref>
* [[Katima Mulilo Bridge|Katima Mulilo road bridge]], {{cvt|900|m|ft}}, between [[Namibia]] and [[Sesheke]] in Zambia, opened 2004, completing the [[Trans–Caprivi Highway]] connecting [[Lusaka]] in Zambia with [[Walvis Bay]] on the Atlantic coast
* [[Kazungula Bridge]], opened in 2021, connecting Zambia and Botswana
* [[Victoria Falls Bridge]] (road and rail), the first to be built, completed in April 1905 and initially intended as a link in [[Cecil Rhodes]]' scheme to build a [[Cape to Cairo Railway|railway from Cape Town to Cairo]]: {{cvt|250|m|ft}} long
* Kariba Dam carries the paved [[Kariba, Zimbabwe|Kariba]]/[[Siavonga]] highway across the river
[[File:Luangwa boat.jpg|thumb|left|Tourist boat on the Zambezi River, [[Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park]], Zambia. 1971 photo.]]
* [[Chirundu Bridge|Otto Beit Bridge at Chirundu]], road, {{cvt|382|m|ft}}, 1939
* [[Chirundu Bridge#Second Chirundu Bridge (2002)|Second Chirundu Bridge]], road, {{cvt|400|m|ft}}, 2002
* [[Tete, Mozambique|Tete Suspension Bridge]], {{cvt|1|km|m|adj=on}} road bridge
* [[Dona Ana Bridge]], railway bridge in Mozambique
* [[Caia, Mozambique|Caia Bridge]], opened in 2009

A number of small ferries cross the river in Angola, western Zambia, and Mozambique, notably between [[Mongu]] and [[Kalabo]]. Above Mongu in years following poor rainy seasons, the river can be forded at one or two places. In tourist areas, such as Victoria Falls and [[Kariba Dam|Kariba]], short-distance tourist boats take visitors along the river.

==Ecology==
[[File:STS51B-51-14- Lake Cahora Bassa.jpg|thumb|[[Lake Cahora Bassa]] in Mozambique, one of the river's major sources of hydroelectric energy]]

===Pollution===
Sewage [[effluent]] is a major cause of water [[pollution]] around urban areas, as inadequate [[Water treatment|water-treatment facilities]] in all the major cities of the region release untreated sewage into the river. This has resulted in [[eutrophication]] of the river water and has facilitated the spread of diseases of poor hygiene such as [[cholera]], [[typhus]], and [[dysentery]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Herbig |first=Friedo J. W. |date=2019-01-01 |editor-last=Meissner |editor-first=Richard |title=Talking dirty - effluent and sewage irreverence in South Africa: A conservation crime perspective |journal=Cogent Social Sciences |volume=5 |issue=1 |article-number=1701359 |doi=10.1080/23311886.2019.1701359 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Effects of dams===
The construction of two major dams regulating the flow of the river has had a major effect on wildlife and human populations in the lower Zambezi region. When the Cahora Bassa Dam was completed in 1973, its managers allowed it to fill in a single flood season, going against recommendations to fill over at least two years. The drastic reduction in the flow of the river led to a 40% reduction in the coverage of mangroves, greatly increased erosion of the coastal region and a 60% reduction in the catch of [[prawn]]s off the mouth because of the reduction in emplacement of [[silt]] and associated nutrients. Wetland ecosystems downstream of the dam shrank considerably. Wildlife in the delta was further threatened by uncontrolled hunting during the civil war in Mozambique.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambezi River Tourist Information |url=https://www.touristlink.com/africa/zambezi-river/overview.html |access-date=2021-05-22 |website=www.touristlink.com |language=en-US |archive-date=28 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128075009/https://www.touristlink.com/africa/zambezi-river/overview.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Isaacman |first1=Allen |last2=Sneddon |first2=Chris |date=2000 |title=Toward a Social and Environmental History of the Building of Cahora Bassa Dam |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=597–632 |doi=10.1080/713683608 |jstor=2637563 |s2cid=153574634 |issn=0305-7070 }}</ref>

===Conservation measures===
The proposed [[Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area]] was to cover parts of Zambia, Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Botswana, including the Okavango Delta in Botswana and Victoria Falls. Funding was boosted for cross-border conservation along the Zambezi in 2008. The project received a grant of €8 million from a German nongovernmental organisation. Part of the funds are to be used for research in areas covered by the project. However, Angola has warned that landmines from their civil war may impede the project.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.scidev.net/global/news/sub-saharan-africa-news-in-brief-13-25-march/ |title=Sub-Saharan Africa news in brief: 13–25 March |access-date=17 August 2021 |archive-date=21 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521215431/http://www.scidev.net/en/sub-suharan-africa/news/sub-saharan-africa-news-in-brief-13-25-march.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The river currently passes through Ngonye Falls National Park, [[Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park]], and [[Lower Zambezi National Park]] (in Zambia), and the [[Zambezi National Park]], [[Victoria Falls National Park]], [[Matusadona National Park]], [[Mana Pools National Park]], and the [[Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve]] (in Zimbabwe).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambezi River 2017 {{!}} Lensman - Lennart Hessel Photography |url=https://www.lensman.se/portfolios/zambezi-river-2017/ |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=Lensman |language=en-GB}}</ref>

===Fish stocks management===
As of 2017, the situation of overfishing in the upper Zambezi and its tributaries was considered dire, in part because of weak enforcement of the respective fisheries acts and regulations. The fish stocks of Lake Liambezi in the eastern Caprivi Strip were found to be depleted, and surveys indicated a decline in the whole Zambezi-Kwando-Chobe River system. [[Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing|Illegal fishing]] (by foreign nationals employed by [[Namibian]]s) and commercially minded individuals, exploited the resources to the detriment of local markets and the communities whose culture and economy depend on these resources.<ref name="tn">{{cite web |last1=Kooper |first1=Lugeretzia |title=Zambezi fishermen warned against overfishing |url=http://www.namibian.com.na/166137/archive-read/Zambezi-fishermen-warned-against-overfishing |website=namibian.com.na |publisher=The Namibian |date=2017-06-23 |access-date=24 July 2017 |archive-date=5 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905010246/https://www.namibian.com.na/166137/archive-read/Zambezi-fishermen-warned-against-overfishing |url-status=live }}</ref>

Namibian officials have consequently banned [[Monofilament fishing line|monofilament]] nets and imposed a closing period of about 3 months every year to allow the fish to breed. They also appointed village fish guards and the Kayasa Channel in the [[Impalila]] conservancy area was declared a fisheries reserve. The Namibian ministry also promotes aquaculture and plans to distribute thousands of fingerlings to registered small-scale fish farmers of the region.<ref name="tn"/>

===EUS outbreak===
In September 2007, [[epizootic]] ulcerative syndrome (EUS) killed hundreds of sore-covered fish in the river. Zambia agriculture minister Ben Kapita asked experts to investigate the outbreak to probe the cause to find out if the disease can be transmitted to humans.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_kmafp/is_200709/ai_n19522812 |title=Zambia warns against fish killed by mysterious disease |agency=Agence France-Presse |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122212855/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_kmafp/is_200709/ai_n19522812 |archive-date=22 January 2009}}</ref>

==Major towns==
Along much of the river's length, the population is sparse, but important towns and cities along its course include:
* [[Katima Mulilo]] (Namibia)
* [[Livingstone, Zambia|Livingstone]], [[Mongu]], [[Lukulu]], [[Senanga]] and [[Sesheke]] (Zambia)
* [[Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe|Victoria Falls]] and [[Kariba Dam|Kariba]] (Zimbabwe)
* [[Songo, Mozambique|Songo]] and [[Tete, Mozambique|Tete]] (Mozambique)
* [[Cazombo]] (Angola)

==See also==
{{Portal|Africa}}
* [[2007 Mozambican flood]]
* [[Nyami Nyami]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Bento C.M., Beilfuss R. (2003), ''Wattled Cranes, Waterbirds, and Wetland Conservation in the Zambezi Delta, Mozambique'', report for the Biodiversity Foundation for Africa for the IUCN - Regional Office for Southern Africa: Zambezi Basin Wetlands Conservation and Resource Utilisation Project.
* Bourgeois S., Kocher T., Schelander P. (2003), ''Case study: Zambezi river basin'', ETH Seminar: Science and Politics of International Freshwater Management 2003/04
* Davies B.R., Beilfuss R., Thoms M.C. (2000), "Cahora Bassa retrospective, 1974–1997: effects of flow regulation on the Lower Zambezi River," ''Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnologie'', 27, 1–9
* Dunham KM (1994), ''The effect of drought on the large mammal populations of Zambezi riverine woodlands'', Journal of Zoology, v. 234, p.&nbsp;489–526
* Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc. (2004). ''World reference atlas''. New York: Dorling Kindersley. {{ISBN|0-7566-0481-8}}
* Wynn S. (2002), "The Zambezi River - Wilderness and Tourism", ''International Journal of Wilderness'', 8, 34.
* H. C. N. Ridley: "Early History of Road Transport in Northern Rhodesia", ''The Northern Rhodesia Journal'', Vol 2 No 5 (1954)—''Re Zambezi River Transport Service at Katombora''.
* [http://www.scidev.net/en/sub-suharan-africa/news/sub-saharan-africa-news-in-brief-13-25-march.html Funding boost for cross-border conservation project]

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041027222139/http://www.earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=310&theme=2 Information and a map of the Zambezi's watershed]
* [http://www.zambezi-expedition.org/index.html Zambezi Expedition - Fighting Malaria on the "River of Life"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407032231/http://www.zambezi-expedition.org/index.html |date=7 April 2008 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.zaraho.org.zm/ |publisher=[[Zambezi River Authority]] |title=Home Page |access-date=2012-09-23 |archive-date=25 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025052021/http://www.zaraho.org.zm/ }}
* [http://www.zamsoc.org/ The Zambezi Society]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050904134054/http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/publications/register/images/africa.gif Map of Africa's river basins]
* [http://www.ppl.nl/bibliographies/all/?bibliography=water Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209113341/http://www.ppl.nl/bibliographies/all/?bibliography=water |date=9 February 2011 }} Peace Palace Library
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070828065809/http://www.nature.org/wherewework/greatrivers/africa/ The Nature Conservancy's Great Rivers Partnership works to conserve the Zambezi River]

{{Rivers of Angola}}
{{Rivers of Mozambique}}
{{Rivers of Zambia}}
{{Rivers of Zimbabwe}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Zambezi River| ]]
[[Category:Border rivers]]
[[Category:Botswana–Zambia border]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Mozambique Channel]]
[[Category:Namibia–Zambia border]]
[[Category:Rivers of Angola]]
[[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]]
[[Category:Rivers of Namibia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Zambia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Zimbabwe]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Zimbabwe]]
[[Category:Zambezi basin|Zambezi basin]]
[[Category:Zambia–Zimbabwe border]]
[[Category:Rivers of Botswana]]
[[Category:Lowest points of countries]]