View source for Yuchi language

{{short description|Language of the Yuchi people in the southeastern United States}}
{{use mdy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Cleanup lang|date=December 2024|iso=yuc}}{{Infobox language
| name             = Yuchi
| altname          = Euchee
| nativename       = {{lang|yuc|Tsoyaha}}
| states           = [[United States]]
| region           = East central [[Oklahoma]]
| ethnicity        = 1,500 [[Yuchi]] (2007)<ref name=ethnologue21>{{Ethnologue21|yuc}}</ref>
| speakers         = 0<ref name="RaceAgainstTime">{{Cite news |title='Race against time': Pandemic propels fight to save Native American languages |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2021/04/13/pandemic-native-american-languages-481081 |access-date=2021-04-13 |last=Din |first=Benjamin |website=Politico |date=2021-04-13 |language=en}}</ref>
| speakers2        = 
| date             = 2021
| familycolor      = american
| family           = [[Language isolate]]
| iso3             = yuc
| glotto           = yuch1247
| glottorefname    = Yuchi
| notice           = IPA
| map              = Yuchi lang.png
| mapcaption       = Distribution of Yuchi at the time of European contact
| extinct          = August 27, 2021, with the death of Maxine Wildcat Barnett<ref>{{Cite web |title=In Memoriam: Maxine Wildcat Barnett {{!}} Yuchi |url=https://spiritaligned.org/cultural-atlas-circle-2/maxine-wildcat-barnett-yuchi-2/ |access-date=2024-09-28 |website=Spirit Aligned Leadership |language=en-US}}</ref>
| revived          = 12 [[L2 speakers]] (2016)<ref name=ethnologue21/>
}}

'''Yuchi''' or '''Euchee''' is the language of the {{lang|yuc|Tsoyaha}} (Children of the Sun), also known as the [[Yuchi people]], now living in [[Oklahoma]]. Historically, they lived in what is now known as the southeastern [[United States]], including eastern [[Tennessee]], western Carolinas, northern [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and [[Alabama]], during the period of early European colonization. Many speakers of the Yuchi language became allied with the [[Muscogee Creek]] when they migrated into their territory in Georgia and Alabama. They were [[Trail of Tears|forcibly relocated]] with them to [[Indian Territory]] in the early 19th century.

In 2009, linguist Mary Linn reported that there were approximately five fluent speakers of Yuchi remaining, and highlighted community-led efforts to teach the language to younger generations.<ref>Linn, Mary Sarah. 2009. ''Yuchi: Language of a New Generation''. In Jon Reyhner & Louise Lockard (eds.), ''Indigenous Language Revitalization: Encouragement, Guidance & Lessons Learned'', 23–29. Northern Arizona University Press.</ref> Some [[audio tape]]s in the Yuchi language exist in the collections of the [[Columbus State University]] Archives in [[Columbus, Georgia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joseph Mahan Collection (MC 32) |url=https://archivesspace.columbusstate.edu/repositories/2/resources/39 |access-date=19 September 2023 |website=Columbus State University Archives and Special Collections |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Classification==
[[File:George Catlin - Chee-a-ex-e-co, Daughter of Deer without a Heart - 1985.66.310 - Smithsonian American Art Museum.jpg|thumb|''Cheeaexeco, a Yuchi woman,'' painted by [[George Catlin]], 1838]]
Yuchi is classified as a [[language isolate]], because it is not known to be related to any other language. Various linguists have claimed, however, that the language has a distant relationship with the [[Siouan languages|Siouan family]]: [[Edward Sapir|Sapir]] in 1921 and 1929, [[Mary Haas|Haas]] in 1951 and 1964, Elmendorf in 1964, Rudus in 1974, and [[James Crawford (linguist)|Crawford]] in 1979.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Marianne Mithun |last=Mithun |first=Marianne |title=The Languages of Native North America |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001}}</ref>

==Geographic distribution ==
Yuchi is primarily spoken in northeastern [[Oklahoma]], where Yuchi people live in present-day [[Tulsa County, Oklahoma|Tulsa]], [[Okmulgee County, Oklahoma|Okmulgee]], and [[Creek County, Oklahoma|Creek]] counties, within the [[Muscogee (Creek) Nation]]'s [[tribal jurisdictional area]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Jason Baird |editor1-last=Fogelson |editor1-first=Raymond D. |title=Handbook of North American Indians |volume=14: Southeast |date=2004 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |location=Washington DC |isbn=0-16-072300-0 |page=415 |chapter=Yuchi}}</ref> In 1997, 12 to 19 elders spoke the language out of an estimated Yuchi population of 1,500 speakers. In 2009, only five fluent speakers, whose first language was not English, remained, and in 2011 only one.<ref name="RaceAgainstTime"/>

==History==
The [[Yuchi people]] lived in what is now [[Tennessee]] at the time of [[European colonization of the Americas|European contact]]. In the early 18th century, they moved to northwestern [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], now part of the southeastern [[United States]], due to pressure from the powerful [[Cherokee]]. They later settled near the [[Muscogee]] (Creek) and formed an alliance with them. In the 1830s, speakers of the Yuchi language were forcibly relocated along with the Muscogee to [[Indian Territory]].

===Contradictions in linguistic study and linguistic history===
The spoken Yuchi language has changed over time, in part due to relocation. In 1885 in an article in ''Science'', Swiss linguist [[Albert S. Gatschet]] wrote about various linguistic idiosyncrasies in Yuchi. He said that adjectives are not expressed with number, but nouns are, by the addition of the particle {{lang|yuc|ha}} (coming from the original term {{lang|yuc|wahále}} {{gloss|many}}), which made the word essentially plural. He also said that the language was no longer in an archaic state due to the lack of a "dual," and that the language had temporal and personal inflection.{{sfn|Gatschet|1885|p=253}} Gatschet did much field study and documentation regarding the language. Many of his original vocabulary lists can be found at the [[National Anthropological Archives]] or on their website.

In 1907, American [[Frank G. Speck]] published ''Ethnology of Yuchi Indians''. He said that Yuchi had only one dialect, that inflection was not a characteristic, and that there were no true plurals. These conclusions contradict Gatschet's published 1885 study. The two authors did agree on linguistic idiosyncrasy, and the case of the third person.{{sfn|Speck|1909}}

In 1997, the Euchee United Cultural Historical Educational Efforts (E.U.C.H.E.E.) published a work entitled ''Euchees: Past and Present'', providing more current information regarding the language. The organization claimed that there were two currently spoken dialects: the Duck Creek/Polecat and the Bigpond variations, which were spoken by Yuchi people of those communities in Oklahoma.<ref>{{cite book |title=Euchees: Past and Present |location=Sapulpa, OK |publisher=E.U.C.H.E.E. |year=1997}}</ref> This contradicts Speck's 1907 claim of one dialect.

==Current status==
[[File:Yuchilanguagespeakers.jpg|thumb|right|Sisters Maxine Wildcat Barnett (1925-2021) (left) and Josephine Wildcat Bigler (1921-2016);<ref name="Cultural Survival">{{Cite web |title=One of the Last Remaining Native Yuchi Speakers Passes |url=http://www.culturalsurvival.org/news/one-last-remaining-native-yuchi-speakers-passes |access-date=2020-12-13 |website=Cultural Survival |date=June 2016 |language=en}}</ref> two of the last elderly speakers of Yuchi, visiting their grandmother's grave in a cemetery behind Pickett Chapel in [[Sapulpa]], [[Oklahoma]]. According to the sisters, their grandmother had insisted that Yuchi be their native language.]]
Due to [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]] into [[Muscogee language|Muscogee]]- and [[English language|English-speaking]] culture, only a few elderly speakers of the Yuchi language were left by the 21st century.{{cn|date=June 2025}}

In 2000 the estimated number of fluent Yuchi speakers was 15, but this number dwindled to 7 by 2006,<ref>{{cite web |last=Anderton |first=Alice |url=http://ahalenia.com/iws/status.html |title=Status of Indian Languages in Oklahoma |website=Intertribal Wordpath Society |access-date=7 Feb 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316221101/https://ahalenia.com/iws/status.html |archive-date=2009-03-16}}</ref> 5 by 2010,<ref name=survival>{{cite web | title=Our partners and advisors: The Euchee Language Project | website=Cultural Survival | url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/current-projects/native-language-revitalization-campaign/partners-links |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160408135541/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/current-projects/partners-links | archive-date=8 April 2016}}</ref> and 4 by 2013.<ref name=survival/> In 2016, Yuchi elder Josephine Wildcat Bigler died. Speaking Yuchi as her first language, she had been active in recording and preserving the language for future generations.<ref name="Cultural Survival"/> Her sister, Maxine Wildcat Barnett, was the last [[tribal elder]] to speak fluent Yuchi, passing away August 27, 2021.<ref name="RaceAgainstTime"/>

The Yuchi Language Project (YLP) taught Yuchi classes in Sapulpa, Oklahoma, free of charge.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eucheelp.org/_wsn/page3.html |title=Classes |website=The Euchee Language Project |access-date=7 Feb 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100322212342/http://eucheelp.org:80/_wsn/page3.html |archive-date=2010-03-22 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The YLP opened the Yuchi Immersion School in 2018 where English is not spoken, despite an Oklahoma state law passed in 2010 declaring English the state's official language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Yuchi Language Comes Home |website=First Nations Development Institute |url=https://www.firstnations.org/stories/the-yuchi-language-comes-home/ |access-date=2023-07-31}}</ref> 

The Yuchi people and language are the subject of a chapter in ''Spoken Here: Travels Among Threatened Languages'' (2003), a book on [[endangered languages]] by Canadian writer [[Mark Abley]].<ref name="Abley2005">{{cite book|first=Mark |last=Abley|title=Spoken Here: Travels Among Threatened Languages|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SW69lrac8QC&q=%22unseen+and+unheard+Yuchi%22&pg=PA53|year=2005|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=0-618-56583-3|pages=53–82|chapter=4. Unseen And Unheard: Yuchi}}</ref>

==Phonology==

The language has 49 sounds, 38 of which are consonants, and the remaining 11 are vowels. This number is more than twice that of most Southeastern Native American languages.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hackett |first=David |title=The Yuchi Language Primer; a Brief, Introductory Grammar |url=http://www.yuchi.org/YuchiLang/index.html |access-date=2009-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125142951/http://www.yuchi.org/YuchiLang/index.html |archive-date=2023-11-25}}</ref>

===Vowels===

Yuchi has oral and nasal vowels. Oral vowels are defined as being created by the raising of the soft palate to the nasopharyngeal wall, creating a velopharyngeal space within the oral cavity; nasal vowels, on the other hand, are typically defined as being created by the lowering of the soft palate, allowing air to escape through the nasal cavity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language |edition=Third |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |page=136}}</ref><!-- <ref>{{Cite web |last=gazettejohnbaglione |date=2017-11-21 |title=Yuchi Language Project seeks to revitalize indigenous identity through common tongue |url=https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2017/11/yuchi-language-project-seeks-to-revitalize-indigenous-identity-through-common-tongue/ |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=Harvard Gazette |language=en-US}}</ref> -->

Two vowel charts appears below.{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=55}} The vowels below represent the ''phonetic'' inventory, meaning the set of all (or most) sounds in the language. The ''phonemic'' inventory, those sounds which contrastively mark differences in meaning, are highlighted in the list below the vowel charts.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Oral Vowels
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}}
|
|{{IPA link|ʊ}}, {{IPA link|u}}
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}}
|
|{{IPA link|o}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
|{{IPA link|ə}}
|
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}}
|
|{{IPA link|ʌ}}, {{IPA link|ɔ}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|{{IPA link|æ}}, {{IPA link|a}}
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Nasal Vowels
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|ĩ}}, {{IPA link|ɪ̃}}
|
|
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ẽ}}
|
|{{IPA link|õ}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
|{{IPA link|ə̃}}
|
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ̃}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɔ̃}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|{{IPA link|æ̃}}, {{IPA link|ã}}
|
|
|}

The phonemic vowels of Yuchi are {{IPA|/i, u, e, o, æ, a, ĩ, ẽ, õ, æ̃, ã/}}; some levels of phonological or morphological variation must therefore be occurring in order for all of the sounds above to be possible.

====Phonological variation====

Phonological variation often occurs in different kinds of morphological environments. For example, the phoneme {{IPA|/o/}} is often pronounced as {{IPA|/ʊ/}} in 1st-person singular and impersonal 3rd-person pronouns by Big Pond speakers. Also, the phonemes {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} can become {{IPA|[ə]}} in unstressed environments.{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=43}}

====Length====

Vowel length indicates grammatical function, such as superlative or comparative adjective forms or emphasis. It may also indicate contracted morphemes, and thus is not a phonological process but rather a morphological one.{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=52}}

===Consonants===
Yuchi has been analyzed as having from 19 to 40 consonants, chiefly depending on whether the glottalized and labialized consonants are counted, or considered to be sequences with {{IPA|/ʔ/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}, respectively. Some of the latter are included in the table in parentheses:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! <small>plain</small>
! <small>[[sibilant consonant|sibilant]]</small>
|-
! rowspan="4" | [[Plosive]]/<br />[[Affricate]]
! <small>[[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|p}} {{angbr|p}}
| {{IPAlink|t}} {{angbr|t}}
| {{IPAlink|ts}} {{angbr|ts}}
| {{IPAlink|tʃ}} {{angbr|ch}}
| {{IPAlink|k}} {{angbr|k}}
| {{IPAlink|ʔ}} {{angbr|'}}
|-
! <small>[[aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|pʰ}} {{angbr|pʰ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʰ}} {{angbr|tʰ}}
| {{IPAlink|tsʰ}} {{angbr|tsʰ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʃʰ}} {{angbr|chʰ}}
| {{IPAlink|kʰ}} {{angbr|kʰ}}
|
|-
! <small>[[voiced consonant|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|b}} {{angbr|b}}
| {{IPAlink|d}} {{angbr|d}}
| {{IPAlink|dz}} {{angbr|dz}}
| {{IPAlink|dʒ}} {{angbr|j}}
| {{IPAlink|ɡ}} {{angbr|g}}
|
|-
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
| ({{IPAlink|pʼ}} {{angbr|p'}})
| ({{IPAlink|tʼ}} {{angbr|t'}})
| ({{IPAlink|tsʼ}} {{angbr|ts'}})
| ({{IPAlink|tʃʼ}} {{angbr|ch'}})
| ({{IPAlink|kʼ}} {{angbr|k'}})
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
| {{IPAlink|f}} {{angbr|f}}
| {{IPAlink|ɬ}} {{angbr|ł}}
| {{IPAlink|s}} {{angbr|s}}
| {{IPAlink|ʃ}} {{angbr|sh}}
|
| {{IPAlink|h}} {{angbr|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
| {{IPAlink|w}} {{angbr|w}}
| {{IPAlink|l}} {{angbr|l}}
|
| {{IPAlink|j}} {{angbr|y}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}} {{angbr|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}} {{angbr|n}}
|
|
|
|
|}

===Stress and intonation===

====Stress====
Stress in Yuchi is fairly regular. All major parts of speech have syllable-final stress, and syllable-initial secondary stress{{clarify|reason=does this mean word-final stress, and word-initial secondary stress?|date=November 2011}}; also, particles (one-syllable words) are stressed. There are some minimal pairs to be found due to stress; some representative samples include:

:{{IPA|[ˈɡopʼa]}} – "Creek person, tribe"{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=85}}
:{{IPA|[ɡoˈpʼa]}} – "go see someone"{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=85}}
:{{IPA|[ˈsɛt ˀne]}} – he sees{{sfn|Edmondson|2011}}
:{{IPA|[sɛt ˈˀne]}} – she sees{{sfn|Edmondson|2011}}
:{{IPA|[ʃaˈja]}} – "weeds"{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=85}}
:{{IPA|[ˈʃaja]}} – "squirrel"{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=85}}

As mentioned above, most nouns have syllable-final primary stress{{clarify|reason=again, by syllable does this mean word or morphological unit?|date=November 2011}}; there are, however, some regularized exceptions to this rule, the most common of which are nouns with lexicalized suffixes in the stem, which have stress on the penultimate syllable. Also, contractions within compounded nouns have primary stress on the contraction. There are various other exceptions, but the two mentioned above are the most frequent and the most important in helping us to understand why Yuchi nouns often appear to have irregular stress patterns.{{sfn|Linn|2001|pp=86-87}}

Both regular and non-regular stress patterns are exemplified below, all glossed. All data come from Wagner{{who|date=January 2025}}, 1974, unless otherwise noted.

:{{IPA|[ɡojalinɛʔ]}} – young man
:{{IPA|[jacɛsiʔ]}}{{clarify|date=January 2012|reason=what is "c"?}} – sparks of fire
:{{IPA|[tsɛʔ]}} – water
:{{IPA|[saʔ]}} – earth
:{{IPA|[tsoonɔʔ]}} – the sun
:{{IPA|[ʔaˈɡale]}} ~ {{IPA|[aɡæle]}} – today, morning{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=87}}
:{{IPA|[tsɛˈkʰale]}} – misty rain{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=87}}
:{{IPA|[kʼɔndi]}} – meat

Verb stems typically have primary stress on the ultimate syllable, as well. The two major exceptions are reduplicated verbs, which have equal stress on both the last and reduplicated syllables of the stem, and verb compounds with the head root {{IPA|/ju/}}, in which primary stress is syllable-initial. Some examples include:

:{{IPA|[ɡetaʔ]}} – to hold it up{{CN|date=January 2024}}<!-- No such work defined in the article{{sfn|Wagner|1974}}-->
:{{IPA|[taʔtaʔ]}} – light{{sfn|Edmondson|2011}}

====Intonation====

Intonation varies depending upon the kinds of sentences being uttered. Declarative, negative, and command speech acts have falling intonation, while information questions and yes/no questions have rising pitch.{{sfn|Linn|2001|pp=100-103}} Morphologically, intonation can also change the reception of a word and its intended meaning, as we see in the following example of three different intonation patterns for the word "What":{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=103}}

:{{IPA|[wikæ]}} – "What?" (requesting information)
:{{IPA|[wíkæ ↘]}} – "What?" (didn't hear)
:{{IPA|[wikæ ↘]}} – "What?" (frightened/surprised)

====Contractions====

One of the most significant aspects of Yuchi morphophonology is the prevalence of contractions. Contraction should not here be taken to mean only a shortening of words; rather, it is more useful to think of contraction as a deletion of sounds that in turn affects surrounding vowels.{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=58}}

What can be contracted is dependent upon two major factors, the sound which begins the contracted syllable, and the stress of the syllable. In order for a syllable to be contracted, it must begin with a [+sonorant] consonant, that is, a voiced sound with a relatively free passage of air. In Yuchi, this includes sounds such as {{IPA|/n/, /ˀn/, /w/, /ˀw/, /j/, /ˀj/}} (where {{IPA|/ˀ/}} indicates a glottalized sound),{{clarify|reason=why are these not listed among the consonants?|date=November 2011}} the fricative {{IPA|/ˀh/}},{{clarify|date=January 2012}} and {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. A syllable must also be unstressed in order to contract.{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=60}}

Contraction causes phonetic changes in the vowels directly preceding the deleted syllable. In order for Yuchi speakers to understand the grammatical features of the words being used in contracted forms, vowel features alternate to match the deleted sounds.{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=60}} So, for example, if the morpheme {{IPA|/ne/}} was contracted, the vowel preceding it would become nasalized to indicate that a nasal sound has been lost.

Contraction must necessarily come before the phonetic change in vowels. For example, consider the following word:{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=62}}

:{{IPA|[di ˀlɛ nɛp ʔá jɛ]}} – 'Did you look in the box?'

{{IPA|/nɛ/}} can contract here because it is an unstressed syllable beginning with a sonorant: {{IPA|[di ˀlɛ mp ʔá jɛ]}}. CCC clusters are relatively rare, occurring in only six variations as noted by Wolff,{{sfn|Wolff|1948|p=241}} four of them beginning with fricatives; such a construction as above would therefore likely be odd to speakers of Yuchi.

Contractions take on several forms and occur in many other environments. Those seeking additional information about the many kinds of contraction in Yuchi are advised to seek out Dr. Mary Linn's "A Grammar of Euchee."

A list of the most commonly contracted morphemes is below, along with their grammatical function.{{sfn|Linn|2001|p=59}}

* ne- : 2nd-person singular actor
* we-: 3rd-person non-Yuchi actor or patient, singular or plural
* 'o-: 3rd-person plural Yuchi actor or patient (women's speech)
* hi-: 3rd-person inanimate patient, singular or plural
* ho-: 3rd-person inanimate patient and participant, singular or plural
* 'yu-: verb root
* -ne-: habitual aspect
* -e: active verbalizer

== Orthography ==
The language had no standard [[orthography]] until the 1970s, when linguists [[James Crawford (linguist)|James Crawford]] and [[Addie George]] (Yuchi) created a phonetic transliteration. Yuchi people have adopted this to write the language.

== Grammar ==
Like many [[Indigenous languages of the Americas]], Yuchi grammar is [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]].{{sfn|Speck|1909|p=16}} Words are formed by the addition of various prefixes and suffixes to a stem. Yuchi features separate male and female [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]]{{sfn|Gatschet|1885|p=253}} and an idiosyncratic noun classification system wherein nominal distinction is made regarding [[animacy]], Yuchi ethnicity, kinship and, for inanimate nouns, shape or spatial position.{{sfn|Wagner|1938}}

Much of the information in this section is drawn from Wagner (1938); some of Wagner's conclusions, particularly regarding his interpretation of Yuchi kinship terminology{{sfn|Speck|1939|p=171}} and certain aspects of his description of Yuchi pronouns,{{sfn|Ballard|1978}} have been disputed.

===Morphosyntax===
Yuchi is an [[Agglutination|agglutinative]] language, in which words are pieced together from pre-existing [[morphemes]] to make entirely new words. The word order of the language is [[subject–object–verb]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Euchee Language Project |url=http://eucheelp.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100322201758/http://www.eucheelp.org/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 22, 2010 |access-date=2009-09-12 |website=Euchee Language Project}}</ref>

The language uses clitics and particles to express a variety of things, including [[Possessive affix|possessives]], [[Cases (grammar)|cases]], [[affix]]es, [[idea]]s, [[Locative case|locatives]], [[Instrumental case|instrumentals]], [[Simulative case|simulatives]], [[Ablative case|ablatives]], and [[demonstrative]]s.{{sfn|Wolff|1948}}

===Verbs===
The Yuchi verb consists of a mono- or polysyllabic stem modified almost exclusively by suffixing.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=312}} Yuchi features [[attributive verb]]s, which is to say that the language makes very little distinction between verbs and adjectives as parts of speech. For this reason, Yuchi verbs and adjectives are virtually identical.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=343}}

====Tense====
The concept of temporal verb inflection is only weakly realized in Yuchi{{sfn|Speck|1909|p=15}} and corresponds more closely in some cases to [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] rather than [[Grammatical tense|tense]]. The past tense is generally expressed via suffixing of the verb stem.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=351-352}}
*-djin{{in5|19}}incomplete past ("ate")
*-dji'nfwa{{in5|13}}complete past ("had eaten")
*-djinfa'{{in5|15}}habitual past ("used to eat")
*-djinfwadji'n{{in5|7}}emphatic past ("happened to eat")
*-djigo'{{in5|16}}uncertain past ("perhaps ate")

There are also two ways of expressing future tense. The first, which usually denotes intentions or events of the immediate future, is expressed by lengthening, stressing and nasalizing the final syllable of the verb stem. The second, pertaining to the distant future, is expressed by the suffix -''e'le''.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=352}}

====Modality====
Modality of the verb is also expressed through suffixing.{{Sfn|Wagner|1938|p=354}}
*-no &nbsp; &nbsp; imperative ("go!")
*-wo &nbsp; &nbsp; exhortative ("should go")
*-go &nbsp; &nbsp; potential ("might go")
*-ho &nbsp; &nbsp; emphatic ("did go")
*-te &nbsp; &nbsp; ability ("can go")

===Nouns===
Nouns are classified according to a broad animate versus inanimate paradigm{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=320}} which is expressed using a variety of article suffixes. Within the animate class, nouns are further subdivided into two sub-classes. The first of these includes all humans belonging to the Yuchi tribe, and is itself further divided according to a very complex system of kinship relations and gendered speech registers.{{sfn|Gatschet|1885|p=253}} The second sub-class of animate nouns encompasses all human beings outside of the Yuchi tribe, as well as animals, and the sun and moon.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=321}} The animate (Yuchi) suffixes express a very complex system of kinship and gendered speech,{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=326}} in much the same way as do third person pronouns.
*-no{{in5|11}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*-sen'o{{in5|6}}any younger (for men, related) female (used by men and women)
*-s'en'o{{in5}}younger male relative (used by women only)
*-eno{{in5|8}}older female relative (used by men and women)
*-ono{{in5|8}}younger unrelated male or any other unrelated person (used by women only)
*-ino{{in5|9}}older male relative (used by women only)
*-weno'{{in5}}all other animate beings

Inanimate nouns are divided into three groups: vertical, horizontal, and round objects or those otherwise do not conform to either of the other two groups.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=321}} Each of these groups is represented by a suffix.
*-fa &nbsp; &nbsp; vertical
*-'e &nbsp; &nbsp; horizontal
*-dji &nbsp; &nbsp; round

====Number====
The concept of [[plural]]ity in Yuchi is not as strongly developed as in English,{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=310}} leading one early [[Linguistic description|descriptivist]] to claim that Yuchi has "no true plural."{{sfn|Speck|1909|p=15}} Animate nouns can, however, be pluralized by the addition of suffixes that correspond closely to their singular counterparts. Although tribal affiliation and [[Grammatical gender|gender]] distinctions carry over into the plural, kinship does not.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p= 322}}
*-he'no{{in5|6}}Yuchi tribe members (male speech)
*-o'no{{in5|8}}Yuchi tribe members (female speech)
*-we'no{{in5}}all other animate beings

Inanimate nouns can be made plural by the suffix ''-ha'', which replaces the singular inanimate suffixes listed above.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=323}}

In addition to suffixing, several words related to kinship are pluralized via [[reduplication]] of the stem.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p= 323}}

===Pronouns===
The Yuchi [[pronoun]] is extremely complex.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=311}} Except in a few emphatic forms,{{sfn|Speck|1909|p=15}} the pronoun is always suffixed to a verb or noun stem, and appears in eight distinct sets.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=324}}

The first pronoun set, termed the ''Subjective Series'',{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=325}} denotes the subject relationship of the pronoun to the verb.{{sfn|Ballard|1978|p=103}} Series 1 and 2 are close variations that respectively represent a general and specific object, whereas the "independent series" represents freestanding pronouns.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=325}}

::{| class="wikitable"
|+ Subjective Series
! || Subject Series 1 || Subject Series 2 || Independent
|-
! 1st Person Sing.
| di- || do- || di
|-
! 2nd Person Sing.
| ne- || yo- || tse
|}

Third person pronouns follow a complex pattern of kinship and gendered speech that corresponds very closely to the animate noun suffixes.
*ho- / ho- / hodi{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*se- / sio- / sedi{{in5|8}}any younger (for men, related) female (used by men and women)
*s'e- / s'io- / s'edi{{in5}}younger male relative (used by women only)
*e- / eyo- / edi{{in5|10}}older female relative (used by men and women)
*o- / o- / odi{{in5|14}}younger unrelated male or any other unrelated person (used by women only)
*i-{{in5|29}}any older male relative (used by women only)
*we- / yo- / wedi'{{in5|6}}all animate, non-Yuchi beings

First person pronouns in the plural are [[Clusivity|inclusive and exclusive]], and there are several kinship-specific third person forms.

::{| class="wikitable"
! || Subject Series 1 || Subject Series 2 || Independent
|-
! 1st Person Pl.
| o- / no- || o- / no- || odi' / nodi'
|-
! 2nd Person Pl.
| a- || a'yo- || a'dze
|}

A few of the third person singular pronouns double as plural pronouns as well.
*ho- / ho- / hodi{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*o- / o- / odi{{in5|14}}in the plural, refers to any younger Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)	
*i-{{in5|29}}in the plural, refers to any older Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)
*we- / yo- / wedi'{{in5|6}}all animate, non-Yuchi beings

The next set, termed the ''Objective Series'',{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p= 330}} denotes the direct or indirect object relationship of the pronoun to the verb.{{sfn|Ballard|1978|p=104}} It otherwise functions identically to the Subjective Series; the two pronoun sets are distinguished by their relative positions within the verb complex.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=330}}

::{| class="wikitable"
|+ Objective Series
! || Direct Series 1 || Direct Series 2 || Indirect
|-
! 1st Person Sing.
| di- || do- || di
|-
! 2nd Person Sing.
| ne- || yo- || tse
|}

The third person singular pronouns are identical to those of the Subjective Series.
*ho- / ho- / hodi{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*se- / sio- / sedi{{in5|8}}any younger (for men, related) female (used by men and women)
*s'e- / s'io- / s'edi{{in5}}younger male relative (used by women only)
*e- / eyo- / edi{{in5|10}}older female relative (used by men and women)
*o- / o- / odi{{in5|14}}younger unrelated male or any other unrelated person (used by women only)	
*i-{{in5|29}}any older male relative (used by women only)
*we- / yo- / wedi'{{in5|6}}all animate, non-Yuchi beings

::{| class="wikitable"
! || Direct Series 1 || Direct Series 2 || Indirect
|-
! 1st Person Pl.
| ondze- / ondzio- || ondzio- / nondzio- || ontso / nonsto
|-
! 2nd Person Pl.
| andze- || andzio- || aso
|}

As above, the third person plural pronouns are identical to those of the Subjective Series.
*ho- / ho- / hodi{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*o- / o- / odi{{in5|14}}in the plural, refers to any younger Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)	
*i-{{in5|29}}in the plural, refers to any older Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)
*we- / yo- / wedi'{{in5|6}}all animate, non-Yuchi beings

====Reflexive pronouns====
[[Reflexive pronoun]]s are amalgamations of the Objective Series 1 and Subjective Series 1 ("Reflexive Series 1") or Subjective Series 2 ("Reflexive Series 2") pronouns.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=333}}

::{| class="wikitable"
! || Reflexive Series 1 || Reflexive Series 2
|-
! 1st Person Sing.
| tse di- || do'-
|-
! 2nd Person Sing.
| nendze ne'- || yo'-
|}

Reflexive third person pronouns function the same, in terms of kinship and gendered speech, as their non-reflexive counterparts.
*hode'- / hondio'-{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*siode'- / siodio'-{{in5|9}}any younger (for men, related) female (used by men and women)
*s'iode'- / s'iodio'-{{in5|8}}younger male relative (used by women only)
*e'yode- / eyondio'-{{in5}}older female relative (used by men and women)
*ode'- / odio'-{{in5|15}}younger unrelated male or any other unrelated person (used by women only)	
*yode'- / yondio'-{{in5|10}}any older male relative (used by women only)

Plural reflexive pronouns demonstrate clusivity in the first person, and are identical to non-reflexives in terms of kinship and gendered speech.

::{| class="wikitable"
|-
! || Reflexive Series 1 || Reflexive Series 2
|-
! 1st Person Pl.
| ondzeo'- / nondzeno'- || ondzeo'- / nondzeno'-
|-
! 2nd Person Pl.
| andzea'- || andzea'yo-
|}

Plural reflexive pronouns function identically to their non-reflexive counterparts in the third person.
*hode'- / hondio'-{{in5|8}}any male or female Yuchi (used by men and women)
*ode'- / odio'-{{in5|14}}in the plural, refers to any younger Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)	
*yode'- / yondio'-{{in5|8}}in the plural, refers to any older Yuchi regardless of kinship or gender (used by women only)

===Other affixes===

====Instrumental prefixes====
The relationship between an action and the instrument by which it is carried out is expressed via the prefix {{lang|yuc|hi-}}. This prefix has become fused in some cases with certain verb stems, forming a sort of instrumental verbal compound of idiomatic meaning.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=358}}

====Locative affixes====
The concept of location is important to the Yuchi verb complex. Similar in some ways to the English [[preposition]], these prefixes denote the location or direction of the verb's action.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=358}}

{|class=wikitable
|+Locative Prefixes
!Prefix !! Gloss
|-
|{{lang|yuc|a-}} || static location
|-
|{{lang|yuc|ti-}} || inside of an object
|-
|{{lang|yuc|f'o-}} || inside the earth or under water
|-
|{{lang|yuc|toya-}} || into water
|-
|{{lang|yuc|ta-}} || on top of
|-
|{{lang|yuc|po-}} || under
|-
|{{lang|yuc|kya-}} || through
|-
|{{lang|yuc|la-}} || out of
|-
|{{lang|yuc|pe-}} || above or over
|-
|{{lang|yuc|yu-}} || up in the air
|-
|{{lang|yuc|ya-}} || across
|}

Additionally, there are four very general locative suffixes that can be used in place of the prefixes listed above.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=324}}
{|class=wikitable
|+Locative Suffixes
!Suffix !! Gloss
|-
|{{lang|yuc|-he}} || on, at, away from
|-
|{{lang|yuc|-le}} || along, back to
|-
|{{lang|yuc|-ke}} || over there
|-
|{{lang|yuc|-fa}} || to, towards
|}

===Negation===
An entire verbal complex can be negated using one of two prefixes, {{lang|yuc|na-}} or {{lang|yuc|ha-}}, both of which are identical in meaning.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=361}}

===Interrogatives===
In direct speech wherein the sentence does not begin with an interrogative pronoun, interrogatives are formed with the suffix {{lang|yuc|-le}}. If the question implies some action in the future, the suffix {{lang|yuc|-yi}} is used instead.{{sfn|Wagner|1938|p=357}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Works cited==
* {{cite journal |last=Ballard |first=William L. |title=More on Yuchi Pronouns |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=44 |issue=2 |year=1978 |pages=103–112|doi=10.1086/465527 |s2cid=143787970 }}
* {{cite AV media |last=Edmondson |first=Jerold |title=Yuchi |location=Arlington |publisher=University of Texas |year=2011 |type=Sound recording}}
* {{cite journal |last=Gatschet |first=Albert S. |title=The Yuchi Tribe and its Language |journal=Science |volume=5 |issue=112 |year=1885 |page=253}}
*
* {{cite book |last=Linn |first=Mary Sarah |title=A Grammar of Euchee (Yuchi) |location=Kansas City, KS |publisher=University of Kansas |year=2001}}
* {{cite book |last=Speck |first=Frank G. |title=Ethnology of Yuchi Indians |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University Museum |year=1909}}
* {{cite journal |last=Speck |first=Frank G. |title=Eggan's Yuchi Kinship Interpretations |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=41 |issue=1 |year=1939|pages=171–172 |doi=10.1525/aa.1939.41.1.02a00330 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wagner |first=Gunther |title=Handbook of American Indian Languages |volume=3 |editor-last=Boas |editor-first=Franz |year=1938 |pages=300–374 |chapter=Yuchi grammar |access-date=2012-07-07 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_tqw_morsyn-2/page/292/mode/2up}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wolff |first=Hans |jstor=1262878 |title=Yuchi Phonemes and Morphemes, with Special Reference to Person Markers |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=14 |issue=4 |year=1948 |pages=240–243 |doi=10.1086/464011|s2cid=143409598 }}

==External links==
{{incubator|code = yuc}}
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has a word list at '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Yuchi word list|Appendix:Yuchi word list]]'''''}}

*[http://www.eucheelp.org/ The Euchee Language Project]
*[http://www.yuchi.org/YuchiLang/index.html Yuchi Language Primer]
*[http://siris-archives.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=1260O5V9197I4.32512&profile=all&source=~!siarchives&view=subscriptionsummary&uri=full=3100001~!16159~!1&ri=1&aspect=power&menu=search&ipp=20&spp=20&staffonly=&term=yuchi&index=.GW&uindex=&aspect=power&menu=search&ri=1 Albert S. Gatschet's original list of Yuchi vocabulary (1878–1891)]
*[http://siris-archives.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=1260O5V9197I4.32512&profile=all&source=~!siarchives&view=subscriptionsummary&uri=full=3100001~!15908~!7&ri=1&aspect=power&menu=search&ipp=20&spp=20&staffonly=&term=yuchi&index=.GW&uindex=&aspect=power&menu=search&ri=1 Albert S. Gatschet's original list of Yuchi vocabulary (1832–1907)]
*{{Cite book
| publisher = Internet Archive
| last = Gunther Wagner
| title = Yuchi Tales
| access-date = 2012-07-07
| year = 1931
| url = https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_yuc_vertxt-2
}}
*[https://archives.columbusstate.edu/findingaids/mc32.php Joseph Mahan Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823071331/https://archives.columbusstate.edu/findingaids/mc32.php |date=2017-08-23 }}, at Columbus State University Archives. Collection includes audio/visual recordings of Yuchi language (not yet available online)
*{{Cite web
| title = Yuchi Language Project Attends Youth Language Fair
| work = Cultural Survival
| access-date = 2012-08-08
| date = 2012-04-26
| url = http://www.culturalsurvival.org/news/yuchi-language-project-attends-youth-language-fair
}}
*[http://www.language-archives.org/language/yuc OLAC resources in and about the Yuchi language]
* [https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/gone-enu-owadana-new-generation-yuchi-speakers gOnE Enû O’wAdAnA: A New Generation of Yuchi Speakers], Cultural Survival

{{Language families}}
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{{North American languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yuchi Language}}
[[Category:Yuchi]]
[[Category:Language isolates of North America]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southeast]]
[[Category:Endangered Indigenous languages of the Americas]]
[[Category:Endangered language isolates]]
[[Category:Native American language revitalization]]
[[Category:Macro-Siouan languages]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]