View source for Written language

{{Short description|Representation of a language through writing}}
{{pnn|date=July 2024}}
[[File:A Specimen by William Caslon.jpg|thumb|upright|Specimen of typefaces used to write numerous languages{{snd}}from the 1728 ''[[Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Cyclopædia]]'' by letter founder [[William Caslon]]]]
A '''written language''' is the representation of a [[language]] by means of [[writing]]. This involves the use of visual symbols, known as [[grapheme]]s, to represent linguistic units such as [[phoneme]]s, [[syllables]], [[morpheme]]s, or [[word]]s. However, written language is not merely [[Spoken language|spoken]] or [[signed language]] written down, though it can approximate that. Instead, it is a separate system with its own norms, structures, and stylistic conventions, and it often evolves differently than its corresponding spoken or signed language.

Written languages serve as crucial tools for communication, enabling the recording, preservation, and transmission of information, ideas, and culture across time and space. The [[orthography]] of a written language comprises the norms by which it is expected to function, including rules regarding spelling and typography. A society's use of written language generally has a profound impact on its social organization, cultural identity, and technological profile.

== Relationship with spoken and signed language ==
[[File:Diagram of the spoken, written, and signed modalities of language.svg|thumb|The relationship between spoken, written, and signed modes of language, as modeled by Beatrice Primus et&nbsp;al.{{sfnmp|1a1=Meletis|1a2=Dürscheid|1y=2022|1p=17|Primus|2003|2p=6}} While many spoken or signed languages are not written, there are no written languages without a spoken counterpart that they originally emerged to record.]]
[[Writing]], [[speech]], and [[Sign language|signing]] are three distinct modalities of [[language]]; each has unique characteristics and conventions.{{sfnp|Chafe|1994}} When discussing properties common to the modes of language, the individual speaking, signing, or writing will be referred to as the ''sender'', and the individual listening, viewing, or reading as the ''receiver''; senders and receivers together will be collectively termed ''agents''. The spoken, signed, and written modes of language mutually influence one another, with the boundaries between conventions for each being fluid—particularly in informal written contexts like taking quick notes or posting on social media.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baron |first=Naomi S. |title=Always On: Language in an Online and Mobile World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-531305-5}}</ref>

Spoken and signed language is typically more immediate, reflecting the local context of the conversation and the emotions of the agents, often via paralinguistic cues like [[body language]]. Utterances are typically less premeditated, and are more likely to feature informal vocabulary and shorter sentences.{{sfnp|Biber|1988}} They are also primarily used in dialogue, and as such include elements that facilitate [[turn-taking]]; these including [[prosodic]] features such as trailing off and [[Filler (linguistics)|filler]]s that indicate the sender has not yet finished their turn. Errors encountered in spoken and signed language include [[disfluencies]] and hesitation.{{sfnp|Meletis|Dürscheid|2022|p=22}}

By contrast, written language is typically more structured and formal. While speech and signing are transient, writing is permanent. It allows for planning, revision, and editing, which can lead to more complex sentences and a more extensive vocabulary. Written language also has to convey meaning without the aid of tone of voice, facial expressions, or body language, which often results in more explicit and detailed descriptions.{{sfnp|Tannen|1982}}

While a speaker can typically be identified by the quality of their voice, the author of a written text is often not obvious to a reader only analyzing the text itself. Writers may nevertheless indicate their identity via the graphical characteristics of their [[handwriting]].{{sfnp|Subaćius|2023|p=306}}

Written languages generally change more slowly than their spoken or signed counterparts. As a result, the written form of a language may retain archaic features or spellings that no longer reflect contemporary speech.{{sfnp|Lerer|2007}} Over time, this divergence may contribute to a dynamic of diglossia.

=== Grammar ===
There are too many grammatical differences to address, but here is a sample. In terms of [[clause]] types, written language is predominantly declarative (e.g. ''It's red.'') and typically contains fewer [[Imperative mood|imperatives]] (e.g. ''Make it red.''), [[interrogatives]] (e.g. ''Is it red?''), and exclamatives (e.g. ''How red it is!'') than spoken or signed language. [[Noun phrase]]s are generally predominantly [[Grammatical person|third person]], but they are even more so in written language. [[Verb phrase]]s in spoken English are more likely to be in [[Uses of English verb forms|simple aspect]] than in perfect or progressive aspect, and almost all of the past perfect verbs appear in written fiction.{{sfnp|Biber|Johansson|Leech|Conrad|1999|p=461}}

=== Information packaging ===
[[Information packaging]] is the way that information is packaged within a sentence, that is the linear order in which information is presented. For example, ''On the hill, there was a tree'' has a different informational structure than ''There was a tree on the hill''. While, in English, at least, the second structure is more common, the first example is relatively much more common in written language than in spoken language. Another example is that a construction like ''it was difficult to follow him'' is relatively more common in written language than in spoken language, compared to the alternative packaging ''to follow him was difficult''.{{sfnp|Smolka|2017}} A final example, again from English, is that the [[passive voice]] is relatively more common when writing than when speaking.{{sfnp|Biber|Johansson|Leech|Conrad|1999|p=938}}

=== Vocabulary ===
Written language typically has higher [[lexical density]] than spoken or signed language, meaning there is a wider range of vocabulary used and individual words are less likely to be repeated. It also includes fewer first and second-person pronouns and fewer interjections. Written English has fewer verbs and more nouns than spoken English, but even accounting for that, verbs like ''think'', ''say'', ''know'', and ''guess'' appear relatively less commonly with a content clause complement (e.g. ''I think <u>that it's OK</u>.'') in written English than in spoken English.{{sfnp|Biber|Johansson|Leech|Conrad|1999|p=668}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of writing}}
Writing developed independently in a handful of different locations, namely [[Mesopotamia]] and Egypt ({{circa|3200|3100 BCE}}), [[China]] ({{cx|1250 BCE}}), and [[Mesoamerica]] ({{cx|1 CE}}).{{sfnp|Houston|2004}} Scholars mark the difference between [[prehistory]] and [[history]] with the invention of the first written language.{{sfnp|Roth|1997}} The first writing can be dated back to the [[Neolithic]] era, with clay tablets being used to keep track of livestock and commodities. The first example of written language can be dated to [[Uruk]], at the end of the 4th millennium&nbsp;BCE.{{sfnp|Ong|1982}} An ancient Mesopotamian poem tells a tale about the invention of writing:
{{Blockquote|Because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat, the Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and put words on it, like a tablet. Until then, there had been no putting words on clay.|''[[Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta]]'' ({{cx|1800 BCE}}){{sfnp|Goody|1986}}}}

=== Origins ===
[[File:Sales contract Shuruppak Louvre AO3766.jpg|thumb|A clay tablet with cuneiform writing]]
The origins of written language are tied to the development of human civilization. The earliest forms of writing were born out of the necessity to record commerce, historical events, and cultural traditions.{{sfnp|Robinson|2007}} The first known true writing systems were developed during the early [[Bronze Age]] (late 4th millennium&nbsp;BCE) in ancient [[Sumer]], present-day southern Iraq. This system, known as [[cuneiform]], was [[pictographic]] at first, but later evolved into an alphabet, a series of wedge-shaped signs used to represent language [[phonemically]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crawford |first=Harriet |title=Sumer and the Sumerians |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-53338-6}}</ref>

At roughly the same time, the system of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] was developing in the [[Nile]] valley, also evolving from pictographic proto-writing to include phonemic elements.{{sfnp|Schmandt-Besserat|1997}} The [[Indus Valley civilization]] developed a form of writing known as the [[Indus script]] {{circa|2600&nbsp;BCE}}, although its precise nature remains undeciphered.{{sfnp|Parpola|1994}} The [[Chinese script]], one of the oldest continuously used writing systems in the world, originated around the late 2nd millennium&nbsp;BCE, evolving from [[oracle bone script]] used for [[divination]] purposes.{{sfnp|Boltz|1994}}

== Influence on society ==
The development and use of written language has had profound impacts on human societies, influencing everything from social organization and cultural identity to technology and the dissemination of knowledge.{{sfnp|Ong|1982}} [[Plato]] ({{circa|427}}{{snd}}348&nbsp;BCE), through the voice of [[Socrates]], expressed concerns in the dialogue ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' that a reliance on writing would weaken one's ability to memorize and understand, as written words would "create forgetfulness in the learners' souls, because they will not use their memories". He further argued that written words, being unable to answer questions or clarify themselves, are inferior to the living, interactive discourse of oral communication.{{sfnp|Meletis|Dürscheid|2022|p=6}}

Written language facilitates the preservation and transmission of culture, history, and knowledge across time and space, allowing societies to develop complex systems of law, administration, and education.{{sfnp|Goody|1986}}{{pn|date=July 2024}} For example, the invention of writing in ancient Mesopotamia enabled the creation of detailed legal codes, like the [[Code of Hammurabi]].{{sfnp|Roth|1997}}{{pn|date=July 2024}} The advent of digital technology has revolutionized written communication, leading to the emergence of new written genres and conventions, such as interactions via [[social media]]. This has implications for social relationships, education, and professional communication.{{sfnp|Crystal|2006}}{{pn|date=July 2024}}

=== Literacy and social mobility ===
[[Literacy]] is the ability to read and write. From a graphemic perspective, this ability requires the capability of correctly recognizing or reproducing graphemes, the smallest units of written language. Literacy is a key driver of [[social mobility]]. Firstly, it underpins success in formal education, where the ability to comprehend textbooks, write essays, and interact with written instructional materials is fundamental. High literacy skills can lead to better academic performance, opening doors to higher education and specialized training opportunities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Snow |first=C. |title=Reading for Understanding: Toward an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension |publisher=Rand Corporation |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8330-3105-1}}</ref>{{bsn|date=July 2024}}

In the job market, proficiency in written language is often a determinant of employment opportunities. Many professions require a high level of literacy, from drafting reports and proposals to interpreting technical manuals. The ability to effectively use written language can lead to higher paying jobs and upward career progression.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brandt |first=Deborah |title=Literacy in American Lives |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-00306-3}}</ref>{{bsn|date=July 2024}}

Literacy enables additional ways for individuals to participate in civic life, including understanding news articles and political debates to navigating legal documents.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Levine |first=P. |title=We Are the Ones We Have Been Waiting For: The Promise of Civic Renewal in America |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-993942-8}}</ref>{{bsn|date=July 2024}} However, disparities in literacy rates and proficiency with written language can contribute to [[social inequalities]]. Socio-economic status, race, gender, and geographic location can all influence an individual's access to quality literacy instruction. Addressing these disparities through inclusive and equitable education policies is crucial for promoting social mobility and reducing inequality.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gorski |first=P. C. |title=Case Studies on Diversity and Social Justice Education |last2=Sapp |first2=J. L. |publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-351-71072-5}}</ref>

=== Marshall McLuhan's perspective ===
The Canadian philosopher [[Marshall McLuhan]] (1911–1980) primarily presented his ideas about written language in ''[[The Gutenberg Galaxy]]'' (1962). Therein, McLuhan argued that the invention and spread of the [[printing press]], and the shift from [[oral tradition]] to written culture that it spurred, fundamentally changed the nature of human society. This change, he suggested, led to the rise of [[individualism]], [[nationalism]], and other aspects of modernity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leech |first=G. N. |year=1963 |title=The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man |journal=The Modern Language Review |type=Book review |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=542 |issn=0026-7937 |jstor=3719923}}</ref>

McLuhan proposed that written language, especially as reproduced in large quantities by the printing press, contributed to a linear and sequential mode of thinking, as opposed to the more holistic and contextual thinking fostered by oral cultures. He associated this linear mode of thought with a shift towards more detached and objective forms of reasoning, which he saw as characteristic of the modern age.  Furthermore, he theorized about the effects of different media on human consciousness and society. He famously asserted that "[[the medium is the message]]", meaning that the form of a medium embeds itself in any message it would transmit or convey, creating a symbiotic relationship by which the medium influences how the message is perceived.

While McLuhan's ideas are influential, they have also been critiqued and debated. Some scholars argue that he overemphasized the role of the medium (in this case, written language) at the expense of the content of communication.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lister |first=Martin |title=New Media: A Critical Introduction |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-43161-3}}</ref> It has also been suggested that his theories are overly deterministic, not sufficiently accounting for the ways in which people can use and interpret media in varied ways.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carey |first=James W. |title=Communication as Culture |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-203-92891-2 |editor-last=Carey |editor-first=James W. |edition=Rev. |pages=96–112 |chapter=Overcoming Resistance to Cultural Studies |doi=10.4324/9780203928912-12 |editor-last2=Adam |editor-first2=G. Stuart}}</ref>

=== <span class="anchor" id="Diglossia"></span><span class="anchor" id="Digraphia"></span>Diglossia and digraphia ===
{{Main|Diglossia|Digraphia}}
Diglossia is a sociolinguistic phenomenon where two distinct varieties of a language{{snd}}often one spoken and one written{{snd}}are used by a single language community in different social contexts.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1959|pp=325–340}}

The "high variety", often the written language, is used in formal contexts, such as literature, formal education, or official communications. This variety tends to be more standardized and conservative, and may incorporate older or more formal vocabulary and grammar.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hudson |first=Richard A. |title=Sociolinguistics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-29668-7}}</ref> The "low variety", often the spoken language, is used in everyday conversation and informal contexts. It is typically more dynamic and innovative, and may incorporate regional dialects, slang, and other informal language features.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Romaine |first=S. |title=Bilingualism |publisher=Blackwell |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-631-19539-9}}</ref>

Diglossic situations are common in many parts of the world, including the [[Arab world]], where the high [[Modern Standard Arabic]] variety coexists with other, low [[varieties of Arabic]]  local to specific regions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badawi |first=Elsald |title=Modern Written Arabic: A Comprehensive Grammar |last2=Carter |first2=Mike G. |last3=Gully |first3=Adam |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-415-66749-4}}</ref> Diglossia can have significant implications for language education, literacy, and sociolinguistic dynamics within a language community.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Myers-Scotton |first=Carol |title=Multiple Voices: An Introduction to Bilingualism |publisher=Blackwell |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-631-21936-1}}</ref> 

Analogously, ''[[digraphia]]'' occurs when a language may be written in different scripts. For example, [[Serbian language|Serbian]] may be written using either the [[Cyrillic]] or [[Latin script]], while [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] may be written in [[Devanagari]] or the [[Urdu alphabet]].{{sfnp|Coulmas|2002|pp=231–232}}

== Orthography ==
{{Main|Orthography}}
{{Further|Writing system}}
Writing systems can be broadly classified into several types based on the units of language they correspond with: namely logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic.{{sfnp|Daniels|Bright|1996}} They are distinct from [[phonetic transcription]]s with technical applications, which are not used as writing as such. For example, notation systems for signed languages like [[SignWriting]] been developed,{{sfnp|Galea|2014}} but it is not universally agreed that these constitute a written form of the sign language in themselves.{{sfnp|Meletis|2020|p=69}}

Orthography comprises the rules and conventions for writing a given language,{{sfnp|Crystal|2008}} including how its graphemes are understood to correspond with speech. In some orthographies, there is a one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes, as in [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]].{{sfnp|Venezky|1999}} These are known as ''shallow orthographies''. In contrast, orthographies like that of English and French are considered ''deep orthographies'' due to the complex relationships between sounds and symbols.{{sfnp|Roberts|2013|p=96}} For instance, in English, the phoneme  {{IPAslink|f}} can be represented by the graphemes {{gpm|f}} as in {{gpm|fish}}, {{gpm|ph}} as in {{gpm|phone}}, or {{gpm|gh}} as in {{gpm|enough}}.{{sfnp|Kessler|Treiman|2005|pp=120-134}}

Orthographies also include rules about punctuation, capitalization, word breaks, and emphasis. They may also include specific conventions for representing foreign words and names, and for handling spelling changes to reflect changes in pronunciation or meaning over time.{{sfnp|Carney|1994}}

== See also ==
* [[Foreign-language writing aid]]
* [[Graphocentrism]]
* [[History of ancient numeral systems]]
* [[List of languages by first written account]]
* [[List of language disorders]]
* [[List of writing systems]]
* [[Literary language]]
* [[Standard language]]
* [[Text linguistics]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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** {{Harvc |in1=Borgwaldt |in2=Joyce |year=2013 |first=David |last=Roberts |c=A tone orthography typology |pages=85–112}}
* {{Cite book |last=Carney |first=Edward |title=A Survey of English Spelling |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-138-00668-3}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Orthography|year=2023|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-48731-3|editor-last=Condorelli|editor-first=Marco|series=Cambridge handbooks in language and linguistics|editor-last2=Rutkowska|editor-first2=Hanna}}
** {{Harvc |in1=Condorelli |in2=Rutkowska |year=2023 |first=Giedrius |last=Subaćius |c=Materiality of writing |pages=305–323}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Smolka |first=Vladislav |year=2017 |title=What Comes First, What Comes Next: Information Packaging in Written and Spoken Language |journal=Auc Philologica |issue=1 |pages=51–61 |doi=10.14712/24646830.2017.4 |issn=2464-6830 |doi-access=free}}
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{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Coulmas |first=Florian |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems |publisher=Blackwell |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-631-21481-6}}
{{Refend}}

{{Writing}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Writing]]
[[Category:Orthography]]
[[Category:Language varieties and styles]]