View source for Za'atar

{{Short description|Levantine herb or herb blend}}
{{redirect|Satar|the Uyghur instrument|Sataer|other uses}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Za'atar
| image = Closeup image of za'atar, a blend of origanum syriacum (hyssop, sumac, sesame seeds and salt.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = 
| alternate_name = 
| country =
| region = [[Levant]]
| creator = 
| course = 
| type = [[Spice mix]]
| served = 
| main_ingredient = [[Thyme]], [[sumac]], [[sesame seeds]], [[salt]]
| variations = 
| calories = 
| other = 
}}
<!-- This article covers a topic of relevance to several countries. DO ''not'' remove content that only relates to one country, language or culture. Use talk page for discussion first. -->
'''Za'atar'''{{efn|Also [[romanization of Arabic|romanized]] ''zaatar'', ''za'tar'', or ''zatar''.}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|z|ɑː|t|ɑr}} {{respell|ZAH|tar}}; {{langx|ar|زَعْتَر}}, {{IPA|ar|ˈzaʕtar|IPA}}) is a versatile herb blend and family of wild herbs native to the [[Levant]], central to [[Middle Eastern cuisine]] and culture. The term refers both to aromatic plants of the ''[[Origanum]]'' and ''[[Thymbra (plant)|Thymbra]]'' genera (including ''[[Origanum syriacum]]'', known as Bible hyssop) and to the prepared [[spice mixture]] of [[dried herbs]], toasted [[sesame seeds]], [[sumac]], and [[salt]]. With roots stretching back to [[ancient Egypt]] and classical antiquity, za'atar has been used for millennia as a seasoning, folk remedy, and cultural symbol.

The spice blend varies regionally, with [[Lebanese cuisine|Lebanese]] versions emphasizing sumac's tartness, while [[Palestinian cuisine|Palestinian]] varieties may include [[caraway]]. It flavors iconic dishes like ''[[manakish]]'' (za'atar [[flatbread]]), enhances [[labneh]] and [[hummus]], and is mixed with [[olive oil]] as a dip (''za'atar-wu-zayt''). Beyond cuisine, medieval Arabic and Jewish medical texts, including works by [[Maimonides]], documented za'atar's digestive benefits, and Palestinian tradition associates it with mental alertness.

==Etymology==
The linguistic origins of za'atar trace back to ancient [[Semitic languages]]. Assyriologist [[Ignace Gelb]] identified the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word ''{{lang|akk-Latn|sarsar}}'' as potentially referring to a spice plant, which may represent an early cognate. This term appears related to the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] {{lang|syc-Latn|satre}} ({{lang|syc|ܨܬܪܐ}}) and [[Arabic]] {{lang|ar-Latn|za'atar}} ({{lang|ar|زعتر}}, alternatively spelled {{lang|ar-Latn|sa'tar}}, {{lang|ar|صعتر}}). Scholars suggest these terms may have influenced the Latin ''Satureia'', referring to plants in the {{lang|la|[[Satureja]]}} genus.<ref name="Gelbp74">Gelb, 1956, p. 74.</ref>

The species ''[[Satureja thymbra]]'' demonstrates this linguistic connection through its various vernacular names across cultures: known as "Persian za'atar" in some contexts, while Arabic sources refer to it as {{lang|ar-Latn|za'atar rumi}} (Roman hyssop) and {{lang|ar-Latn|za'atar franji}} (European hyssop).<ref name="Allenp230">Allen, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fniv9ShKmxcC&dq=satureia+za%27atar&pg=PA230 p. 230].</ref><ref name="Codex">Faculté de Médecine de Paris, 1818, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zmx4aCQVevkC&dq=satureia+capitata+artemesia&pg=PR178 p. clxxviii].</ref> In [[Modern Hebrew]], the term {{lang|he-Latn|za'atar}} ({{lang|he|זעתר}}) was adopted as a direct [[loanword]] from Arabic.

==Botany and species==
[[File:Origanum_syriacum,_March_2015.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Origanum syriacum]]'', in springtime]]
Several aromatic plants from the [[Lamiaceae]] family are identified as za'atar across the [[Middle East]]. The primary species include [[Origanum syriacum|''Origanum syriacum'']], known regionally as Bible [[hyssop]], Arabic [[Oregano (web browser)|oregano]], or wild [[marjoram]]. This plant, along with its close relatives [[Origanum vulgare|''Origanum vulgare'']] (European oregano) and [[Origanum majorana|''Origanum majorana'']] (sweet marjoram), forms the botanical basis for za'atar preparations, though these species are frequently confused due to their similar characteristics.<ref name="Philologos">{{cite news |author=Philologos |date=May 19, 2006 |title=Za'atar: On Language |url=http://forward.com/articles/1326/zaeatar/ |access-date=September 4, 2014 |newspaper=[[The Jewish Daily Forward]]}}</ref><ref name="Sediemannp365">Seidemann, 2005, p. 365.</ref>

The designation "za'atar" extends to other aromatic plants, including [[Thymbra spicata|''Thymbra spicata'']], a Levantine native cultivated in [[North America]] by [[Lebanese Americans|Lebanese]] and [[Syrian Americans|Syrian]] immigrant communities since the 1940s.<ref name="Gardnerp326">Gardner, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=idS5JjtHCKAC&dq=%22thymbra+spicata%22+za%27atar&pg=PA326 p. 326].</ref> Another significant variety, [[Thymus capitatus|''Thymus capitatus'']] (also classified as ''Satureja capitata''), grows throughout the Mediterranean Middle East and holds particular cultural significance in Palestine, where [[thyme]] remains deeply tied to local culinary traditions.<ref name="Basanpp196">Basan, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-7wnpIi3VRwC&dq=zaatar+wild&pg=PA196 p. 196].</ref><ref name="Poetryp5">The Poetry Society, 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGbLc4erpoAC&dq=zaatar+salad&pg=PA5 p. 5].</ref>

Regional terminology sometimes includes ''Origanum vulgare'' under the name "wild za'atar" ({{langx|ar|زعتر بري}}), though it is more commonly known internationally as European oregano or wild marjoram. This species thrives across Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine, where it contributes to distinctive local variations of the spice mixture.<ref name="Sorting">{{cite web |title=Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database: Sorting Origanum names |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Origanum.html |access-date=2009-08-28 |publisher=Michel H. Porcher, University of Melbourne}}</ref><ref name="Philologos" />

==History==
<!-- This article covers a topic of relevance to several countries. DO ''not'' remove content that only relates to one country, language or culture. Use talk page for discussion first. -->The use of za'atar plants dates back to ancient civilizations, with archaeological and textual evidence indicating its importance in multiple cultures. In [[Ancient Egypt]], botanical remains identified as Thymbra spicata – one of the species used in modern za'atar preparations – were discovered in the tomb of [[Tutankhamun]] (14th century BCE). The Greek physician [[Dioscorides]] later recorded that this species was known to the Egyptians as ''saem'', though the precise ancient Egyptian name for za'atar remains uncertain.<ref name="Mannichep150">Manniche, 1989, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ineypt6xGl4C&dq=za%27tar+salt&pg=PA150 p. 150].</ref><ref name="Gardnerp326" />

Classical sources further document the plant's significance. [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' (1st century CE) mentions ''maron'' as a component of ''Regale Unguentum'' ("Royal Perfume"), a luxurious fragrance used by [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] rulers. While the exact identification of maron remains debated, scholars have suggested possible connections to za'atar-related species.<ref name="Dalbyp189">This is usually rendered as English ''marum'' (defined by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] as ''[[Thymus mastichina]]'' or ''[[Teucrium marum]]''), but Dalby interprets this as ''[[Origanum syriacum]]'' and translates it as ''zatar''; Dalby, 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ga-BjztOQd8C&dq=zaatar+recipes+medieval&pg=PA189 p. 189].</ref><ref name="Dalbyp108">Dalby, 2002, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7IHcZ21dyjwC&q=zatar+&pg=PA108 p. 108].</ref>

[[Jewish culture|Jewish tradition]] has consistently associated za'atar with biblical references. Prominent scholars including [[Saadia Gaon]] (10th century), [[Abraham ibn Ezra]] (12th century), [[Maimonides]] (12th–13th century), and [[Obadiah of Bertinoro]] (15th–16th century) identified the ''[[ezov]]'' mentioned in the [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Exodus 12|Exodus 12:22]] and other passages) with the Arabic za'atar. This connection appears in both [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbinic]] and [[Samaritanism|Samaritan]] traditions, as evidenced by the consistent identification across different Hebrew and Samaritan scriptural versions.<ref name="Isserp99">Isser, 1976, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aM0UAAAAIAAJ&dq=Maimonides+sa%27tar&pg=PA99 p. 99].</ref>

==Preparation and variations==
[[File:Red Zaatar.jpg|thumb|Red za'atar, containing [[sumac]] berries]]
Za'atar refers both to wild herbs of the ''[[Origanum]]'' and ''[[Thymbra (plant)|Thymbra]]'' genera and to the prepared spice mixture that has become a culinary staple across the Middle East. Traditionally, the condiment is made by grinding ''Origanum syriacum'' and mixing it with roasted [[sesame seeds]] and [[salt]], often enhanced with [[sumac]] berries for tartness. Where ''Origanum syriacum'' is unavailable, cooks substitute thyme, [[oregano]], marjoram, or blends thereof, demonstrating the adaptability of this ancient seasoning. This practice of creating household variations throughout the [[Fertile Crescent]], [[Iraq]], and the [[Arabian Peninsula]] has contributed to Western observers' challenges in precisely identifying the spice components referenced in historical texts,<ref name="Heinep69">Heine, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1jE5k5qeKbgC&dq=zatar+spices+perfumes&pg=PA62 p. 69].</ref> with some potential early mentions found in the [[Yale Babylonian Collection]] though lacking definitive attribution.<ref name="Kaufmanp29">Kaufman, 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?id=IFiIg7elnwIC&dq=za%27tar+spice&pg=PA29 p. 29].</ref>

Regional variations showcase za'atar's diversity. Lebanese versions are distinguished by their dark red hue from generous amounts of sumac, sometimes accented with [[orange zest]], while Palestinian blends often incorporate [[caraway]] seeds for distinctive flavor notes.<ref name="NPR">{{cite news |date=November 21, 2007 |title=Recipes of the West Bank Olive Harvest |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=16530921 |access-date=2008-03-14 |publisher=[[NPR]]}}</ref><ref name="Nabhanp89">Nabhan, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=MEQ45L3ZcegC&dq=zaatar+food&pg=PA89 p. 88–89].</ref> Commercial preparations have adapted to modern markets, sometimes using [[wheat flour]] as a bulking agent or adding spices like savory, [[cumin]], [[coriander]], and [[fennel]] seed for complexity.<ref name="Robertsp84">Roberts, 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YdWEcMjKVBYC&dq=za%27atar+culinary&pg=PA83 p. 84].</ref> Like other traditional Arab spice blends such as ''[[baharat]]'' (the Egyptian mixture of [[cinnamon]], [[cloves]], and [[allspice]]), za'atar is valued not only for its flavor but also for its high [[antioxidant]] content.<ref name="Nabhanp89" />

==Culinary uses==
[[File:Israeli zaatar manakeesh.jpg|thumb|Za'atar [[manakish]]]]
Za'atar enjoys widespread use across Middle Eastern cuisine, both as a dried [[spice blend]] and fresh [[herb]]. The traditional preparation involves sun-drying the herb mixture before combining it with salt, toasted [[sesame]] seeds, and tart sumac.<ref name="Swedenburgp59">Swedenburg, 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?id=q7RTdcvtO2sC&dq=zatar+herb&pg=PA59 p. 59].</ref> This versatile seasoning appears in numerous culinary applications, from simple daily fare to more elaborate dishes.

One of the most iconic uses is in baked goods, particularly ''[[manakish]] bi zaatar'' – [[flatbreads]] topped with a paste of za'atar and [[olive oil]] before baking.<ref name="Carterp68">Carter et al., 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=EskzgI-229IC&dq=zaatar+cuisine&pg=PA68 p. 68].</ref> Similarly, [[ka'ak]], the soft sesame bread popular throughout the eastern Mediterranean, is frequently served with za'atar either as a dipping accompaniment or as a filling.<ref>{{cite news |author=Jacki Lyden |date=March 5, 2005 |title=Lebanese Writers Offer Alternate Views of Beirut |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4523229 |access-date=September 4, 2014 |work=Weekend Edition Saturday |publisher=[[NPR]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Joan Nathan |date=November 12, 2008 |title=A Short History of the Bagel |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/food/2008/11/a_short_history_of_the_bagel.html |access-date=September 4, 2014 |publisher=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]}}</ref><ref name="Cheshinp14">Cheshin et al., 2001, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RO0tafb62oEC&dq=jerusalem+zaatar+street&pg=PA14 p. 14].</ref> The combination of za'atar with olive oil creates ''za'atar-wu-zayt'' (called ''zeit ou za'atar'' in some regions), a creamy spread commonly enjoyed with pita bread.<ref name="Swedenburgp59" /><ref name="NPR" />

Beyond breads, za'atar seasons a variety of dishes. It enhances grilled meats and roasted vegetables, adds depth to [[hummus]], and complements dairy products like [[labneh]], the thick strained yogurt cheese.<ref name="Nathan">{{cite news |author=Joan Nathan |date=November 9, 1996 |title=Diversity in the dining room helps ring in Israel's new year |url=http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id=1996_1364906 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231225452/http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id=1996_1364906 |archive-date=December 31, 2008 |access-date=2008-03-09 |newspaper=Houston Chronicle}}</ref><ref name="Poetryp5" /><ref name="Marinp69">Marin and Deguilhem, 2002, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrglky5_u1sC&dq=zatar+herb&pg=PA69 p. 69].</ref> In Lebanon, this pairing reaches its zenith with [[shanklish]] – labneh balls cured and rolled in za'atar for a flavorful coating.<ref name="Savillp273">Savill and O'Meara, 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SghbwyzUskwC&dq=zaatar+balls&pg=PA273 p. 273].</ref> Fresh za'atar leaves feature prominently in Levantine salads, particularly ''salatet al-zaatar al-akhdar'', which combines the herb with [[onions]], [[garlic]], [[lemon]], and olive oil.<ref name="Poetryp5" />

The herb's versatility extends to stuffed pastries like [[börek]] and even beverages. In Oman, za'atar transforms into an aromatic herbal tea when steeped in hot water, showcasing its range beyond savory applications.<ref name="Marshallp309">Marshall Cavendish, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=bl36oP9be8cC&dq=zatar+herb&pg=PA309 p. 309].</ref> These diverse uses reflect za'atar's integral role in the region's food culture, from everyday breakfasts in Jordan, Palestine, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Lebanon to specialty dishes across the Arab world.<ref name="Poetryp5" /><ref name="Marinp69" /><ref name="Rayp154">Ray, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=9zDWJaYSgdAC&dq=zaatar+history+food&pg=PA154 p. 154].</ref>

==Folk medicine==
Za'atar has held a significant place in traditional medicine across Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cultures for centuries. Historical records document its therapeutic applications, with medieval Arabic medical texts particularly emphasizing its value. The 13th-century pharmacological work ''A-lma'tmd fi al-a'douiah al-mfrdah'' (The approved book in single drugs), attributed to physician al-Turkomani (1222–1297), classifies za'atar as both a culinary and medicinal herb, specifically noting its efficacy in treating gastrointestinal disorders. The text describes its ability to soothe abdominal pain, strengthen intestinal membranes, and improve digestion.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Khalil |first1=Mohamad |last2=Rita Caponio |first2=Giusy |last3=Diab |first3=Farah |last4=Shanmugam |first4=Harshitha |last5=Di Ciaula |first5=Agostino |last6=Khalifeh |first6=Hala |last7=Vergani |first7=Laura |last8=Calasso |first8=Maria |last9=De Angelis |first9=Maria |last10=Portincasa |first10=Piero |date=2022-03-01 |title=Unraveling the beneficial effects of herbal Lebanese mixture "Za'atar". History, studies, and properties of a potential healthy food ingredient |journal=Journal of Functional Foods |volume=90 |page=104993 |doi=10.1016/j.jff.2022.104993 |issn=1756-4646 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=11586/409774}}</ref>

This medicinal reputation extended across cultural traditions. The renowned Jewish philosopher-physician Maimonides (1135–1204), who practiced medicine in Al-Andalus, Morocco, and Egypt, recommended za'atar for its health-promoting properties in his medical writings.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Inskeep |first1=Steve |last2=Godoy |first2=Maria |date=June 11, 2013 |title=Za'atar: A Spice Mix With Biblical Roots And Brain Food Reputation |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/06/11/190672515/zaatar-a-spice-mix-with-biblical-roots-and-brain-food-reputation |access-date=2020-08-01 |work=NPR News |language=en}}</ref><ref name="marks630">Marks, 2010, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ojc4Uker_V0C&dq=Maimonides+za%27atar&pg=PA630 p. 630] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101122627/https://books.google.com/books?id=ojc4Uker_V0C&pg=PA630&dq=Maimonides+za%27atar&hl=en&ei=0gKrTbGiMMHogQf3_fHzBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CEUQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=Maimonides%20za'atar&f=false|date=2022-11-01}}</ref> Some ancient Mediterranean cultures believed it could combat internal parasites.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}

In Palestinian folk medicine, za'atar maintains a cognitive association, with traditional practice encouraging children to consume it at breakfast to enhance mental alertness before school.<ref name="Swedenburgp59" />

==Cultural and political significance==
[[File:Flrs 005.jpg|thumb|Za'atar shrub growing in [[Jerusalem]]]]
Za'atar holds deep cultural meaning across the Levant, serving as both a culinary staple and a symbol of heritage. The herb has been an integral part of [[Arab cuisine]] since medieval times, used alongside other spiced salts in daily cooking.<ref name="Basanp27">Basan, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-7wnpIi3VRwC&dq=zaatar+cuisine&pg=PA27 p. 27].</ref><ref name="Bedigian">{{cite journal |author=Dorothea Bedigian |date=September 2004 |title=History and Lore of Sesame in Southwest Asia |journal=Economic Botany |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=330–353 |doi=10.1663/0013-0001(2004)058[0330:HALOSI]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0013-0001 |s2cid=85600193}}</ref> For Palestinians in particular, za'atar carries special significance as a cultural marker – its presence in a household often signifies a Palestinian home, while for [[Palestinian refugees|refugees]], it serves as a tangible connection to their villages and regions of origin.<ref name="Marinp69" /><ref name="Lienp148">Lien and Nerlich, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7RZSJAaNIHMC&dq=za%27atar+culinary&pg=PA149 pp. 148–149.]</ref>

The plant's significance has evolved in modern political contexts. While traditionally harvested by Arab communities and used in Arab bakeries, za'atar has been widely adopted into [[Israeli cuisine]] since the mid-20th century.<ref name="hyssop">{{cite web |date=1998-07-01 |title=Hyssop: Adding Spice to Life in the Middle East |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Israel%20beyond%20the%20conflict/Hyssop-%20Adding%20Spice%20to%20Life%20in%20the%20Middle%20East |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040830053226/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Israel%20beyond%20the%20conflict/Hyssop-%20Adding%20Spice%20to%20Life%20in%20the%20Middle%20East |archive-date=August 30, 2004 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref> Some Israeli producers market za'atar products using terms like "hyssop" or "holy hyssop," though true ''[[Hyssopus officinalis]]'' does not grow wild in the region, unlike the common ''Origanum vulgare''.<ref name="Philologos" />

Conservation efforts have created complex legal situations. In 1977, Israel declared Origanum syriacum a protected species due to [[overharvesting]] concerns, with stricter limits imposed in 2005 carrying potential fines for violations.<ref name="hyssop" /><ref name="Rogov">{{cite news |author=Daniel Rogov |date=November 30, 2001 |title=A mixup over a biblical herb |url=http://www.haaretz.com/culture/food-wine/a-mixup-over-a-biblical-herb-1.76099 |access-date=2008-03-14 |newspaper=[[Haaretz]]}}</ref> While intended as [[environmental protection]], these measures have drawn criticism from some [[Arab citizens of israel|Arab citizens]] who view them as restricting traditional foraging practices, with some characterizing the laws as "almost anti-Arab".<ref name="Vered2">{{cite news |last=Vered |first=Ronit |date=March 13, 2008 |title=Forbidden Fruit |url=http://www.haaretz.com/forbidden-fruit-1.241284 |access-date=September 4, 2014 |newspaper=[[Haaretz]]}}</ref> The regulations extended to the [[West Bank]], where in 2006 there were reported instances of za'atar plants being confiscated at [[Israeli checkpoint|Israeli checkpoints]].<ref name="Swedenburgp59" /><ref name="Economist">{{cite news |date=January 18, 2007 |title=The Palestinians: It is the little things that make an occupation |url=http://www.linktv.org/sitecontent/explore.org/research/middleeast/Its%20the%20little%20things%20that%20make%20an%20occupation.pdf |newspaper=The Economist |page=64}}</ref>

==Distribution==
The use of za'atar spans the Levant, from Lebanon and Syria to Jordan, Palestine, and Israel, and extends across the Arab world to Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia.<ref name="Gold">{{cite news |author=Rozanne Gold |date=July 20, 1994 |title=A Region's Tastes Commingle in Israel |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/20/garden/a-region-s-tastes-commingle-in-israel.html |access-date=September 4, 2014 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name="Bain">{{cite news |author=Jennifer Bain |date=August 15, 2007 |title=The zing of za'atar |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/2007/08/15/the_zing_of_zaatar.html |access-date=September 4, 2014 |newspaper=Toronto Star}}</ref><ref name="Savillp273" /><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_vDAu6UoSwC&pg=PA63 |title=Israel and the Palestinian Territories |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-86450-277-0 |page=63}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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*{{cite book|title=Writing the feminine: women in Arab sources&nbsp;— Volume 1 of The Islamic Mediterranean|first1=Manuela|last1=Marín|first2=Randi|last2=Deguilhem|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2002|isbn=978-1-86064-697-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Marks|first=Gil|title=Encyclopedia of Jewish Food|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-470-39130-3}}
*{{cite book|title=Peoples of Western Asia|last1=Marshall Cavendish Corporation|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7614-7677-1|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplesofwestern0000unse}}
*{{Cite book|title=Why some like it hot: food, genes, and cultural diversity|first1=Gary Paul|last1=Nabhan|publisher=Island Press|year=2004|isbn=978-1-55963-466-3}}
*{{Citation |contribution=Perush Shishah Sidrei Mishnah - A Commentary on the Six Orders of the Mishnah |title=The Six Orders of the Mishnah: with the Commentaries of the Rishonim |last=Nathan ben Abraham|author-link=Nathan ben Abraham I |volume=1 |publisher=El ha-Meqorot|editor-last=Sachs|editor-first=Mordecai Yehudah Leib|place=Jerusalem|year=1955 |language=he |oclc=233403923 }}
*{{cite book|title=The Migrant's Table: Meals and Memories in Bengali-American Households|first1=Krishnendu|last1=Ray|year=2004|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=978-1-59213-096-2}}
*{{cite book|title=Poetry on a Plate: A Feast of Poems and Recipes|edition=2nd|publisher=Salt Publishing|year=2006|isbn=978-1-84471-114-7| editor=The Poetry Society}}
*{{cite book|title=Margaret Roberts' A-Z Herbs: Identifying Herbs, How to Grow Herbs, the Uses|first1=Margaret|last1=Roberts|publisher=Struik|isbn=978-1-86872-499-4|year=2000}}
*{{Cite book|title=The SBS eating guide to Sydney: a guide to Sydney's world of restaurants, cafes & food shops|first1=Joanna|last1=Savill|first2=Maeve|last2=O'Meara|edition=10th, illustrated|publisher=Allen & Unwin|year=2005|isbn=978-1-74114-578-6}}
*{{cite book|title=World Spice Plants|first1=Johannes|last1=Seidemann|year=2005|isbn=978-3-540-22279-8|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin}}
*{{Cite book|title=Memories of revolt: the 1936–1939 rebellion and the Palestinian national past|first1=Ted|last1=Swedenburg|publisher=University of Arkansas Press|year=2003|isbn=978-1-55728-763-2}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{cite journal |journal=Economic Botany |date=April–June 1988 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=232–241 |title=Identification of biblical hyssop and origin of the traditional use of oregano-group herbs in the Mediterranean region |author=Alexander Fleisher |author2=Zhenia Fleisher |doi=10.1007/bf02858924|bibcode=1988EcBot..42..232F |s2cid=45220405 }}

{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Medicinal herbs & spices}}
{{Condiments}}
{{Cuisine of Lebanon}}

{{portal bar|Food}}

[[Category:Herb and spice mixtures]]
[[Category:Arab spices]]
[[Category:Israeli cuisine]]
[[Category:Jordanian cuisine]]
[[Category:Lebanese cuisine]]
[[Category:Levantine cuisine]]
[[Category:Palestinian cuisine]]
[[Category:Syrian cuisine]]
[[Category:Turkish cuisine]]
[[Category:Condiments]]
[[Category:National symbols of Palestine]]
[[Category:Mediterranean cuisine]]