View source for Yule

{{Short description|Winter festival}}
{{Other uses}}
{{About|the ancient pagan festival and its modern revivals|the Christian festival|Christmas}}
{{redirect|Joulu|the album|Joulu (album){{!}}''Joulu'' (album)}}
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{{Use British English|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox holiday
| holiday_name  = Yule
| image         = Chambers Yule Log.png
| caption       = Hauling a Yule log in 1832
| observedby    = Various [[Northern Europe|Northern Europeans]], [[Germanic peoples]], [[Heathenry (new religious movement)|Heathens]], [[Wiccans]], [[Neopagans]], [[LaVeyan Satanism|LaVeyan Satanists]]
| frequency     = Annual
| date          = See {{section link||Date of observance}}
| type          = Pagan
| significance  = [[List of winter festivals|Winter festival]]
| relatedto     = [[Midwinter]], [[Christmastide]], [[Christmas]]
| nickname      = Yuletide, Yulefest
| longtype      = Cultural, [[Germanic paganism|Germanic pagan]], [[modern pagan]]
}}
{{Contains special characters |special=[[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] characters |fix=Help:Multilingual_support#Gothic |characters=letters}}

'''Yule''' is a winter festival historically observed by the [[Germanic peoples]] that was merged with [[Christmas]] during the [[Christianisation of the Germanic peoples]]. In present times adherents of some [[new religious movements]] (such as [[Modern Germanic paganism]]) celebrate Yule independently of the Christian festival. Scholars have connected the original celebrations of Yule to the [[Wild Hunt]], the god [[Odin]], and the [[heathen Anglo-Saxon]] {{lang|ang|[[Mōdraniht]]}} ("Mothers' Night"). The term ''Yule'' and cognates are still used in English and the [[Scandinavian languages]] as well as in [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]] to describe Christmas and other festivals occurring during the [[Christmas and holiday season|winter holiday season]]. Furthermore, some present-day Christmas customs and traditions such as the [[Yule log]], [[Yule goat]], Yule boar, [[Wassailing|Yule singing]], and others may have connections to older pagan Yule traditions.

==Etymology==
The modern English noun ''Yule'' descends from [[Old English]] {{wikt-lang|ang|ġēol}}, earlier ''geoh(h)ol'', ''geh(h)ol'', and ''geóla'', sometimes plural.<ref name="OED">{{harvcoltxt|OED Online|2022}}.</ref> The Old English {{wikt-lang|ang|ġēol}} or {{lang|ang|ġēohol}} and {{lang|ang|ġēola}} or {{lang|ang|ġēoli}} indicate the 12-day festival of "Yule" (later: "[[Christmastide]]"), the latter indicating the month of "Yule", whereby {{wikt-lang|ang|ǣrra ġēola}} referred to the period before the Yule festival (December) and {{wikt-lang|ang|æftera ġēola}} referred to the period after Yule (January). Both words are cognate with [[Gothic language|Gothic]] {{wikt-lang|got|𐌾𐌹𐌿𐌻𐌴𐌹𐍃}} ({{lang|got-Latn|jiuleis}}); Old Norse, [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Faroese language|Faroese]] and Norwegian [[Nynorsk]] {{wikt-lang|is|jól}}, {{lang|nn|jol}}, {{lang|is|ýlir}}; [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], and [[Bokmål|Norwegian Bokmål]] {{lang|nb|jul}}, and are thought to be derived from [[Proto-Germanic]] {{lang|gem-x-proto|jehwlą-}}.<ref name="PROTO-GERMANIC YULE">{{harvcoltxt|Bosworth|Toller|1898|p=424}}; {{harvcoltxt|Hoad|1996|p=550}}; {{harvcoltxt|Orel|2003|p=205}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ordbok.uib.no/perl/ordbok.cgi?OPP=jol&ant_bokmaal=5&ant_nynorsk=5&nynorsk=+&ordbok=begge |work=Bokmålsordboka {{!}} Nynorskordboka |title=jol |access-date=11 March 2017 |archive-date=12 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312050638/http://ordbok.uib.no/perl/ordbok.cgi?OPP=jol&ant_bokmaal=5&ant_nynorsk=5&nynorsk=+&ordbok=begge |url-status=live }}</ref> Whether the term existed exterior to the [[Germanic languages]] remains uncertain, though numerous speculative attempts have been made to find [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] cognates outside the Germanic group, too.{{efn|For a brief overview of the proposed etymologies, see {{harvcoltxt|Orel|2003|p=205}}.}} The compound noun ''Yuletide'' ('Yule-time') is first attested from around 1475.<ref name="BARNHART-896">{{harvcoltxt|Barnhart|1995|p=896}}.</ref>

The word is applied in an explicitly pre-Christian context primarily in Old Norse, where it is associated with Old Norse deities. Among many others (see [[List of names of Odin]]), the god Odin bears the name {{lang|non|Jólnir}} ('the Yule one'). In {{lang|non|[[Ágrip]]}}, composed in the 12th century, {{lang|non|jól}} is interpreted as coming from one of Odin's names, {{lang|non|Jólnir}}, closely related to Old Norse {{lang|non|jólnar}}, a poetic name for the gods. In Old Norse poetry, the word is found as a term for 'feast', e.g. {{lang|non|hugins jól}} (→ 'a raven's feast').<ref name="GUDBRAND-VIGFUSSON-326">{{harvcoltxt|Vigfússon|1874|p=326}}.</ref>

It has been thought that [[Old French]] {{wikt-lang|fro|jolif}} (→ French {{wikt-lang|fr|joli}}), which was borrowed into English in the 14th century as 'jolly', is itself borrowed from Old Norse {{lang|non|jól}} (with the Old French suffix {{lang|fro|-if}}; compare Old French {{wikt-lang|fro|aisif}} "easy", Modern French {{lang|fr|festif}} = {{lang|fr|fest}} "feast" + {{wikt-lang|fro|-if}}), according to the ''Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology''<ref name="Hoad672">{{harvcoltxt|Hoad|1993}}</ref> and several other French dictionaries of etymology.<ref>''Dictionnaire historique de la langue française'' (sous la direction d'[[Alain Rey]]), édition Le Robert, t. 2, 2012, p. 1805ab</ref><ref name="CNRTL">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/joli|title=JOLI : Etymologie de JOLI|website=www.cnrtl.fr|access-date=24 August 2022|archive-date=24 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220824163035/https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/joli|url-status=live}}</ref>
But the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' sees this explanation for {{lang|fro|jolif}} as unlikely.<ref>"[https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/101618 jolly, adj. and adv.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016192715/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/jolly_adj |date=16 October 2023 }}" ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2019. Accessed 9 December 2019.</ref> The French word is first attested in the Anglo-Norman {{lang|xno|[[Estoire des Engleis]]}}, or "History of the English People", written by [[Geoffrey Gaimar]] between 1136 and 1140.<ref name="CNRTL"/>

==Germanic paganism==
===Attestations===
====Months, heiti and kennings====
[[File:Die Gartenlaube (1880) b 856.jpg|thumb|500px|Illustration of an ancient Nordic Yule festival (''[[Die Gartenlaube]]'', 1880)]]
Yule is attested early in the history of the Germanic peoples; in a [[Gothic language]] calendar of the 5–6th century CE it appears in the month name ''{{lang|got|fruma jiuleis}}'', and, in the 8th century, the English historian [[Bede]] wrote that the [[Anglo-Saxon]] calendar included the months {{lang|ang|geola}} or {{lang|ang|giuli}} corresponding to either modern December or December and January.<ref name="SIMEK379">{{harvcoltxt|Simek|2007|p=379}}.</ref>

While the Old Norse month name ''{{lang|non|ýlir}}'' is similarly attested, the Old Norse corpus also contains numerous references to an event by the Old Norse form of the name, ''{{lang|non|jól}}''. In chapter 55 of the ''[[Prose Edda]]'' book ''{{lang|non|[[Skáldskaparmál]]}}'', different names for the [[áss|gods]] are given; one is "Yule-beings" ({{langx|non|jólnar}}). A work by the [[skald]] [[Eyvindr skáldaspillir]] that uses the term is then quoted: "again we have produced Yule-being's feast [mead of poetry], our rulers' eulogy, like a bridge of masonry".<ref name="FAULKES133">{{harvcoltxt|Faulkes|1995|p=133}}.</ref> In addition, one of the numerous [[list of names of Odin|names of Odin]] is ''{{lang|non|Jólnir}}'', referring to the event.<ref name="SIMEK180-181">{{harvcoltxt|Simek|2007|pp=180–181}}.</ref>

====Heitstrenging====
Both [[Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar]] and [[Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks]] provide accounts of the custom of {{lang|non|[[heitstrenging]]}}. In these sources, the tradition takes place on Yule-evening and consists of people placing their hands on a pig referred to as a [[sonargöltr]] before swearing solemn oaths. In the latter text, some manuscripts explicitly refer to the pig as holy, that it was devoted to [[Freyr]] and that after the oath-swearing it was [[Blót|sacrificed]].<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Kovářová|2011|pp=195–196}}.</ref>

====Saga of Hákon the Good====
The ''[[Saga of Hákon the Good|Saga of {{lang|non|Hákon|nocat=y}} the Good]]'' credits [[Haakon the Good|King Haakon I of Norway]] who ruled from 934 to 961 with the [[Christianization]] of [[Norway]] as well as rescheduling Yule to coincide with Christian celebrations held at the time. The saga says that when Haakon arrived in Norway he was a confirmed Christian, but since the land was still altogether heathen and the people retained their pagan practices, Haakon hid his Christianity to receive the help of the "great chieftains". In time, Haakon had a law passed establishing that Yule celebrations were to take place at the same time as the Christians celebrated Christmas, "and at that time everyone was to have ale for the celebration with a measure of grain, or else pay fines, and had to keep the holiday while the ale lasted".<ref name="HOLLANDER106">{{harvcoltxt|Hollander|2007|p=106}}.</ref>

Haakon planned that when he had solidly established himself and held power over the whole country, he would then "have the gospel preached". According to the saga, the result was that his popularity caused many to allow themselves to be baptized, and some people stopped making sacrifices. Haakon spent most of this time in [[Trondheim]]. When Haakon believed that he wielded enough power, he requested a bishop and other priests from England, and they came to Norway. On their arrival, "Haakon made it known that he would have the gospel preached in the whole country." The saga continues, describing the different reactions of various regional [[thing (assembly)|things]].<ref name="HOLLANDER106"/>

A description of heathen Yule practices is provided (notes are Hollander's own):

{| width="100%" style="padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;"
! width="40%" | [[Old Norse]] text<ref>{{cite web |title=Saga Hákonar góða – heimskringla.no |url=https://heimskringla.no/wiki/Saga_H%C3%A1konar_g%C3%B3%C3%B0a |website=heimskringla.no |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=16 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016192717/https://heimskringla.no/wiki/Saga_H%C3%A1konar_g%C3%B3%C3%B0a |url-status=live }}</ref>
! width="60%" | Hollander translation<ref name="HOLLANDER107">{{harvcoltxt|Hollander|2007|p=107}}.</ref>
|-
| style="vertical-align:top; padding:1em;" |{{lang|non|Þat var forn siðr, þá er blót skyldi vera, at allir bœndr skyldu þar koma sem hof var ok flytja þannug föng sín, þau er þeir skyldu hafa, meðan veizlan stóð. At veizlu þeirri skyldu allir menn öl eiga; þar var ok drepinn allskonar smali ok svá hross; en blóð þat alt, er þar kom af, þá var kallat hlaut, ok hlautbollar þat, er blóð þat stóð í, ok hlautteinar, þat var svá gert sem stöklar; með því skyldi rjóða stallana öllu saman, ok svá veggi hofsins utan ok innan, ok svá stökkva á mennina; en slátr skyldi sjóða til mannfagnaðar. Eldar skyldu vera á miðju gólfi í hofinu ok þar katlar yfir; ok skyldi full um eld bera. En sá er gerði veizluna ok höfðingi var, þá skyldi hann signa fullit ok allan blótmatinn.}}
| style="vertical-align:top; padding:1em;"  |It was ancient custom that when sacrifice was to be made, all farmers were to come to the [[heathen temple]] and bring along with them the food they needed while the feast lasted. At this feast all were to take part of the drinking of ale. Also all kinds of livestock were killed in connection with it, [[Horses in Germanic paganism|horses]] also; and all the blood from them was called ''{{lang|non|hlaut}}'' [sacrificial blood], and ''{{lang|non|hlautbolli}}'', the vessel holding the blood; and ''{{lang|non|hlautteinar}}'', the sacrificial twigs {{bracket|[[aspergillum|aspergills]]}}. These were fashioned like sprinklers, and with them were to be smeared all over with blood the pedestals of the idols and also the walls of the temple within and without; and likewise the men present were to be sprinkled with blood. But the meat of the animals was to be boiled and served as food at the banquet. Fires were to be lighted in the middle of the temple floor, and kettles hung over the fires. The sacrificial beaker was to be borne around the fire, and he who made the feast and was chieftain, was to bless the beaker as well as all the sacrificial meat.
|}

The narrative continues that toasts were to be drunk. The first toast was to be drunk to Odin "for victory and power to the king", the second to the gods {{lang|non|[[Njörðr]]}} and {{lang|non|[[Freyr]]}} "[[Til árs ok friðar|for good harvests and for peace]]", and third, a beaker was to be drunk to the king himself. In addition, toasts were drunk to the memory of departed kinsfolk. These were called ''{{lang|non|minni}}''.<ref name="HOLLANDER107"/>

===Academic reception===
====Significance and connection to other events====
Scholar [[Rudolf Simek]] says the pagan Yule feast "had a pronounced religious character" and that "it is uncertain whether the Germanic Yule feast still had a function in the cult of the dead and in the veneration of the ancestors, a function which the mid-winter sacrifice certainly held for the West European [[Stone Age|Stone]] and [[Bronze Age]]s." The traditions of the [[Yule log]], [[Yule Goat|Yule goat]], Yule boar ''{{lang|non|[[Sonargöltr]]}},'' [[Wassailing|Yule singing]], and others possibly have connections to pre-Christian Yule customs, which Simek says "indicates the significance of the feast in pre-Christian times."''<ref name="SIMEK-379-380">{{harvcoltxt|Simek|2007|pp=379–380}}.</ref>''

Scholars have connected the month event and Yule period to the [[Wild Hunt]] (a ghostly procession in the winter sky), the god Odin (who is attested in Germanic areas as leading the Wild Hunt and bears the name ''{{lang|non|Jólnir}}''), and increased supernatural activity, such as the Wild Hunt and the increased activities of {{lang|non|[[draugr|draugar]]}}—undead beings who walk the earth.<ref name="SIMEK-AND-ORCHARD">{{harvcoltxt|Simek|2007|pp=180–181, 379–380}} and {{harvcoltxt|Orchard|1997|p=187}}.</ref>

{{lang|ang|[[Mōdraniht]]}}, an event focused on collective female beings attested by Bede as having occurred among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|heathen Anglo-Saxons]] when Christians celebrated Christmas Eve, has been seen as further evidence of a fertility event during the Yule period.<ref name="ORCHARD187">{{harvcoltxt|Orchard|1997|p=187}}.</ref>

====Date of observance====
The exact dating of the pre-Christian Yule celebrations is unclear and debated among scholars. Snorri in Hákonar saga góða describes how the three-day feast began on "Midwinter Night", however this is distinct from the [[winter solstice]], occurring approximately one month later. Andreas Nordberg proposes that Yule was celebrated on the full moon of the second Yule month in the [[Early Germanic calendar]] (the month that started on the first new moon after the winter solstice), which could range from 5 January to 2 February in the Gregorian calendar. Nordberg positions the Midwinter Nights from 19 to 21 January in the Gregorian calendar, falling roughly in the middle of Nordberg's range of Yule dates. In addition to Snorri's account, Nordberg's dating is also consistent with the account of the great blót at [[Lejre]] by [[Thietmar of Merseburg]].<ref name=Nordberg>{{cite journal |last1=Nordberg |first1=Andreas |title=Jul, disting och förkyrklig tideräkning |journal=Acta Academiae Regiae Gustavi Adolphi |date=2006 |volume=91 |pages=155–156 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1366945 |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314211256/https://www.academia.edu/1366945/Jul_disting_och_f%C3%B6rkyrklig_tider%C3%A4kning |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Contemporary traditions==
===Relationship with Christmas in Northern Europe===
In modern Germanic language-speaking areas and some other Northern European countries, ''yule'' and its cognates denote the [[Christmas]] holiday season. In addition to ''{{lang|en|yule}}'' and ''{{lang|en|yuletide}}'' in English,<ref>{{harvcoltxt|OED Online|2022}}.</ref> examples include ''{{lang|sv|jul}}'' in [[Jul (Sweden)|Sweden]], [[jul (Denmark)|Denmark]], and [[jul (Norway)|Norway]], ''{{lang|is|jól}}'' [[jól (Iceland)|in Iceland and the Faroe Islands]], ''{{lang|fi|joulu}}'' in Finland, ''{{lang|fy|Joelfest}}'' in Friesland, ''{{lang|nl|Joelfeest}}'' in the Netherlands and ''{{lang|et|jõulud}}'' in Estonia.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

=== Modern paganism===
As [[Modern Paganism|contemporary pagan religions]] differ in both origin and practice, these representations of Yule can vary considerably despite the shared name. Some [[Heathenry (new religious movement)|Heathens]], for example, celebrate in a way as close as possible to how they believe [[Germanic paganism|ancient Germanic pagans]] observed the tradition, while others observe the holiday with rituals "assembled from different sources".<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Hutton|2008}}.</ref> Heathen celebrations of Yule can also include sharing a meal and gift-giving.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

In most forms of [[Wicca]], this holiday is celebrated at the [[winter solstice]] as the rebirth of the [[Horned God|Great horned hunter god]],<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Buescher|2007}}.</ref> who is viewed as the newborn solstice sun. The method of gathering for this [[wheel of the Year#Festivals|sabbat]] varies by practitioner. Some have private ceremonies at home,<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Kannapell|1997}}.</ref> while others do so with their [[coven]]s:

{{quote|Generally meeting in covens, which anoint their own priests and priestesses, Wiccans chant and cast or draw circles to invoke their deities, mainly during festivals like Samhain and Yule, which coincide with Halloween and Christmas, and when the moon is full.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|La Ferla|2000}}.</ref>}}

===LaVeyan Satanism===
Some members of the [[Church of Satan]] and other [[LaVeyan Satanism|LaVeyan Satanist]] groups celebrate Yule at the same time as the Christian holiday in a secular manner.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Escobedo|2015}}.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Holidays}}
* {{lang|non|[[Dísablót]]}}, an event attested from Old Norse sources as having occurred among the pagan Norse
* [[Julebord]], the modern Scandinavian Christmas feast
* [[Koliada]], a Slavic winter festival
* [[Lohri]], a Punjabi [[winter solstice]] festival
* {{lang|la|[[Saturnalia]]}}, an ancient Roman winter festival in honour of the deity Saturn
* [[Yaldā Night]], an Iranian festival celebrated on the "longest and darkest night of the year".
* [[Nardoqan]], the birth of the sun, is an ancient Turkic festival that celebrates the winter solstice.

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Robert Barnhart |last=Barnhart |first=Robert K. |year=1995 |title=The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=0062700847}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=Joseph |last2=Toller |first2=T. Northcote |year=1898 |title=An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary |place=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}
* {{cite news |url=http://local.lancasteronline.com/4/213802 |title=Wiccans, pagans ready to celebrate Yule |access-date=21 December 2007 |first=James |last=Buescher |date=15 December 2007 |publisher=Lancaster Online |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229225148/http://local.lancasteronline.com/4/213802 |archive-date=29 December 2007 }}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2015/12/11/living/5-things-satanists/index.html |title=5 things you didn't know about Satanists |last=Escobedo |first=Tricia |work=[[CNN]] |date=11 December 2015 |access-date=6 March 2019 |quote=So for the Yule holiday season we enjoy the richness of life and the company of people whom we cherish, as we will often be the only ones who know where the traditions really came from! |archive-date=7 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307173748/https://www.cnn.com/2015/12/11/living/5-things-satanists/index.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Faulkes |editor-first=Anthony |translator=Anthony Faulkes |year=1995 |title=Edda |publisher=[[Everyman's Library|Everyman]] |isbn=0-460-87616-3}}
* {{cite book |first=T. F. |last=Hoad |title=English Etymology |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |year=1993 |isbn=0-19-283098-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Hoad |first=T. F. |year=1996 |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-283098-8}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Hollander |editor-first=Lee M. |translator=Lee M. Hollander |year=2007 |title=Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway |place=Austin |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |isbn=978-0-292-73061-8}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |date=December 2008 |title=Modern Pagan Festivals: A Study in the Nature of Tradition |journal=Folklore |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=119 |issue=3 |pages=251–273 |jstor=40646468 |doi=10.1080/00155870802352178 |doi-access=free |s2cid=145003549 }}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/21/nyregion/celebrations-it-s-solstice-hanukkah-kwaanza-let-there-be-light.html |title=Celebrations; It's Solstice, Hanukkah, Kwannza: Let There Be Light! |access-date=21 December 2007 |first=Andrea |last=Kannapell |date=21 December 1997 |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-date=31 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731110817/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/21/nyregion/celebrations-it-s-solstice-hanukkah-kwaanza-let-there-be-light.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kovářová |first1=Lenka |title=The Swine in Old Nordic Religion and Worldview |date=2011 |s2cid=154250096   |language=en}}
* {{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A04E3DD1E3EF930A25751C0A9669C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 |title=Like Magic, Witchcraft Charms Teenagers |access-date=21 December 2007 |first=Ruth |last=La Ferla |date=13 December 2000 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=28 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228031042/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A04E3DD1E3EF930A25751C0A9669C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite dictionary |author=OED Online |entry=yule, n. |date=December 2022 |title=Oxford English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/232554 |access-date=27 December 2022 |archive-date=27 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227043917/https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/232554 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite dictionary |last=Orchard |first=Andy |year=1997 |title=Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend |publisher=[[Orion Publishing Group|Cassell]] |isbn=0-304-34520-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Orel |first=Vladimir |year=2003 |title=A Handbook of Germanic Etymology |place=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |page=205 |isbn=90-04-12875-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Simek |first=Rudolf |year=2007 |translator=Angela Hall |title=Dictionary of Northern Mythology |publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|D. S. Brewer]] |isbn=978-0-85991-513-7}}
* {{cite book |first=Guðbrandur |last=Vigfússon |author-link=Guðbrandur Vigfússon |year=1874 |title=An Icelandic-English Dictionary: Based on the Ms. Collections of the Late Richard Cleasby |publisher=Clarendon Press |oclc=1077900672}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{Wikiquote-inline}}
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Norsemythology}}
{{Anglo-SaxonPaganism}}
{{WiccaandWitchcraft}}
{{Winter solstice}}
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[[Category:Yule| ]]
[[Category:Christmas-linked holidays]]
[[Category:Early Germanic calendar]]
[[Category:Early Germanic festivals]]
[[Category:English folklore]]
[[Category:Germanic paganism]]
[[Category:December observances]]
[[Category:January observances]]
[[Category:Modern pagan holidays]]
[[Category:Northumbrian folklore]]
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