View source for Yahweh

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{{Short description|Ancient Semitic deity in the Levant}}
{{About|the ancient Semitic deity of weather and war in the ancient Levant|the ancient Semitic religion of ancient Israel and Judah|Yahwism|the modern Jewish and Christian conception of Yahweh|God in Judaism|and|God in Christianity|the Hebrew theonym YHWH and its vocalization|Tetragrammaton |other uses}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Canaanite
| name = Yahweh
| script_name = [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]]
| script = {{script|Phnx|𐤉𐤄𐤅𐤄}}
| image = File:Zeus Yahweh.jpg
| caption = [[God on the Winged Wheel coin]]{{efn|name="depiction"|The [[God on the Winged Wheel coin]], minted in [[Gaza City]], southern [[Philistia]], during the [[Eber-Nari|Persian period]] of the 4th century BCE. It possibly represents Yahweh enthroned on a [[winged wheel]].{{sfn|Edelman|1995|p=190, 193–194}}{{sfn|Stavrakopoulou|2021|pp=411–412, 742}} It has been described by [[Stephen Herbert Langdon]] as "the only known representation" of Yahweh" in 1931.{{sfn|Langdon|1931|pp=43-44|ps=: "A coin from Gaza in Southern Philista, fourth century BC, the period of the Jewish subjection to the last of the Persian kings, has the only known representation of this Hebrew deity. The letters YHW are incised just above the hawk(?) which the god holds in his outstretched left hand, Fig. 23. He wears a himation, leaving the upper part of the body bare, and sits upon a winged wheel. The right arm is wrapped in his garment. At his feet is a mask. Because of the winged chariot and mask it has been suggested that Yaw had been identified with Dionysus on account of a somewhat similar drawing of the Greek deity on a vase where he rides in a chariot drawn by a satyr. The coin was certainly minted under Greek influence, and consequently others have compared Yaw on his winged chariot to Triptolemos of Syria, who is represented on a wagon drawn by two dragons. It is more likely that Yaw of Gaza really represents the Hebrew, Phoenician and Aramaic Sun-god, El, Elohim, whom the monotheistic tendencies of the Hebrews had long since identified with Yaw...Sanchounyathon...based his history upon Yerombalos, a priest of Yeuo, undoubtedly the god Yaw, who is thus proved to have been worshipped at Gebal as early as 1000 BC".}}}}
| alt = A coin showing a bearded figure seating on a winged wheel, holding a bird on an outstretched hand.
| deity_of = God of [[Weather god|weather]], [[List of war deities|war]], and [[List of fire deities|fire]].
| member_of = 
| symbol = [[Winged disk]]<ref name="SeeversKorhonen"/><br />[[Winged wheel]]{{sfn|Edelman|1995|p=190, 193–194}}{{sfn|Stavrakopoulou|2021|pp=411–412, 742}}
| ethnic_group = [[Canaan#Canaanites|Canaanites]]<br />[[Israelites]]{{sfn|Miller|Hayes|1986|p=110}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Yahweh |encyclopedia=World Encyclopedia |publisher=Philip's |series=[[Oxford Reference]] |accessdate=April 24, 2025 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001/acref-9780199546091-e-12723 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
| abode = [[Edom]]<br />[[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]
| adherents = [[Yahwism|Yahwists]]
| texts = {{unbulleted list|class=nowrap|
* [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Judaism]], [[Christianity]])
* [[Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Torah]] ([[Samaritanism]])
}}
| cult_center = [[Temple in Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]
| parents = {{unbulleted list|class=nowrap|
* [[El (deity)|El]] ([[Canaanite religion]])
* [[Asherah]] ([[Canaanite religion]])
}}
| consorts = [[Asherah]] ([[Yahwism|Israelite religion]])
| equivalent1_type = [[Canaanite religion|Canaanite]]
| equivalent1 = 
| region = [[Canaan|Ancient Canaan]]<br />[[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Ancient Israel and Judah]]{{sfn|Miller|Hayes|1986|p=109–110}}
| venerated_in = [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]]{{sfn|Miller|Hayes|1986|p=110}}{{sfn|Niehr|1995|p=59}}<br>[[Kingdom of Judah]]{{sfn|Miller|Hayes|1986|p=110}}{{sfn|Niehr|1995|p=59}}
}}
{{Fertile Crescent myth (Levantine)}}
{{Middle Eastern deities}}
'''Yahweh'''{{efn|name="name"|1={{IPAc-en|ˈ|j|ɑː|hw|eɪ}}, or often {{IPAc-en|ˈ|j|ɑː|w|eɪ}} in English; {{lang|he-Phnx|𐤉𐤄𐤅𐤄}} in [[Paleo-Hebrew]]; [[Tetragrammaton#Yahweh|reconstructed]] in {{langx|he|{{Script/Hebrew|*יַהְוֶה}}|label=block script}} *{{tlit|hbo|Yahwe}}, {{IPA|he|jahˈwe|}}}} was an [[Ancient Semitic religion|ancient Semitic deity]] of [[Weather god|weather]] and [[List of war deities|war]] in the southeastern [[History of the ancient Levant|ancient Levant]], and the [[national god]] of the iron age kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. Although there is no clear consensus regarding the geographical origins of the deity,{{sfn|Fleming|2020|p=3}} scholars generally hold that Yahweh was associated with [[Mount Seir|Seir]], [[Edom]], [[Desert of Paran|Paran]], and [[Teman (Edom)|Teman]],{{sfn|Smith|2017|p=42}}{{Synthesis inline|date=October 2025}} and later with [[Canaan]]. The worship of the deity reaches back to at least the early [[Iron Age]], and likely to the late [[Bronze Age]], if not somewhat earlier.{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=1}}

In the oldest [[Bible|biblical texts]], Yahweh possesses attributes that were typically ascribed to deities of weather and war, fructifying the [[Land of Israel]] and leading a [[Heavenly host#Hebrew Bible|heavenly army]] against the enemies of the [[Israelites]].{{sfn|Hackett|2001|pp=158–59}} The early Israelites engaged in polytheistic practices that were common across [[ancient Semitic religion]],{{sfn|Sommer|2009|p=145}} because the Israelite religion was a derivative of the [[Canaanite religion]] and included a variety of deities from it, including [[El (deity)|El]], [[Asherah]], and [[Baal]].{{sfn|Smith|2002|page=7}} Initially a lesser [[deity]] among the Canaanite pantheon,{{sfn|Miller|Hayes|1986|p=110}}{{sfn|Smith|2002|page=32}} Yahweh became conflated with El in later centuries, taking his place as the head of the pantheon in the Israelite religion. El's consort Asherah became associated with Yahweh, and El-linked epithets, such as {{Transliteration|hbo|[[El Shaddai|ʾĒl Šadday]]}} ({{Script/Hebrew|{{lang|hbo|אֵל שַׁדַּי}}}}), came to be applied to him alone.{{sfn|Smith|2002|pages=8, 32–34}}{{sfn|Smith|2001|pages=47, 142}} Characteristics of other deities, such as Asherah and Baal, were also selectively absorbed in conceptions of Yahweh.{{sfn|Smith|2002|pages=8, 135}}{{sfn|Smith|2017|p=38}}{{sfn|Cornell|2021|p=20}}

As Israelite Yahwism eventually developed into [[Judaism]] and [[Samaritanism]], and eventually transitioned from polytheism to [[monotheism]], the existence of other deities was denied outright, and Yahweh was proclaimed the [[creator deity]] and the sole deity to be worthy of worship. During the [[Second Temple period]], [[Jews]] began to substitute [[Names of God in Judaism#Adonai|other Hebrew words]], primarily {{Transliteration|hbo|ăḏōnāy}} ({{Script/Hebrew|{{lang|hbo|אֲדֹנָי‬}}}}, {{Literal translation|My [[Pluralis majestatis|Lords]]}}), in place of the name Yahweh. By the time of the [[Jewish–Roman wars]]—namely following the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|Roman siege of Jerusalem]] and the concomitant destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in 70 CE—the [[Tetragrammaton|original pronunciation of the name of the deity]] was forgotten entirely.{{sfn|Leech|2002|p=60}}

Additionally, Yahweh is invoked in the [[Aramaic]]-language [[Papyrus Amherst 63]] from [[ancient Egypt]], and also in Jewish or Jewish-influenced [[ancient Greek]]-language [[Greek Magical Papyri]] in [[Roman Egypt]] dated to the 1st to 5th centuries CE.{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996b|pp=242–256}}

==Name==
The deity's name was written in [[Paleo-Hebrew]] as {{lang|he-Phnx|𐤉𐤄𐤅𐤄}} ({{Script/Hebrew|{{lang|hbo|יהוה}}}} in [[Hebrew alphabet|block script]]), transliterated as [[YHWH]]; modern scholarship has reached consensus to transcribe this as "Yahweh".<ref>{{harvnb|Alter|2018|p=<!--unpaginated-->}}: "The strong consensus of biblical scholarship is that the original pronunciation of the name YHWH{{nbsp}}... was Yahweh."</ref> The shortened forms ''Yeho''-, ''Yahu''-, ''[[Jah|Yah]]''- and ''Yo''-  appear in [[Theophory in the Bible#Yah theophory|personal names]] and in phrases such as "[[Hallelujah]]!"{{sfn|Preuss|2008|p=823}} The sacrality of the name, as well as the [[Ten Commandments|Commandment]] against "[[Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain|taking the name 'in vain']]{{hair space}}", led to increasingly strict prohibitions on speaking or writing the term. Rabbinic sources suggest that, by the [[Second Temple period]], the name of [[God in Judaism|their god]] was officially pronounced only once a year by the [[High Priest of Israel|High Priest]] on the [[Day of Atonement]].<ref>{{harvnb|Elior|2006|p=779}}: "...{{nbsp}}the pronunciation of the Ineffable Name was one of the climaxes of the Sacred Service: it was entrusted exclusively to the High Priest once a year on the Day of Atonement in the Holy of Holies."</ref> After the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem in 70{{nbsp}}CE]], the original pronunciation of the name was forgotten entirely.{{sfn|Leech|2002|p=60}}

The four-letter form of the name is commonly called the [[Tetragrammaton]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | first1=Crawford Howell| last1=Toy | first2=Ludwig | last2=Blau | title=Tetragrammaton | encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia | url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14346-tetragrammaton | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226113047/https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14346-tetragrammaton | archive-date=2020-02-26|access-date=2025-10-29}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:כתובת אריהו מפורשת.jpg|right|thumb|Uriyahu inscription, [[Khirbet el-Qom]], 8th c. BCE, "Blessed is/be Uriyahu by Yahweh"]]
===Periods===
[[Philip King (historian)|Philip King]] and [[Lawrence Stager]] place the history of Yahweh into the following periods:
* Late Bronze: 1550–1200{{nbsp}}BCE
* Iron Age I: 1200–1000{{nbsp}}BCE
* Iron Age II: 1000–586{{nbsp}}BCE
* Neo-Babylonian: 586–539{{nbsp}}BCE
* Persian: 539–332{{nbsp}}BCE{{sfn|King|Stager|2001|p=xxiii}}
Other academic terms often used include First Temple period, from the construction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] in 957{{nbsp}}BCE to its destruction in 586{{nbsp}}BCE, exilic for the period of the Exile from 586 to 539{{nbsp}}BCE (identical with Neo-Babylonian above), post-Exilic for later periods and Second Temple period from the reconstruction of the Temple in 515{{nbsp}}BCE until its destruction in 70{{nbsp}}CE.

===Late Bronze Age origins (1550–1200{{nbsp}}BCE)===
There is almost no agreement on the deity's origins.{{sfn|Fleming|2020|p=3}} 

Yahweh is not attested other than among the Israelites, and there is no consensus on its etymology, with {{tlit|hbo|ehyeh ašer ehyeh}} ('[[I Am that I Am]]'), the explanation presented in [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 3:14,<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|3:14|HE}}</ref> appearing to be a late theological [[Gloss (annotation)|gloss]] invented at a time when the original meaning had been forgotten,{{sfn|Parke-Taylor|1975|p=51}} although some scholars dispute this.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|page=214}}{{sfn|Miller II|2021|p=18}} Lewis connects the name to the [[Amorite language|Amorite]] element {{tlit|mis|yahwi-}} (''ia-wi''), found in personal names in [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] texts,{{sfn|Kitz|2019|pp=42, 57}} meaning 'brings to life'{{\}}'causes to exist' (e.g., ''yahwi-dagan'' = "[[Dagon]] causes to exist"), commonly denoted as the semantic equivalent of the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] {{tlit|akk|ibašši-DN}};{{sfn|Lewis|2020|pp=211, 215}} though [[Frank Moore Cross]] emphasized that the Amorite verbal form is of interest only in attempting to reconstruct the verbal root of the name "Yahweh", and that attempts to take ''yahwi-'' as a divine epithet should be "vigorously" argued against.{{sfn|Cross|1973|pp=61-63}}<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2020|p=176}}: "There has been one key objection, by Michael Streck, who reevaluated Amorite personal names as a whole in 2000 and as part of this work published the separate conclusion (1999) that all the ''Ya-wi-'' and ''Ya-aḫ-wi-'' elements in these names must be understood to reflect the same root ''ḥwy'', "to live"....If Streck is correct that these are all forms of the verb "to live", then the Amorite personal names must be set aside as useful to any interpretation of the name [Yahweh]." But see {{harvnb|Fleming|2020b|p=425}}: "While the identification of the verbal root in the Amorite names with and without the -''ḫ''- remains impossible to prove with certainty, the parallels with contemporary Old Babylonian Ibašši-DN and the later second-millennium parallels from the verb ''kwn'' show the viability of a West Semitic root ''hwy'', "to be, be evident", for at least some portion of these Amorite names."</ref> In addition, J. Philip Hyatt believes it is more likely that {{tlit|mis|yahwi-}} refers to a god creating and sustaining the life of a newborn child rather than the universe. This conception of God was more popular among ancient Near Easterners but eventually, the Israelites removed the association of {{tlit|mis|yahwi-}} to any human ancestor and combined it with other elements (e.g., {{tlit|hbo|Yahweh ṣəḇāʾōṯ}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hyatt |first=J. Philip |date=1967 |title=Was Yahweh Originally a Creator Deity? |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=369–377 |doi=10.2307/3262791 |jstor=3262791}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=April 2024|reason=The source is literally almost 60 years old.}} Hillel Ben-Sasson states there is insufficient evidence for Amorites using ''yahwi-'' for gods, but he argues that it mirrors other theophoric names and that ''yahwi-'', or more accurately ''yawi'', derives from the root ''hwy'' in ''pa'al,'' which means "he will be".{{sfn|Ben-Sasson|2019|pp=55–56}}

One scholarly theory is that "Yahweh" originated in a shortened form of {{tlit|hbo|ˀel ḏū yahwī ṣabaˀôt}}, '[[El (deity)|El]] who creates the hosts',{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=2}} which Cross considered to be one of the cultic names of El.{{sfn|Cross|1973|p=71}} However, this phrase is nowhere attested either inside or outside the Bible, and the two gods are in any case quite dissimilar, with El being elderly and paternal and lacking Yahweh's association with the storm and battles.{{sfn|Day|2002|pp=13–14}} Even if the above issues are resolved, Yahweh is generally agreed to have a non-causative etymology because otherwise, YHWH would be translated as YHYH.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|p=222}} It also raises the question of why the Israelites would want to shorten the epithet. One possible reason includes the co-existence of religious modernism and conservatism being the norm in all religions.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|p=222}}

Scholar [[Gérard Nissim Amzallag]], from the [[Ben-Gurion University]], has posited that Yahweh was originally portrayed as a [[fire deity]], associated with volcanic activity and metallurgy. Amzallag explains that Gods of metallurgy in the past ([[Bronze Age]]) were revered not only as the Gods of weapons but also Gods of creation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nissim |first=Amzallag |title=YHWH: The Kenite God of Metallurgy |url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/yhwh-the-kenite-god-of-metallurgy |access-date=2025-10-17 |website=TheTorah.com}}</ref><ref>https://www.thetorah.com/article/yhwh-the-kenite-god-of-metallurgy</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Jewish God Yahweh Originated in Canaanite Vulcan, Says New Theory |url=https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/2018-04-11/ty-article-magazine/.premium/jewish-god-yahweh-originated-in-canaanite-vulcan-says-new-theory/0000017f-dc86-d3ff-a7ff-fda6aa390000 |access-date=2023-10-19 |work=Haaretz |language=en}}</ref>

The oldest plausible occurrence of Yahweh's name is in the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] [[demonym]] {{tlit|egy|[[wikt:tꜣ-šꜣsw-yhwꜣ|tꜣ šꜣsw Yhwꜣ]]}}, 'YHWA [in] the Land of the [[Shasu]]' ([[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]: {{Script/Egyp|{{lang|egy|𓇌𓉔𓍯𓄿}}}} {{tlit|egy|Yhwꜣ}}) in an inscription from the time of [[Amenhotep III]] (1390–1352{{nbsp}}BCE),{{sfn|Shalomi Hen|2021}}{{sfn|Anderson|2015|p=100}} the [[Shasu]] being nomads from [[Midian]] and [[Edom]] in northern Arabia.{{sfn|Grabbe|2007|p=151}} Although it is still uncertain whether a relationship exists between the toponym ''yhwꜣ'' and theonym ''YHWH'',<ref>{{harvnb|Shalomi Hen|2021}}: "Unfortunately, albeit the interesting analogies, the learned discussions, and the broad perspective, the evidence is too scanty to allow any conclusions concerning the exact meaning of the term YHWA/YHA/YH as it appears in Ancient Egyptian records."</ref> the dominant view is that Yahweh was from the southern region associated with [[Mount Seir|Seir]], Edom, [[Desert of Paran|Paran]] and [[Teman (Edom)|Teman]].{{sfn|Smith|2017|p=42}} There is considerable although not universal support for this view,{{sfn|Grabbe|2007|p=153}} but it raises the question of how Yahweh made his way to the north.{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1999|p=912}} An answer many scholars consider plausible is the [[Kenite hypothesis]], which holds that traders brought Yahweh to Israel along the [[Caravan (travellers)|caravan]] routes between [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Canaan]].{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1999|pp=912–913}} This ties together various points of data, such as the absence of Yahweh from Canaan, his links with Edom and Midian in the biblical stories, and the [[Kenite]] or Midianite ties of [[Moses]],{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1999|p=912}} but its major weaknesses are that the majority of Israelites were firmly rooted in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], while the historical role of Moses is problematic.{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1995|pp=247–248}} It follows that if the Kenite hypothesis is to be maintained, then it must be assumed that the Israelites encountered Yahweh (and the Midianites/Kenites) inside Israel and through their association with the earliest political leaders of Israel.{{sfn|Van der Toorn|1995|p=248}} Christian Frevel argues that inscriptions allegedly suggesting Yahweh's southern origins (e.g., "YHWH of Teman") may simply denote his presence there at later times, and that Teman can refer to any southern territory, including Judah.<ref name=":0" />

Alternatively, some scholars argue that YHWH worship was rooted in the indigenous culture of the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] and was promoted in the [[Kingdom of Judah]] by the [[Omrides]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last=Frevel |first=Christian |date=2021 |title=When and from Where did YHWH Emerge? Some Reflections on Early Yahwism in Israel and Judah |journal=Entangled Religions |volume=12 |issue=2 |doi=10.46586/er.12.2021.8776 |issn=2363-6696 |doi-access=free |hdl=2263/84039 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |title=God's Best 'Frenemy': A New Perspective on YHWH and Baal in Ancient Israel and Judah |journal=Semitica |url=https://www.academia.edu/45062733 |last=Stahl |first=Michael J. |volume=63 |pages=45–94 |doi=10.2143/SE.63.0.3289896 |year=2021 |issn=2466-6815}}</ref> Frevel suggests that [[Hazael|Hazael's]] conquests in the Kingdom of Israel forced the two kingdoms to cooperate, which spread YHWH worship among Judean commoners. Previously, YHWH was viewed as the patron god of the Judean state.<ref name=":0" />

===Early Iron Age (1200–1000{{nbsp}}BCE)===
[[File:Bull site statuette.png|thumb|alt=A bronze bull|Early Iron Age bull figurine from [[Bull Site]] at Dhahrat et-Tawileh (modern [[West Bank]], ancient [[Mount Ephraim|Ephraim]]), representing El, Baal or Yahweh{{sfn|Smith|2002|p=83}}{{sfn|Stavrakopoulou|2021|p=395}}]]
In the Early Iron Age, the modern consensus is that there was no distinction in language or [[material culture]] between Canaanites and Israelites. Scholars accordingly define Israelite culture as a subset of Canaanite culture.{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=7, 19–31}} In this view, the Israelite religion consisted of Canaanite gods such as El, the ruler of the [[Pantheon (religion)|pantheon]],{{sfn|Golden|2009|p=182}} [[Asherah]], his consort, and [[Baal]].{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=19–31}}

In the earliest Biblical literature, Yahweh has characteristics of a storm god typical of ancient Near Eastern myths, marching out from Edom or the [[Sinai desert]] with the heavenly host of stars and planets that make up his army to do battle with the enemies of his people Israel:{{sfn|Hackett|2001|pp=158–160}}

{{poemquote|Yahweh, when you went out of Seir,
    when you marched out of the field of Edom,
the earth trembled, the sky also dropped.
    Yes, the clouds dropped water.
The mountains quaked at Yahweh's presence,
    even Sinai at the presence of Yahweh, the God of Israel.
...
From the sky the stars fought.
    From their courses, they fought against [[Sisera]].
|[[Book of Judges]] 5:4–5, 20, ''WEB'' [[World English Bible]], the [[Song of Deborah]]}}

Alternatively, parts of the storm god imagery could derive from Baal.{{sfn|Smith|2017|p=38}}<ref name=":3" />{{rp|78}}

From the perspective of the Kenite hypothesis, it has also been suggested that the Edomite deity [[Qōs]] might have been one and the same as Yahweh, rather than a separate deity, with its name a title of the latter.{{sfn|Anderson|2015|p=101}} Aside from their common territorial origins, various common characteristics between the [[Yahwism|Yahwist cult]] and the Edomite cult of Qōs hint at a shared connection.<ref name="Manyanya">{{Cite book |last=Manyanya |first=Lévi Ngangura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kiR_xkWUFS4C&pg=PA258 |title=La fraternité de Jacob et d'Esaü (Gn 25–36): quel frère aîné pour Jacob? |date=2009 |publisher=Labor et Fides |isbn=978-2-8309-1253-1 |page=257 |language=fr}}</ref> [[Doeg the Edomite]], for example, is depicted as having no problem in worshiping Yahweh and is shown to be at home in Jewish sanctuaries.<ref name="Manyanya" />

Unlike the chief god of the [[Ammon]]ites ([[Milcom]]) and the [[Moabites]] ([[Chemosh]]), the [[Tanakh]] refrains from explicitly naming the Edomite Qōs.<ref>E. A. Knauf. (1999). Qos [in] Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst [eds.], [https://books.google.com/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&pg=PA677 ''Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible''], pp. 674–677. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 677. "This clan or family must have been of Edomite or Idumaean origin."</ref><ref>Elie Assis, [https://books.google.com/books?id=_jQLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 ''Identity in Conflict: The Struggle between Esau and Jacob, Edom and Israel''], [[Penn State Press]], 2016 {{isbn|978-1-575-06418-5}} p.10: "At 1 Kgs 1–8 there is exceptionally no mention of any Edomite gods: 'King Solomon loved many foreign women along with the daughter of the Pharaoh: Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, Sidonian, and Hittite women. ... For Solomon followed Astarte the goddess of the Sidonians, and Milcom the aboimination of the Ammonites. ... Then Solomon built a high place for Chemosh the abomination of Moab, and for Molech the abomination of the Ammonites, on the mountain east of Jerusalem. He did the same for all his foreign wives, who offered incense and sacrificed to their gods.{{'"}}</ref> Some scholars have explained this notable omission by assuming that the level of similarity between Yahweh and Qōs would have made rejection of the latter difficult.{{sfn|Dicou|1994|p=177}} Other scholars hold that Yahweh and Qōs were different deities from their origins, and suggest that the tensions between Judeans and Edomites during the Second Temple period may lie behind the omission of Qōs in the Bible.{{sfn|Tebes|2023}}

===Late Iron Age (1000–586{{nbsp}}BCE)===
{{multiple image
 | width = 200
 | align = right
 | direction = vertical
 | image1 =LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg
 | caption1 = Seal of [[Hezekiah]], 727 to 698. The [[winged disk]] is thought to represent Yahweh.<ref name="SeeversKorhonen">{{Cite journal |last1=Seevers |first1=Boyd V. |last2=Korhonen |first2=Rachel |date=2016 |title=Seals in Ancient Israel and the Near East: Their Manufacture, Use, and Apparent Paradox of Pagan Symbolism |url=https://www.academia.edu/31049725 |journal=Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin |issue=61 |pages=1–17}}</ref>
 | image2 = Brockhaus and Efron Jewish Encyclopedia e12 486-1.jpg
 | caption2 = [[Winged disk]] seal reproduced in the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], 1906
}}

[[File:Ajrud.jpg|thumb|alt=A reconstructed two-handled jar, with many missing fragments. In the centre, two bull-headed figures look towards us. There are other figures and the scene is hard to make out.|Painting on a [[Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions|jar found at Kuntillet Ajrud]], under the inscription "Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah" (c.{{nbsp}}800{{nbsp}}BCE)]]

The late [[Iron Age]] saw the emergence of [[nation state]]s associated with specific [[national god]]s:{{sfn|Schniedewind|2013|p=93}} Chemosh was the god of the Moabites, Milcom the god of the Ammonites, Qōs the god of the Edomites, and Yahweh the god of the Israelites.{{sfn|Hackett|2001|p=156}}{{sfn|Davies|2010|p=112}} In each kingdom the king was also the head of the national religion and thus the [[viceroy]] on Earth of the national god.{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=90}} Yahweh filled the role of national god in both the Kingdom of Israel, which emerged in the 10th century BCE, and in Kingdom of Judah, which may have emerged a century later{{sfn|Geller|2012|p=unpaginated}} (no "God of Judah" is mentioned anywhere in the Bible).{{sfn|Hackett|2001|p=156}}{{sfn|Davies|2010|p=112}}

Accordingly, there have been different tiers of deities in the original pantheon: El and Asherah on top; followed by [[Sons of God#Ugaritic text|their children]], the divine assembly; then followed by traders and craftsman deities; and finally minor deities or messenger gods.{{sfn|Hess|2007|pp=103–104}} It has been argued that Yahweh was originally described as one of the sons of El in [[Song of Moses|Deuteronomy 32:8–9]],{{sfn|Smith|2002|pages=32–33}}{{sfn|Miller|Hayes|1986|p=111}} and that this was removed by a later emendation to the text:{{sfn|Anderson|2015|p=77}}

{{Poem quote|When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance,
 when he divided up humankind,
he set the boundaries of the peoples,
 according to the number of the heavenly assembly.
For the Lord's allotment is his people,
 [[Jacob]] is his special possession.
|[[Book of Deuteronomy]] 32:8–9, [[New English Translation]], [[Song of Moses]]}}

However, at some point the second tier collapsed, whereupon Yahweh became conflated with El, even though El was the original head of the pantheon. The remaining deities then became [[angel]]s.{{sfn|Hess|2007|pp=103–104}}{{When|date=May 2025|reason=When did this conflation happen? When did these deities become angels?}} During the reign of [[Ahab]], and particularly following his marriage to [[Jezebel]], Baal may have briefly replaced Yahweh as the national god of Israel (but not Judah).{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=71–72}}{{sfn|Campbell|2001|pp=221–222}}

In the 9th century{{nbsp}}BCE, there are indications of rejection of Baal worship associated with the prophets [[Elijah]] and [[Elisha]]. The Yahweh-religion thus began to separate itself from its Canaanite heritage; this process continued over the period from 800 to 500{{nbsp}}BCE with legal and prophetic condemnations of the [[asherim]], [[sun worship]] and worship on the [[high place]]s, along with practices pertaining to the dead and other aspects of the old religion.{{sfn|Smith|2002|page=9}} Features of Baal, El, and Asherah were absorbed into Yahweh, and epithets such as [[El Shaddai]] came to be applied to Yahweh alone.{{sfn|Smith|2002|pp=8, 33–34, 135}}

In this atmosphere a struggle emerged between those who believed that Yahweh alone should be worshipped, and those who worshipped him within a larger group of gods;{{sfn|Sperling|2017|p=254}} the Yahweh-alone party, the party of the [[prophet]]s and [[Deuteronomist]]s, ultimately triumphed, and their victory lies behind the biblical narrative of an Israel vacillating between periods of "following other gods" and periods of [[fidelity]] to Yahweh.{{sfn|Sperling|2017|p=254}}

Some scholars date the start of widespread monotheism to the [[8th century BCE]], and view it as a response to [[Neo-Assyrian]] aggression.{{sfn|Smith|2016|p=287}}{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=61}} In an inscription discovered in [[Ein Gedi]] and dated around 700 BCE, Yahweh appears described as the lord of "the nations", while in [[Khirbet Beit Lei graffiti|other contemporary texts]] discovered in [[Khirbet Beit Lei]] (near Lachish) he is mentioned as the ruler of Jerusalem and probably also of Judah.{{sfn|Hess|2020|p=247–248}}

===Monolatrous movements (9th–1st centuries{{nbsp}}BCE)===
Early supporters of a [[monolatry|monolatrist]] Yahwism faction appear in the 9th–8th centuries{{nbsp}}BCE, during the time of Elijah and [[Hosea]].{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=61}} By ascending to the role of the "Lord of the Land" ({{tlit|hbo|adon}}), he also absorbs the functions of earlier deities, such as Baal and El.{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=89}} However, this depiction of Yahweh still had only marginal impact under [[Josiah]], and did not become lasting until the exilic and [[post-exilic]] period.{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=61}}{{efn|Monolatrists believing Yahweh was the only god worthy of Israelite worship, as opposed to monotheists believing that Yahweh was the only god in existence—a noticeable departure from the traditional beliefs of the Israelites nonetheless.{{sfn|McKenzie|1990|p=1287}}}} Only in the post-exilic and [[Prophetic books|prophetic writings]], and under influence of [[Zoroastrianism]], Yahweh becomes a distant and more merciful supreme deity.<ref name="The Encyclopedia of Religion">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Angels |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion |volume=1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre01elia/page/283 283] |publisher=Macmillan |publication-place=New York |date=1986 |isbn=0-02-909700-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre01elia}}</ref> It is also only then that ''Elohim'', a term previously referring to the Canaanite High God, becomes an alternative designation for Yahweh.<ref>Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. pp. 22–23</ref> This reconsideration of the former pantheon derives from the monotheistic concept of Persian beliefs at the time,<ref>Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. p. 23</ref> as generally agreed upon by scholars.<ref>Sacchi, Paolo. "The history of the second temple period." (2004): 10</ref>

In the national crisis of the [[Babylonian exile]], Yahweh is described as the sole deity and absorbs all attributes of previous gods and goddesses.{{sfn|Betz|2000|p=917}} The notion of Yahweh as a supreme deity is described in the 6th-century{{nbsp}}BCE [[Second Isaiah]].{{sfn|Rosenberg|1966|p=297}}{{sfn|Albani|2020|p=226}} The author's praise for Yahweh is motivated by restoring Israel's confidence into their own historical gods against the deities of their Babylonian enemies.{{sfn|Albani|2020|pp=226-228}} The claim for monotheism is directed against the deities of [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], who founded his reign on [[Marduk]] and [[Nabu]].{{sfn|Albani|2020|pp=226–228}} The transition was a gradual one and was not totally accomplished during the First Temple period.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Taliaferro |first1=Charles |title=The Routledge Companion to Theism |last2=Harrison |first2=Victoria S. |last3=Goetz |first3=Stewart |publisher=Routledge |year=2012}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=April 2024}} At least some Jews seem to have worshipped Yahweh and [[Anath]] as distinct from Asherah and El during the 5th century{{nbsp}}BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Patai |first=Raphael |title=The God Yahweh-Elohim |journal=American Anthropologist |publisher=American Anthropological Association, Wiley |volume=75 |issue=4 |year=1973 |issn=0002-7294 |jstor=673271 |pages=1181–1184|doi=10.1525/aa.1973.75.4.02a01740 }}</ref>

Under [[Hellenistic religion|Hellenistic]] influence, Yahwistic beliefs became more exclusive.<ref>Sacchi, Paolo. "The history of the second temple period." (2004): 10</ref><ref>Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. p. 23</ref> These beliefs rejected the idea of lesser deities and emanations of deities in favor of Yahweh as an abstract single god.<ref>Edelman, D. V. (Ed.). (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (Vol. 13). Peeters Publishers. p. 23</ref> During the [[Hellenistic period]], the scriptures were translated into Greek by the Jews of the [[History of the Jews in Egypt|Egyptian diaspora]].{{sfn|Coogan|Brettler|Newsom|2007|p=xxvi}} Greek translations of the Hebrew scriptures render both the names ''Yahweh'' and {{tlit|hbo|adonai}} as {{tlit|grc|[[kyrios]]}} ({{lang|grc|κύριος}}), meaning 'Lord'.{{sfn|Leech|2002|p=60}} Jewish tradition celebrated Yahweh's name at least once a year at the temple by the High Priests at the Day of Atonement.{{sfn|Leech|2002|pp=59–60}} However, after the destruction of the Second Temple, Yahweh's name ceased to be used.{{sfn|Leech|2002|pp=59–60}}

The ''[[Secret Book of John]]'' reinterpreted the Genesis story under Hellenistic influence and proposes that Eve copulated with [[Yaldabaoth]] and gave birth to two sons: Abel and Cain, identified with ''Elohim'' and Yahweh respectively.<ref>Pearson, Birger A. Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity. Fortress Press, 1990. pp. 100–102</ref> The former is said to be righteous and the latter injust. By murdering his brother, and corrupted by his father, he brings envy and death into the world.<ref>Pearson, Birger A. Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity. Fortress Press, 1990. pp. 100–102</ref>

==Worship==
{{Main article|Yahwism}}

===Festivals and sacrifice===
{{see also|Feast of Wine}}
The centre of Yahweh's worship lay in three great annual festivals coinciding with major events in rural life: [[Passover]] with the birthing of [[Sheep|lambs]], [[Shavuot]] with the [[cereal]] harvest, and [[Sukkot]] with the fruit harvest.{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=89}} These probably pre-dated the arrival of the Yahweh religion,{{sfn|Albertz|1994|p=89}} but they became linked to events in the [[national myth]]os of Israel: Passover with [[the exodus]] from Egypt, Shavuot with the law-giving at [[Mount Sinai (Bible)|Mount Sinai]], and Sukkot with the [[wilderness]] wanderings.{{sfn|Davies|2010|p=112}} The festivals thus celebrated Yahweh's [[salvation]] of Israel and Israel's status as his holy people, although the earlier agricultural meaning was not entirely lost.{{sfn|Gorman|2000|p=458}} His worship presumably involved sacrifice, but many scholars have concluded that the rituals detailed in [[Leviticus]] 1–16, with their stress on purity and [[Atonement in Judaism|atonement]], were introduced only after the [[Babylonian exile]], and that in reality any head of a family was able to offer sacrifice as occasion demanded.{{sfn|Davies|Rogerson|2005|pp=151–152}} A number of scholars have also drawn the conclusion that [[infant sacrifice]], whether to the underworld deity [[Molech]] or to Yahweh himself, was a part of Israelite/Judahite religion until the reforms of [[King Josiah]] in the late 7th century BCE.{{sfn|Gnuse|1997|p=118}} Sacrifice was presumably complemented by the singing or recital of [[psalms]], but again the details are scant.{{sfn|Davies|Rogerson|2005|pp=158–165}} [[Jewish prayer|Prayer]] played little role in official worship.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=302}}

===Temples===
[[File:Tissot Solomon Dedicates the Temple at Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|alt=In the foreground, a bearded man dressed in an impressive white robe and head-dress raises his hand to heaven.  Behind him, a large crowd bows in prayer.|''[[Solomon]] dedicates the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple at Jerusalem]]'' (painting by [[James Tissot]] or follower, c. 1896–1902).]]
The Hebrew Bible gives the impression that the Jerusalem temple was always meant to be the central or even sole temple of Yahweh, but this was not the case.{{sfn|Davies|2010|p=112}} The earliest known Israelite place of worship is a 12th-century BCE open-air altar in the hills of [[Samaria]] featuring a bronze bull reminiscent of Canaanite [[El (deity)#Ugarit and the Levant|Bull-El]] (El in the form of a bull) and the archaeological remains of further temples have been found at [[Dan (ancient city)|Dan]] on Israel's northern border, at [[Tel Arad|Arad]] in the [[Negev]] and [[Tel Be'er Sheva|Beersheba]], both in the territory of Judah.{{sfn|Dever|2003|p=388}} [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]], [[Bethel]], [[Gilgal]], [[Mizpah in Benjamin|Mizpah]], [[Ramah in Benjamin|Ramah]] and Dan were also major sites for festivals, sacrifices, the making of [[Vow#Divine vows|vows]], private rituals, and the adjudication of legal disputes.{{sfn|Bennett|2002|p=83}}

===Portrayal===
Prohibition of depictions of Yahweh are a late idea and entered around the age of the Deuteronomy texts.{{sfn|Mettinger|2006|pp=288–290}} There is no universally accepted explanation for such [[aniconism]], and a number of scholars have argued that Yahweh was in fact represented prior to the reforms of [[Hezekiah]] and [[Josiah]] late in the monarchic period: to quote one study, "[a]n early aniconism, ''[[de facto]]'' or otherwise, is purely a projection of the post-exilic imagination".{{sfn|MacDonald|2007|pp=21, 26–27}} Other scholars{{Who?|date=May 2025}} argue that there is no certain evidence of any [[anthropomorphic]] representation of Yahweh during the pre-exilic period.{{sfn|Lewis|2020|pp=293–297}}

==Graeco-Roman syncretism==
Yahweh is frequently invoked in [[Graeco-Roman magic]]al texts dating between the 2nd century{{nbsp}}BCE and the 5th century{{nbsp}}CE, most notably in the [[Greek Magical Papyri]],{{sfn|Betz|1996|p={{page needed|date=August 2020}}}} under the names [[Tetragrammaton|Iao]], [[Adonai]], [[Sabaoth]], and [[Elohim|Eloai]].{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996b|pp=242–256}} In these texts, he is often mentioned alongside traditional [[List of Greek deities|Graeco-Roman deities]] and [[List of Egyptian deities|Egyptian deities]].{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996b|pp=242–256}} The archangels [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], [[Gabriel]], [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]], and [[Ouriel]] and Jewish [[cultural hero]]es such as [[Abraham]], [[Jacob]], and [[Moses]] are also invoked frequently.{{sfn|Arnold|1996|p={{page needed|date=August 2020}}}} The frequent occurrence of Yahweh's name was likely due to Greek and Roman folk magicians seeking to make their spells more powerful through the invocation of a prestigious foreign deity.{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996b|pp=242–256}}

A coin issued by [[Pompey]] to celebrate his successful [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|conquest of Judaea]] showed a kneeling, bearded figure grasping a branch (a common Roman symbol of submission) subtitled {{lang|la|Bacchivs Ivdaevs}}, which may be translated as either "The Jewish [[Bacchus]]" or "Bacchus the Judaean". The figure has been interpreted as depicting Yahweh as a local variety of Bacchus, that is, [[Dionysus]].{{sfn|Scott|2015|pp=169–172}} However, as coins minted with such iconography ordinarily depicted subjected persons, and not the gods of a subjected people, some have assumed the coin simply depicts the surrender of a Judean who was called "Bacchius", sometimes identified as the Hasmonean king [[Aristobulus II]], who was overthrown by Pompey's campaign.{{sfn|Scott|2015|pp=11, 16, 80, 126}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Levine |first=Lee I. |title=Judaism and Hellenism in Antiquity: Conflict or Confluence? |date=1998 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-97682-2 |pages=38–60 |jstor=j.ctvcwnpvs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lane |first=Eugene N. |date=November 1979 |title=Sabazius and the Jews in Valerius Maximus: a Re-examination |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/sabazius-and-the-jews-in-valerius-maximus-a-reexamination/9A146A478B7D4B7F239ED7AE321C2F34 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=69 |pages=35–38 |doi=10.2307/299057 |jstor=299057 |s2cid=163401482 |issn=1753-528X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Harlan |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YztmAAAAMAAJ |title=Roman Republican Moneyers and Their Coins, 63 B.C.–49 B.C. |publisher=Seaby |year=1995 |isbn=0-7134-7672-9 |pages=115–118}}</ref>

In any event, [[Tacitus]], [[John the Lydian]], [[Cornelius Labeo]], and [[Marcus Terentius Varro]] similarly identify Yahweh with Bacchus–Dionysus.{{sfn|McDonough|1999|page=88}} Jews themselves frequently used symbols that were also associated with Dionysus such as [[kylix]]es, [[amphora]]e, leaves of [[ivy]], and clusters of grapes, a similarity [[Plutarch]] used to argue that Jews worshipped a [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostasized]] form of Bacchus–Dionysus.{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996a|p=233}} In his {{lang|la|[[Moralia|Quaestiones Convivales]]}}, Plutarch further notes that the Jews hail their god with cries of "[[wikt:euoi|Euoi]]" and "[[Sabazios|Sabi]]", phrases associated with the worship of Dionysus.{{sfn|Plutarch|n.d.|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg112.perseus-eng1:4.6 "Question VI"]}}{{sfn|McDonough|1999|page=89}}{{sfn|Smith|Cohen|1996a|pages=232–233}} According to [[Sean M. McDonough]], Greek speakers may have confused [[Aramaic]] words such as [[Sabbath]], [[Alleluia]], or even possibly some variant of the name Yahweh itself, for more familiar terms associated with Dionysus.{{sfn|McDonough|1999|pp=89–90}}

Other Roman writers, such as [[Juvenal]], [[Petronius]], and [[Florus]], identified Yahweh with the god [[Caelus]].<ref>[[Juvenal]], ''Satires'' 14.97; Peter Schäfer, ''Judeophobia: Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World'' (Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 41, 79–80.</ref><ref>[[Petronius]], frg. 37.2; Schäfer, ''Judeophobia'', pp. 77–78.</ref><ref>[[Florus]], ''Epitome'' 1.40 (3.5.30): "The Jews tried to defend [[Jerusalem]]; but he ''[Pompeius Magnus]'' entered this city also and saw that grand Holy of Holies of an impious people exposed, Caelum under a golden vine" ''(Hierosolymam defendere temptavere Iudaei; verum haec quoque et intravit et vidit illud grande inpiae gentis arcanum patens, sub aurea vite Caelum).'' Finbarr Barry Flood, ''The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture'' (Brill, 2001), pp. 81, 83 (note 118). The ''[[Oxford Latin Dictionary]]'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), p. 252, entry on {{lang|la|caelum}}, cites Juvenal, Petronius, and Florus as examples of ''Caelus'' or ''Caelum'' "with reference to [[Jehovah]]; also, to some symbolization of Jehovah."</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Jewish|Judaism}}
* [[Assemblies of Yahweh]]
* [[Historicity of the Bible]]
* [[Jehovah]]
* [[Names of God in Christianity]]
* [[Names of God in Judaism]]
* [[Perkʷūnos]]
* [[Sacred Name Movement]]
* [[Theophany#Judaism|Theophany]]
* [[Tutelary deity]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|20em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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* {{cite book |last=Albertz |first=Rainer |title=A History of Israelite Religion, Volume I: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy |publisher=Westminster John Knox |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GJS7BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |isbn=978-0-664-22719-7}}
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* {{cite book |last=Dicou |first=Bert |title=Edom, Israel's Brother and Antagonist: The Role of Edom in Biblical Prophecy and Story |publisher=A&C Black |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3ytAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |isbn=978-1-85075-458-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Edelman |first=Diana V. |chapter=Tracking Observance of the Aniconic Tradition |editor1-last=Edelman |editor1-first=Diana Vikander |title=The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms |publisher=Peeters Publishers |year=1995 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bua2dMa9fJ4C&pg=PA185 |isbn=978-90-5356-503-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Elior |first=Rachel |chapter=Early Forms of Jewish Mysticism |editor1-last=Katz |editor1-first=Steven T. |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BjtWLZhhMoYC&q=%22High+Priest+once+a+year+on+the+Day+of+Atonement%22&pg=PA779 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Yahweh before Israel: Glimpses of History in a Divine Name |last=Fleming |first=Daniel E. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-108-83507-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfwAEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |title=From Mari to Jerusalem and Back: Assyriological and Biblical Studies in Honor of Jack Murad Sasson |last=Fleming |first=Daniel E. |publisher=Eisenbrauns |year=2020b |isbn=978-1-57506-741-4 |editor-last=Azzoni |editor-first=Annalisa |chapter=The Name YhwꜢ as a People: Reconsidering the Amorite Evidence |editor-last2=Kleinerman |editor-first2=Alexandra |editor-last3=Knight |editor-first3=Douglas A. |editor-last4=Owen |editor-first4=David I. |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/100704584}}
* {{cite book |last=Geller |first=Stephen A. |chapter=Priests and Levites in the Hebrew Bible |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KgJtcvs7ObAC |editor1-first=Levenson |editor1-last=Alan T. |title=The Wiley-Blackwell History of Jews and Judaism |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-118-23293-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Gnuse |first=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |series=[[Journal for the Study of the Old Testament|Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series]] |volume=241 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_lmvAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |isbn=978-0-567-37415-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Golden |first=Jonathan Michael |title=Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-537985-3 |oclc=261177290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EResmS5wOnkC}}
* {{cite book |last=Gorman |first=Frank H. Jr. |chapter=Feasts, Festivals |editor1-last=Freedman |editor1-first=David Noel |editor2-last=Myers |editor2-first=Allen C. |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |year=2000 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&q=%22saving+actions+on+behalf+of+the+nation%22&pg=PA458 |isbn=978-1-57506-083-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester |title=Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It? |publisher=A&C Black |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IvfTAwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-567-03254-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Hackett |first=Jo Ann |author-link=Jo Ann Hackett |chapter='There Was No King in Israel': The Era of the Judges |editor1-last=Coogan |editor1-first=Michael David |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA156 |isbn=978-0-19-513937-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Hess |first=Richard S. |author-link=Richard Hess |title=Israelite Religions: An Archaeological and Biblical Survey |publisher=Baker Academic |date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2aJzBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |isbn=978-0-8010-2717-8}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible |last=Hess |first=Richard S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-026116-0 |pages=241–253 |editor-last=Kelle |editor-first=Brad E. |chapter=Yahwistic Religion in the Assyrian and Babylonian Periods |editor-last2=Strawn |editor-first2=Brent A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T_kFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA241}}
* {{Cite book |last1=King |first1=Philip J. |last2=Stager |first2=Lawrence E. |title=Life in Biblical Israel |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-664-22148-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtOhypZz_pEC&pg=PAxxiii}}
* {{Cite journal |title=The Verb *yahway |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |last=Kitz |first=Anne Marie |issue=1 |volume=138 |pages=39–62 |doi=10.15699/jbl.1381.2019.508716 |year=2019 |issn=0021-9231 |url=https://www.academia.edu/90528116 |jstor=10.15699/jbl.1381.2019.508716 |s2cid=167075689}}
* {{cite book |last=Langdon |first=Stephen Herbert |author-link=Stephen Herbert Langdon |title=The Mythology of All Races ... Semitic |publisher=Boston |volume=5 |year=1931 |url=https://archive.org/details/MythologyOfAllRacesVolume5/page/n61/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book |last=Leech |first=Kenneth |date=2002 |orig-date=1985 |title=Experiencing God: Theology as Spirituality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5lKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 |location=Eugene, OR |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-57910-613-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Theodore J. |year=2020 |title=The Origin and Character of God |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-007254-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-erqDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=McDonough |first=Sean M. |date=1999 |title=YHWH at Patmos: Rev. 1:4 in Its Hellenistic and Early Jewish Setting |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c0ZG4P8J1roC |series=Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2. Reihe |volume=107 |location=Tübingen, Germany |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=978-3-16-147055-4 |issn=0340-9570}}
* {{cite book |author-link=John L. McKenzie |last=McKenzie |first=John L. |chapter=Aspects of Old Testament Thought |editor1=Raymond E. Brown |editor2=Joseph A. Fitzmyer |editor3=Roland E. Murphy |name-list-style=amp |title=The New Jerome Biblical Commentary |location=New Jersey |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1990}} S.v. 77:17.
* {{cite book |last=Mettinger |first=Tryggve N.D. |chapter=A Conversation with My Critics: Cultic Image or Aniconism in the First Temple? |editor1-last=Amit |editor1-first=Yaira |editor2-last=Naʼaman |editor2-first=Nadav |title=Essays on Ancient Israel in Its Near Eastern Context |publisher=Eisenbrauns |year=2006 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ku4OKVrEd4MC&q=%22the+prohibition+of+images+was+a+late+idea%22%22in+a+very+late+Deuteronomistic+layer%22&pg=PA273 |isbn=978-1-57506-128-3}}
* {{cite book |last=MacDonald |first=Nathan |chapter=Aniconism in the Old Testament |editor1-last=Gordon |editor1-first=R.P. |title=The God of Israel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrGfxNqfszsC&q=%22Aniconism+in+the+Old+Testament%22&pg=PA21 |isbn=978-0-521-87365-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Patrick D. |author-link=Patrick D. Miller |title=The Religion of Ancient Israel |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBhY9BQ7hIQC&pg=PA90 |isbn=978-0-664-22145-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=James M. |last2=Hayes |first2=John H. |title=A History of Ancient Israel and Judah |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDijjc_D5P0C&pg=PA110 |isbn=978-0-664-21262-9}}
* {{cite book |title=Yahweh: Origin of a Desert God |last=Miller II |first=Robert D. |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-647-54086-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SrbkEAAAQBAJ |series=Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments |volume=284}}
* {{cite book |last=Niehr |first=Herbert |chapter=The Rise of YHWH in Judahite and Israelite Religion |editor1-last=Edelman |editor1-first=Diana Vikander |title=The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms |publisher=Peeters Publishers |year=1995 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bua2dMa9fJ4C&pg=PA45 |isbn=978-90-5356-503-2}}
* {{citation |last=Parke-Taylor |first=G. H. |author-link=G. H. Parke-Taylor |date=1975 |title=Yahweh: The Divine Name in the Bible |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XZhkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |isbn=978-0-88920-013-5}}
* {{cite book |author=Plutarch |author-link=Plutarch |date=n.d. |title=Quaestiones Convivales |editor-last=Goodwin |editor-first=William Watson |translator-last=Creech |translator-first=Thomas |publisher=Little, Brown & Co. |location=Boston |publication-date=1874 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg112.perseus-eng1:4.0}}
* {{cite book |last=Preuss |first=Horst |chapter=Yahweh |editor1-last=Bromiley |editor1-first=Geoffrey William |title=The Encyclodedia of Christianity |volume=5 |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2008 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&pg=PA823 |isbn=978-0-8028-2417-2}}
* {{cite journal |title=Yahweh Becomes King |first=Roy A. |last=Rosenberg |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=85 |issue=3 |date=1966 |pages=297–307 |publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature |doi=10.2307/3264243 |jstor=3264243}}
* {{cite book |last=Schniedewind |first=William M. |title=A Social History of Hebrew: Its Origins Through the Rabbinic Period |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CcjYAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |isbn=978-0-300-17668-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Scott |first=James M. |year=2015 |title=Bacchius Iudaeus: A Denarius Commemorating Pompey's Victory over Judea |series=Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus |volume=104 |place=Göttingen |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=978-3-525-54045-9}}
* {{cite journal |last=Shalomi Hen |first=Racheli |title=Signs of YHWH, God of the Hebrews, in New Kingdom Egypt? |journal=Entangled Religions |volume=12 |year=2021 |issue=2 |doi=10.46586/er.12.2021.9463 |issn=2363-6696 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |year=2001 |title=The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0v0NB5-n3sC |isbn=978-0-19-516768-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |year=2002 |title=The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel |publisher=Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1yM3AuBh4AsC&pg=PA6 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-8028-3972-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |chapter=Monotheism and the Redefinition of Divinity in Ancient Israel |editor-last=Niditch |editor-first=Susan |title=The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Ancient Israel |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-470-65677-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-eMACgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |author-link=Mark S. Smith |chapter=Proposals for the Original Profile of YHWH |editor1-last=Van Oorschot |editor1-first=Jürgen |editor2-last=Witte |editor2-first=Markus |title=The Origins of Yahwism |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |series=[[Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft]] |year=2017 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8LtGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |isbn=978-3-11-044711-8 |doi=10.1515/9783110448221}}
* {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Morton |last2=Cohen |first2=Shaye J. D. |date=1996a |title=Studies in the Cult of Yahweh: Volume One: Studies in Historical Method, Ancient Israel, Ancient Judaism |publisher=E. J. Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands, New York, and Cologne |isbn=978-90-04-10477-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyfB19u1U8EC}}
* {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Morton |last2=Cohen |first2=Shaye J. D. |date=1996b |title=Studies in the Cult of Yahweh: Volume Two: New Testament, Christianity, and Magic |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands, New York, and Cologne |isbn=978-90-04-10479-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Sommer |first=Benjamin D. |title=The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-51872-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3T9eWJuM7EcC&pg=PA145}}
* {{cite book |last=Sperling |first=S. David |title=Ve-Eileh Divrei David |publisher=Brill |year=2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q668DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA254 |isbn=978-90-04-34087-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Stavrakopoulou |first=Francesca |author-link=Francesca Stavrakopoulou |title=[[God: An Anatomy]] |publisher=Picador |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-5098-6734-9}}
* {{cite journal |title=El extraño caso del dios Qos. ¿Por qué la deidad edomita/idumea no es mencionada en la Biblia? |journal=Revista Bíblica |last=Tebes |first=Juan Manuel |issue=1–2 |volume=85 |pages=55–70 |doi=10.47182/rb.85.n1-2-2023349 |issn=2683-7153 |year=2023 |language=es |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Van der Toorn |first=Karel |author-link=Karel van der Toorn |chapter=Ritual Resistance and Self-Assertion |editor1-last=Platvoet |editor1-first=Jan. G. |editor2-last=Van der Toorn |editor2-first=Karel |title=Pluralism and Identity: Studies in Ritual Behaviour |publisher=Brill |year=1995 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=178X5n7zArwC&q=%22Ritual+Resistance+and+Self-Assertion%22&pg=PA229 |isbn=978-90-04-10373-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Van der Toorn |first=Karel |chapter=Yahweh |editor1-last=Van der Toorn |editor1-first=Karel |editor2-last=Becking |editor2-first=Bob |editor3-last=Van der Horst |editor3-first=Pieter Willem |title=Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible |publisher=Eerdmans |year=1999 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&q=%22If+the+Kenite+hypothesis+is+to+be+maintained%22&pg=PA912 |isbn=978-0-8028-2491-2 |title-link=Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Amzallag |first=Nissim |title=Yahweh, the Canaanite God of Metallurgy? |journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament |volume=33 |issue=4 |date=June 2009 |pages=387–404 |doi=10.1177/0309089209105686 |s2cid=171053999 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0309089209105686|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |last=Kelley |first=J. |title=Toward a new synthesis of the god of Edom and Yaheweh |journal=Antiguo Oriente |publisher=Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios de Historia del Antiguo Oriente |date=2009 |volume=7 |url=https://repositorio.uca.edu.ar/handle/123456789/7231 |hdl=123456789/7231}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{cite journal |last=Tebes |first=J. M. |title=Yahweh's Desert Origins |journal=[[Biblical Archaeology Review]] |date=2022 |url=https://repositorio.uca.edu.ar/handle/123456789/15051 |hdl=123456789/15051}}

{{Names of God}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Yahweh| ]]
[[Category:Conceptions of God]]
[[Category:Creator gods]]
[[Category:Deities in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Dionysus]]
[[Category:Judeo-Christian topics]]
[[Category:Justice gods]]
[[Category:Names of God]]
[[Category:National gods]]
[[Category:Reconstructed words]]
[[Category:Religion in ancient Israel and Judah]]
[[Category:Savior gods]]
[[Category:Tetragrammaton]]
[[Category:West Semitic gods]]