View source for Yiddish dialects

{{Short description|Varieties of the Yiddish language}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}
{{Jewish culture}}
'''Yiddish dialects''' are [[Variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of the [[Yiddish]] language and are divided according to the region in Europe where each developed its distinctiveness. Linguistically, Yiddish is divided in distinct Eastern and Western dialects. While the Western dialects mostly died out in the 19th-century due to Jewish language assimilation into mainstream culture, the Eastern dialects were very vital until most of Eastern European Jewry was wiped out by the [[Holocaust|Shoah]], called the Khurbn in Yiddish.

The Northeastern dialects of Eastern Yiddish were dominant in 20th-century Yiddish culture and academia, but in the 21st-century, the Southern dialects of Yiddish that are preserved by many [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] communities have become the most commonly spoken form of Yiddish.

==Varieties==
[[File:Yidish-dialects-ru.png|thumb|330px|Yiddish dialects (late 19th-early 20th century):<br />
{{Legend inline|#DBDB70|Western dialects}}
{{Legend inline|#FBEC5D|Eastern dialects}}]]
Yiddish dialects are generally grouped into either Western Yiddish and Eastern Yiddish.<ref>See [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=yih Western Yiddish]</ref><ref>See [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ydd Eastern Yiddish].</ref> Western Yiddish developed from the 9th century in Western-Central Europe, in the region which was called [[Ashkenaz]] by Jews, while Eastern Yiddish developed its distinctive features in Eastern Europe after the movement of large numbers of Jews from western to central and eastern Europe.

General references to the "Yiddish language" without qualification are normally taken to apply to Eastern Yiddish, unless the subject under consideration is Yiddish literature prior to the 19th century, in which case the focus is more likely to be on Western Yiddish.

===Western Yiddish===
While most Jews in the Rhineland who escaped persecution in the 14th century fled to the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], some continued to survive in the countryside of Switzerland, southern Germany and Alsace. They maintained Jewish customs and spoke Western Yiddish.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/europe/.premium-oldest-jewish-community-in-switzerland-is-disappearing-but-not-without-a-fight-1.6554118|title=Oldest Jewish Community in Switzerland Is Disappearing, but Not Without a Fight|author=Ariel David|newspaper=Haaretz|date=2018-10-14}}</ref>

Western Yiddish included three dialects: 
* '''Northwestern''' (spoken in [[Northern Germany]] and the [[Netherlands]]),  
* '''Midwestern''' (spoken in [[Central Germany (geography)|central Germany]] and [[Luxembourg]]),  
* '''Southwestern''' (spoken in northern [[Switzerland]], [[southern Germany]] and [[Alsace]], extending into [[Northern Italy]]). 
These have a number of clearly distinguished regional varieties, such as [[History of Jews in Alsace#Language and origins|Judeo-Alsatian]], plus many local subvarieties.

The Judeo-[[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] traditionally spoken by the Jews of Alsace is called ''Yédisch-Daïtsch'',<ref>[http://judaisme.sdv.fr/dialecte/ Yédisch-Daïtsch, le dialecte judéo-alsacien] {{in lang|fr}}</ref> originally a mixture of [[German language|German]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] idioms and virtually indistinguishable from mainstream Yiddish. From the 12th century onwards, due among other things to the influence of the nearby [[Rashi]] school, [[French language|French]] linguistic elements aggregated as well, and from the 18th century onwards, some [[Polish language|Polish]] elements due to immigrants blended into Yédisch-Daïtsch too.<ref>[http://judaisme.sdv.fr/dialecte/articles/plevy.htm Structure du parler judéo-alsacien] {{in lang|fr}}</ref>

According to C. J. Hutterer (1969), "In western and central Europe the WY dialects must have died out within a short time during the period of reforms [i.e. the movements toward [[Jewish emancipation]]] following the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]."<ref>Quoted in: Jochnowitz, George (2010). "[http://www.jochnowitz.net/Essays/WesternYiddish.html Western Yiddish in Orange County, New York State]". jochnowitz.net. Retrieved 14&nbsp;September 2017. Jochnowitz is a professor emeritus of linguistics at the [[College of Staten Island]], City University of New York. "This article appeared in ''Les Cahiers du CREDYO''. No. 5 (2010), published by the Centre de Recherche, d'Etudes et de Documentation du Yidich Occidental."</ref> In the 18th century, Yiddish was declining in [[Germanic-speaking Europe|German-speaking regions]], as Jews were [[Acculturation|acculturating]], the [[Haskalah]] opposed the use of Yiddish, and preference for German grew. By the end of the 18th century, Western Yiddish was mostly out of use, though some speakers were discovered in these regions as late as the mid-20th century.<ref name="yivo">[http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Language/Yiddish#id0eztae Yiddish Dialects]</ref>

===Eastern Yiddish===
Eastern Yiddish is split into Northern and Southern dialects.<ref name="yivo" /> 
* Northern / {{strong|Northeastern}} Yiddish ({{strong|{{transliteration|ydd|Litvish}}}} or "Lithuanian" Yiddish) was spoken in modern-day [[Lithuania]], [[Belarus]], [[Latvia]], and portions of northeastern [[Poland]], northern and eastern [[Ukraine]], and [[western Russia]].<ref name="yivo" /> 
** Hiberno-Yiddish spoken by Jews in Ireland is based on this dialect.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.jwire.com.au/hiberno-yiddish-the-language-of-irish-jews/ | title=Hiberno-Yiddish – The language of Irish Jews | date=15 January 2023 }}</ref>
* The Southern dialects are again subdivided:  
** {{strong|Mideastern}} Yiddish ({{strong|Central}}, {{strong|{{transliteration|ydd|Poylish}}}} or "Polish" Yiddish) was spoken in Poland, western [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] ({{transliteration|ydd|Galitsianer}}), and much of [[Hungary]].  
** {{strong|Southeastern}} Yiddish ({{strong|{{transliteration|ydd|Ukrainish}}}} or "Ukrainian" Yiddish) was spoken in [[Volhynia]] ({{transliteration|yi|Volinyer}}), [[Podolia]] ({{transliteration|ydd|Podolyer}}), and [[Bessarabia]] ({{transliteration|ydd|Besaraber}}, in [[Romania]]).<ref name="yivo" /><ref group="nb">Some authors use the term "Southeastern Yiddish" as a collective designation for both {{transliteration|ydd|Poylish}} and {{transliteration|ydd|Ukrainish}} while still applying the term Northeastern Yiddish to {{transliteration|ydd|Litvish}}.</ref>

Ukrainian Yiddish was the basis for standard [[theatre Yiddish]], while Lithuanian Yiddish was the basis of standard literary and academic Yiddish.<ref name="yivo" /><ref group="nb">The two varieties differ slightly. Many words with {{IPA|/oj/}} in the standard have {{IPA|/ej/}} in Lithuanian Yiddish, e.g. {{lang|ydd|וואוין}} = Standard {{IPA|/vojn/}}, Lithuanian {{IPA|/vejn/}}. See {{cite book|last=Katz|first=Dovid|url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofyiddish0000katz|title=Grammar of the Yiddish Language|publisher=Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.|year=1987|isbn=0-7156-2161-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/grammarofyiddish0000katz/page/38 38]|url-access=registration}}</ref>

About three-quarters of contemporary Yiddish speakers speak Southern Yiddish varieties, the majority speaking Polish Yiddish.<ref name="yivo" /> Most Hasidic communities use southern dialects, with the exception of [[Chabad]] which uses {{transliteration|ydd|Litvish}}; many Haredim in Jerusalem also preserve Litvish Yiddish.<ref name="yivo" />

====Udmurt Yiddish====
{{anchor|Udmurtish}}In addition to [[Russian language|Russian]], [[History of the Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan|Jews who settled]] in [[Udmurtia]] would develop dialects incorporating [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]] and [[Tatar language|Tatar]] vocabulary ({{strong|{{transliteration|ydd|Udmurtish}}}} or "Udmurt" Yiddish). The Udmurt dialect has been traditionally split into two groupings.
*{{strong|Central}} dialects, which were centered around [[Izhevsk]], [[Sarapul]], and [[Votkinsk]].
*{{strong|Southern}} dialects, which were centered around [[Kambarka]], [[Alnashi]], [[Agryz]] and [[Naberezhnye Chelny]].<ref>"Алтынцев, А.В., Понятие любви у ашкеназов Удмуртии и Татарстана", Наука Удмуртии. 2013. № 4 (66), с. 131. https://snioo.ru/images/stories/nu-print/nu4662013.pdf</ref>

===Transitional Yiddish dialects===
Some linguists have proposed the existence of transitional dialects of Yiddish that have been created in areas between Western and Eastern dialects.<ref>"Burko, A., The New Yiddish Dialectology: A Review of Alexander Beider's The Origins of Yiddish Dialects" https://ingeveb.org/articles/new-yiddish-dialectology</ref> Transitional Yiddish is spoken in two different regions, a Western part and an Eastern part.  
*The '''Western part''' ([[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]], west [[Slovakia]], and west [[Hungary]]) are characterized by a Yiddish dialect which was lexically east European but phonologically west European.  
*The '''Eastern part''' (the [[Great Hungarian Plain|Hungarian lowlands]], [[Transylvania]], and [[Carpathian Rus]]) is a fusion of the west-Transcarpathian dialect with dialects brought by chasidic immigrants from Galicia.  Transition Yiddish countries are sometimes considered jointly Eastern Yiddish countries.

===Differences between dialects===
The primary differences between the contemporary dialects are in the quality of stressed vowels, though there are also differences in morphology, lexicon, and grammar.<ref name="yivo" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Grammar of the Yiddish Language|url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofyiddish0000katz|url-access=registration|last=Katz|first=Dovid|year=1987|publisher=Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.|isbn=0-7156-2161-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/grammarofyiddish0000katz/page/38 38]}}</ref>

Northern dialects are more conservative in vowel quality, while southern dialects have preserved vowel quantity distinctions.<ref name="yivo" />

==Comparison==
Stressed vowels in the Yiddish dialects may be understood by considering their common origins in the Proto-Yiddish sound system. Yiddish linguistic scholarship uses a system developed by M. Weinreich (1960) to indicate the descendent [[diaphoneme]]s of the Proto-Yiddish stressed vowels.<ref name="j28">{{Harvcoltxt|Jacobs|2005|p=28}}</ref>

Each Proto-Yiddish vowel is given a unique two-digit identifier, and its reflexes use it as a subscript, for example Southeastern ''o<sub>11</sub>'' is the vowel /o/, descended from Proto-Yiddish */a/.<ref name="j28" /> The first digit indicates Proto-Yiddish '''quality''' (1-=*[a], 2-=*[e], 3-=*[i], 4-=*[o], 5-=*[u]), and the second refers to '''quantity or diphthongization''' (-1=short, -2=long, -3=short but lengthened early in the history of Yiddish, -4=diphthong, -5=special length occurring only in Proto-Yiddish vowel 25).<ref name="j28" />

Vowels 23, 33, 43 and 53 have the same reflexes as 22, 32, 42 and 52 in all Yiddish dialects, but they developed distinct values in [[Middle High German]]; Katz (1978) argues that they should be collapsed with the -2 series, leaving only 13 in the -3 series.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Katz|1978|p=17}}</ref>

{|
|+ '''Genetic sources of Yiddish dialect vowels'''<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Katz|1978|p=25}}</ref>
|
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Netherlandic
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | {{IPA|i<sub>31</sub> iː<sub>32</sub>}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u}}<sub>52</sub>
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA|eː}}<sub>25</sub>
| align=center | {{IPA|o<sub>51</sub> oː}}<sub>12</sub>
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA|ɛ<sub>21</sub> ɛj}}<sub>22/34</sub>
| align=center | {{IPA|ɔ<sub>41</sub> ɔu}}<sub>42/54</sub>
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| {{IPA|a<sub>11/13</sub> aː}}<sub>24/44</sub>
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Polish
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | {{IPA|i<sub>31/51</sub> iː<sub>32/52</sub>}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u}}<sub>12/13</sub>
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA|eː~ej}}<sub>25</sub>
| align=center | {{IPA|oː~ou<sub>54</sub>}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA|ɛ<sub>21</sub>}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ɔ<sub>41</sub> ɔj}}<sub>42/44</sub>
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| {{IPA|a<sub>11</sub> aː<sub>34</sub> aj<sub>22/24</sub>}}
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Lithuanian
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | {{IPA|i<sub>31/32</sub>}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u}}<sub>51/52</sub>
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA|ej}}<sub>22/24/42/44</sub>
| align=center |
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA|ɛ<sub>21/25</sub>}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ɔ<sub>12/13/41</sub> ɔj<sub>54</sub>}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| {{IPA|a<sub>11</sub> aj}}<sub>34</sub>
|}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Katz|1978|pp=18–23}}</ref>
! PY !! Netherlandic !! Polish !! Lithuanian
|-
! 11 (A<sub>1</sub>)
| align=center | '''a'''lt || align=center | '''a'''lt || align=center | '''a'''lt
|-
! 42 (O<sub>2</sub>)
| align=center | br'''ɔu'''t || align=center |  br'''ɔj'''t || align=center |  br'''ej'''t
|-
! 13 (A<sub>3</sub>)
| align=center | v'''a'''s || align=center |  v'''u'''s || align=center |  v'''ɔ'''s
|-
! 24 (E<sub>4</sub>)
| align=center | '''ā'''n || align=center |  '''aj'''n || align=center |  '''ej'''n
|-
! 54 (U<sub>4</sub>)
| align=center | h'''ɔu'''z || align=center | h'''ō'''z~<br />h'''ou'''z || align=center |  h'''ɔj'''z
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Vowel (Hebrew script)
! Northern Yiddish (Litvish)
! Southern Yiddish (Poylish, Galitzish)
! Comparison (Heb. script = NY = SY)
|-
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">אָ</span>}}
| o {{IPAblink|ɔ}}
| u {{IPAblink|u}}
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">דאָס, זאָגן</span>}} = dos, zogn = dus, zugn
|-
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">אֻ, וּ</span>}}
| u {{IPAblink|ʊ}}
| i {{IPAblink|i}}
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">קוגל</span>}} = [[kugel]] = kigel
|-
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">ײַ</span>}}
| ai {{IPA|[aj]}}
| ah {{IPAblink|ä|aː}}
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">זײַן</span>}} = zayn = zahn
|-
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">אֵ, ײ</span>}}
| ey {{IPA|[ɛɪ]}}
| ay {{IPA|[aj]}}
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">קלײן, צװײ</span>}} = kleyn, tzvey = klayn, tzvay
|-
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">ױ, וֹ</span>}}
| ey {{IPA|[ɛɪ]}}
| oy {{IPA|[oj]}}
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">ברױט</span>}} = breyt = broyt
|-
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">ע</span>}}
| e {{IPAblink|ɛ}}
| ey {{IPA|[ej]}}
| {{Script/Hebrew|1=<span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">שטעטל</span>}} = shtetl = shteytl (Note: Unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} {{IPAblink|ə}} does not change)
|}<ref>{{cite web|last=Harkavy|first=Alexander|title=Dialects|url=http://www.cs.engr.uky.edu/~raphael/yiddish/harkavy/0015.png|work=Treatise on Yiddish Reading, Orthography, and Dialectal Variations|access-date=11 May 2011}}</ref>

Some dialects have final consonant devoicing.

Merger of {{IPAslink|ʃ}} into {{IPAslink|s}} was common in Litvish Yiddish in previous generations.<ref name="yivo" /> Known as [[Sabesdiker losn]], it has been stigmatized and deliberately avoided by recent generations of Litvaks.

==Development of "neutral" form==
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2022}}
As with many other languages with strong literary traditions, there was a more or less constant tendency toward the development of a neutral written form acceptable to the speakers of all dialects. In the early 20th century, for both cultural and political reasons, particular energy was focused on developing a modern Standard Yiddish. This contained elements from all three Eastern dialects but its phonetic attributes were predominantly based on Northeastern pronunciation. This resulted in modern [[Yiddish phonology|Standard Yiddish phonology]], without detailing the phonetic variation among the three contributing dialects or the further distinctions among the myriad local varieties that they subsume.

A useful early review of the differences between the three main Eastern dialects is provided by the Yiddish lexicographer [[Alexander Harkavy]] in a ''Treatise on Yiddish Reading, Orthography, and Dialectal Variations'' first published in 1898 together with his Yiddish-English Dictionary ([[#harkavy1898|Harkavy 1898]]).

===Standardization controversy===
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2022}}
Harkavy, like others of the early standardizers, regards Litvish as the "leading branch". That assertion has, however, been questioned by many authors and remains the subject of keen controversy. [[YIVO]], the Jewish Scientific Institute,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yivo.org/ |title=Home |website=yivo.org}}</ref> is often seen as the initiating agent in giving phonetic preference to Litvish, but Harkavy's work predates YIVO's and he was not exclusively describing personal preference. A broad-based study provided in the ''Language and Cultural Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry'' (discussed in detail below under the heading [[#Documentation|Documentation]]) provides a clearer picture of the more recent YIVO perspective.

The heart of the debate is the priority given to the dialect with the smallest number of speakers. One of the alternative proposals put forward in the early discussion of standardizing spoken Yiddish was to base it on the pronunciation of the Southeastern dialect, which was the most widely used form in the [[Yiddish theatre]] (cf. ''[[Bühnendeutsch]]'', the stage pronunciation, as a common designation for [[Standard German]]).

There is nothing unusual about heated debate over [[language planning]] and reform. Such normative initiatives are, however, frequently based on legislative authority&nbsp;– something which, with the exception of regulation in the [[Soviet Union]], has never applied to Yiddish. It might therefore be expected that the controversy about the development of Standard Yiddish would be particularly intense.

The acrimony surrounding the extensive role played by YIVO is vividly illustrated by in remarks made by Birnbaum:{{Blockquote|There is no standard pronunciation in Yiddish. However, the members and friends of the Yivo Institute for Jewish Research, New York, have strong views on the subject. They are convinced that Y should not differ in this respect from the great Western languages, and so they are willing to introduce a standard one. In their publications they speak as if it were already in existence, but this is wishful thinking&nbsp;– acceptance of their system being restricted to their circle. The original proponents of this 'standard' were speakers of the Northern dialect and so, without further ado and without discussing the matter or giving any reasons, they decided that their own pronunciation was the 'standard'. However, the man in the street knows nothing about it. If he happens to be a Southerner he does not exchange his rich phonemic system for the meagre one of the Northern dialect. He does not even know that this is 'supposed to be' the 'standard'. And if he is a Northerner, he goes on speaking as before, without realizing that he would need to change only one of his vowels in order to qualify as a speaker of the 'standard'. It is ironic that the partisans of the 'standard'&nbsp;– all convinced democrats&nbsp;– should ask the majority of Yiddish-speakers to switch over from their own pronunciation to that of a minority, comprising only a quarter of all Yiddish speakers.|[[#birnbaum1979|Solomon Birnbaum, 1979]]}}

Recent criticism of modern Standard Yiddish is expressed by Michael Wex in several passages in [[#wex2005|Wex 2005]]. Regardless of any nuance that can be applied to the consideration of these arguments, it may be noted that modern Standard Yiddish is used by very few mother-tongue speakers and is not evoked by the vast bulk of Yiddish literature. It has, however, become a norm in present-day instruction of Yiddish as a foreign language and is therefore firmly established in any discourse about the development of that language.

==Documentation==
Between 1992 and 2000, [[Marvin Herzog|Herzog]] et al. published a three-volume ''Language and Cultural Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry'', commonly referred to as the ''LCAAJ''. This provides a detailed description of the phonetic elements of what is presented as an Eastern-Western [[dialect continuum]], and mapping their geographic distribution.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Margolis |first=Michelle |title=Research Guides: Language and Culture Archive of Ashkenazic Jewry Digital Archive User Guide: Introduction |url=https://guides.library.columbia.edu/c.php?g=730523&p=5319433 |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=guides.library.columbia.edu |language=en}}</ref>  A more recent extensive phonetic description, also of both Eastern and Western Yiddish, was published by Neil G. Jacobs in 2005.{{sfn|Jacobs|2005}}

==See also==
* [[Jewish languages]]
* [[Mordkhe Veynger]]

==Notes==
<references group="nb" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

*<div id="birnbaum1979">Birnbaum, Solomon A., ''Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar'', University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1979, {{ISBN|0-8020-5382-3}}.</div>
*<div id="estraikh1999">Estraikh, Gennady, ''Soviet Yiddish: Language Planning and Linguistic Development'', Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1999, {{ISBN|0-19-818479-4}}.</div>
*<div id="fishman1981">[[Joshua Fishman|Fishman, Joshua A.]] (ed.), ''Never Say Die: A Thousand Years of Yiddish in Jewish Life and Letters'', Mouton Publishers, The Hague, 1981, {{ISBN|90-279-7978-2}}.</div>
*<div id="harkavy1898">Harkavy, Alexander,  ''Harkavy's English-Jewish and Jewish-English Dictionary'', Hebrew Publishing Company, New York, 1898. Expanded 6th ed., 1910, [http://www.cs.engr.uky.edu/~raphael/yiddish/harkavy/index.utf8.html scanned facsimile.]</div>
*<div id="lcaaj">Herzog, Marvin, et al. ed., ''The Language and Culture Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry'', 3 vols., Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen, 1992–2000, {{ISBN|3-484-73013-7}}.</div>
*{{cite book|last=Jacobs|first=Neil G.|title=Yiddish: A Linguistic Introduction|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year=2005|isbn=0-521-77215-X}}
*<div id="katz1987">Katz, Dovid, ''Grammar of the Yiddish Language'', Duckworth, London, 1987, {{ISBN|0-7156-2161-0}}.</div>
*{{cite book|last=Katz|first=Dovid|title=Genetic Notes on Netherlandic Yiddish Vocalism|year=1978|url=http://www.dovidkatz.net/dovid/PDFLinguistics/1978a.pdf}}
*<div id="weinreich1999">Weinreich, Uriel, ''College Yiddish: an Introduction to the Yiddish language and to Jewish Life and Culture'', 6th revised ed., YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New York, 1999, {{ISBN|0-914512-26-9}}.</div>
*<div id="wex2005">[[Michael Wex|Wex, Michael]], ''[[Born to Kvetch]]: Yiddish Language and Culture in All Its Moods'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 2005, {{ISBN|0-312-30741-1}}.</div>

== External links ==
{{Wikibooks|Yiddish}}
*[http://www.jewishlanguages.org/yiddish Jewish Language Research Website]
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/projects/digital/lcaaj/index.html LCAAJ] Columbia University
*[http://www.eydes.org/eydes.htm LCAAJ] EYDES
*[http://www.dovidkatz.net/WebAtlas/0_TerritoryLitvish.htm Map of Lithuanian Yiddish territory]

{{Jewish languages}}
{{Language varieties}}

[[Category:Yiddish|dialects]]
[[Category:Dialects by language]]
[[Category:High German languages]]
[[Category:German dialects]]

[[de:Jiddisch#Merkmale jiddischer Dialekte]]
[[es:Yidis#Ramas dialectales del yidis]]
[[he:יידיש#ניבים]]
[[fi:Jiddiš#Murteet]]