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{{Short description|1939–1940 war between the Soviet Union and Finland}}
{{About|the 1939–1940 war between the Soviet Union and Finland|other uses}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2018}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=January 2018}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Winter War
| partof            = the [[European theatre of World War II]]
| image             = Winter war.jpg
| image_size        = 300px
| alt               = A group of Finnish soldiers in snowsuits manning a heavy machine gun in a foxhole.
| caption           = A Finnish [[Maxim M/09-21]] machine gun crew during the Winter War
| date              = 30 November 1939 – 13 March 1940<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=30|year1=1939|month2=03|day2=13|year2=1940}})
| place             = Eastern [[Finland]]
| territory         = Cession of the [[Gulf of Finland]] islands, [[Karelian Isthmus]], [[Ladoga Karelia]], [[Salla]], [[Rybachy Peninsula]] and lease of [[Hanko, Finland|Hanko]] to the Soviet Union
| result            = <!-- See talk page; gain new consensus before changing. -->[[Moscow Peace Treaty]]
| combatant2        = '''{{flag|Soviet Union|1936}}'''
* [[Finnish Democratic Republic]]
| combatant1        = '''{{flag|Finland}}'''
* [[Foreign support of Finland in the Winter War|Foreign volunteers]]
| commander2        = {{Plain list|
* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} '''[[Joseph Stalin]]'''
* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} '''[[Kliment Voroshilov]]'''
* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} '''[[Semyon Timoshenko]]'''
* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[Kirill Meretskov]]
* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[Vladimir Grendal]]
* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[Grigori Shtern]]
* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[Mikhail Dukhanov]]
* {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[Valerian Frolov]]
}}
| commander1        = {{Plain list|
* {{flagicon|Finland}} '''[[Kyösti Kallio]]'''
* {{flagicon|Finland}} '''[[C.G.E. Mannerheim]]'''
* {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Hugo Österman]]
* {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Harald Öhquist]]
* {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Erik Heinrichs]]
* {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Woldemar Hägglund]]
* {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Wiljo Tuompo]]
}}
| strength2         = {{nowrap|425,000–760,000 soldiers{{refn|<ref name="Meltiukhov2000">[[#Meltiukhov2000|Meltiukhov (2000)]]: ch. 4, Table 10</ref> 550,757 soldiers on 1 January 1940 and 760,578 soldiers by the beginning of March.<ref name="Krivo1997_63">[[#Krivo1997|Krivosheyev (1997)]], p. 63</ref> In the Leningrad Military District, 1,000,000 soldiers<ref name="Kilin1999_383">[[#Kilin1999|Kilin (1999)]], p. 383</ref> and 20 divisions one month before the war and 58 divisions two weeks before its end.<ref>[[#Manninen1994|Manninen (1994)]], p. 43</ref> |group="F"}}}}<br /> 2,514–6,541 tanks{{refn|At the beginning of the war, the Soviets had 2,514 tanks and 718 armoured cars. The main battlefield was the Karelian Isthmus where the Soviets deployed 1,450 tanks. At the end of the war the Soviets had 6,541 tanks and 1,691 armoured cars. The most common tank type was [[T-26]], but also [[BT tank|BT]] type was very common.<ref name="Kanta1998_260">[[#Kanta1998|Kantakoski (1998)]], p. 260</ref>|group="F"}}<br />3,880 aircraft<ref name="Trotter 2002 p. 187">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 187</ref>
| strength1         = {{nowrap|300,000–340,000 soldiers{{refn|At the beginning of the war, the Finns had 300,000 soldiers. The Finnish Army had 250,028 rifles and a total of 281,594 firearms. The [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guards]] brought their own firearms (over 114,000 rifles and a total 116,800 firearms) to the war. The Finnish Army reached its maximum strength at the beginning of March 1940 with 346,000 soldiers in uniform.<ref name="Palo1999_299-300">[[#Palo1999|Palokangas (1999)]], pp. 299–300</ref><ref name="JK2005_83">[[#Juuti&Koski2005|Juutilainen & Koskimaa (2005)]], p. 83</ref>|group="F"}}}}<br />32 tanks{{refn|From 1919 onwards, the Finns possessed 32 French [[Renault FT]] tanks and a few lighter tanks. These were unsuitable for the war and they were subsequently used as fixed [[Bunker#Pillbox|pillboxes]]. The Finns bought 32 British [[Vickers 6-Ton]] tanks during 1936–39, but without weapons. Weapons were intended to be manufactured and installed in Finland. Only 10 tanks were fit for combat at the beginning of the conflict.<ref name="Palo1999_318">[[#Palo1999|Palokangas (1999)]], p. 318</ref>|group="F"}}<br />114 aircraft{{refn|On 1 December 1939 the Finns had 114 combat aeroplanes fit for duty and seven aeroplanes for communication and observation purposes. Almost 100 aeroplanes were used for flight training purposes, unsuitable for combat or under repair. In total, the Finns had 173 aircraft and 43 reserve aircraft.<ref name="Peltonen">[[#Peltonen|Peltonen (1999)]]</ref>|group="F"}}
| casualties2       = 126,875–167,976 dead or missing<ref name="Krivo1997_77-78">[[#Krivo1997|Krivosheyev (1997)]], pp. 77–78</ref><ref name="Kilin2007b_91">[[#Kilin2007b|Kilin (2007b)]], p. 91</ref><ref name=autogenerated3>[[#Petrov2013|Petrov (2013)]]</ref><ref name="Sokolov00_340">[[#Sokolov00|Sokolov (2000)]], p. 340</ref><br />188,671–207,538 wounded or sick<ref name="Krivo1997_77-78"/><ref name="Kilin2007b_91" /> (including at least 61,506 sick or [[frostbitten]]<ref name="Krivosheyev, Table 100">{{Cite web|url=http://rus-sky.com/history/library/w/w04.htm|title=РОССИЯ И СССР В ВОЙНАХ XX ВЕКА. Глава III. ЛЮДСКИЕ ПОТЕРИ КРАСНОЙ АРМИИ ЗА ВРЕМЯ ГРАЖДАНСКОЙ ВОЙНЫ И ИНОСТРАННОЙ ВОЕННОЙ ИНТЕРВЕНЦИИ.|website=rus-sky.com|access-date=11 September 2018|archive-date=12 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512205514/http://rus-sky.com/history/library/w/w04.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>)<br />5,572 [[Soviet prisoners of war in Finland|captured]]<ref name="Manninen1999b_815">[[#Manninen1999b|Manninen (1999b)]], p. 815</ref><br />1,200–3,543 tanks<ref name="Kilin1999">[[#Kilin1999|Kilin (1999)]] p. 381</ref><ref name="Kanta1998_286">[[#Kanta1998|Kantakoski (1998)]], p. 286</ref><ref name="Manninen1999b_810-811">[[#Manninen1999b|Manninen (1999b)]], pp. 810–811</ref><br />261–515 aircraft<ref name="Manninen1999b_810-811"/><ref name="Kilin1999_381">[[#Kilin1999|Kilin (1999)]], p. 381</ref><br />'''321,000–381,000 total casualties'''
| casualties1       = 25,904 dead or missing<ref name="Kur&Lent2005_1152">[[#Kur&Lent2005|Kurenmaa and Lentilä (2005)]], p. 1152</ref><br />43,557 wounded<ref name=autogenerated2>[[#Lent&Juuti1999|Lentilä and Juutilainen (1999)]], p. 821</ref><br />800–1,100 [[Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union|captured]]<ref name="Malmi1999_792">[[#Malmi1999|Malmi (1999)]], p. 792</ref><br />20–30 tanks <br />62 aircraft<ref name="Tillo1993_160"/><br />1 [[Tarmo (1907 icebreaker)|armed icebreaker]] damaged <br /> [[Finnish Ladoga Naval Detachment]] ceded to the Soviet Union <br />'''70,000 total casualties'''
| notes       =
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox Winter War}}
|}}
{{WWIITheatre}}
{{Campaignbox Scandinavia in World War II}}
{{Campaignbox Finland 1939-1945}}
{{Winter War}}

The '''Winter War'''{{refn|This name is translated as follows: {{langx|fi|talvisota}}, {{langx|sv|Vinterkriget}}, {{langx|ru|Зи́мняя война́|Zimnyaya voyna}}. The names '''Soviet–Finnish War 1939–1940''' ({{langx|ru|link=no|Сове́тско-финская война́ 1939–1940}}) and '''Soviet–Finland War 1939–1940''' ({{langx|ru|link=no|Сове́тско-финляндская война́ 1939–1940}}) are often used in Russian [[historiography]];<ref>[[#Baryshnikov2005|Baryshnikov (2005)]]</ref><ref>[[#Kovalyov2006|Kovalyov (2006)]]</ref><ref>[[#Shirokorad2001|Shirokorad (2001)]]</ref> '''Russo-Finnish War 1939–1940''' or '''Finno-Russian War 1939–1940''' are used by the U.S. [[Library of Congress]]'s catalogue (see authority control).|group="F"}} was a war between the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Finland]]. It began with a Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939, three months after the outbreak of [[World War II]], and ended three and a half months later with the [[Moscow Peace Treaty]] on 13 March 1940. Despite superior military strength, especially in tanks and aircraft, the Soviet Union suffered severe losses and initially made little headway. The [[League of Nations]] deemed the attack illegal and expelled the Soviet Union from its organization.

The Soviets made several demands, including that Finland cede substantial border territories in exchange for land elsewhere, claiming security reasons — primarily the protection of [[Leningrad]], {{convert|32|km|mi|lk=off|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} from the Finnish border. When Finland refused, the Soviets invaded. <!-- WP:LEAD: "As a general rule of thumb, a lead section should contain no more than four well-composed paragraphs and be carefully sourced as appropriate";
WP:CITELEAD: "The necessity for citations in a lead should be determined on a case-by-case basis by editorial consensus"; and
WP:CREATELEAD: "While not usually required, we often include a few references with any controversial content in the lead to prevent edit wars. Controversial content often draws fire and demands for references, so we usually oblige".

The following sentence has been formulated during a debate that took almost a year between 2014 and 2015 (see talk). The article has been promoted to FA since and the paragraph copyedited. Please discuss before substantial amendments. --> Most sources conclude that the Soviet Union had intended to conquer all of Finland, and cite the establishment of the [[Finnish Democratic Republic|puppet Finnish Communist government]] and the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]]'s secret protocols as evidence of this,{{refn|See the [[#Shelling of Mainila and Soviet intentions|relevant section]] and the following sources:<ref name=":0">[[#Manninen2008|Manninen (2008)]], pp. 37, 42, 43, 46, 49</ref><ref name=":1">[[#Rentola|Rentola (2003)]] pp. 188–217</ref><ref name=":2">[[#Ravasz|Ravasz (2003)]] p. 3</ref><ref name=":3">[[#Clemmesen|Clemmesen and Faulkner (2013)]] p. 76</ref><ref name=":4">[[#Zeiler|Zeiler and DuBois (2012)]] p. 210</ref><ref name=":5">[[#reiter|Reiter (2009)]], p. 124</ref>|group="F"}} while other sources argue against the idea of a full Soviet conquest.{{refn|See the [[#Shelling of Mainila and Soviet intentions|relevant section]] and the following sources:<ref name=":6">[[#Chubaryan|Chubaryan (2002)]], p. xvi</ref><ref name="Trotter_17">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 17</ref><ref name="Lightbody_55">[[#Lightbody2004|Lightbody (2004)]], p. 55</ref><ref name="Kotkin_966_974_1008">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 966, 974, 1008</ref>|group="F"}} Finland repelled Soviet attacks for more than two months and inflicted substantial losses on the invaders in temperatures as low as {{convert|-43|C|F}}. The battles focused mainly on [[Battle of Taipale|Taipale]] along the [[Karelian Isthmus]], on [[Battle of Kollaa|Kollaa]] in [[Ladoga Karelia]] and on [[Battle of Raate Road|Raate Road]] in [[Kainuu]], but there were also battles in [[Lapland (Finland)|Lapland]] and [[North Karelia]].

Following the initial setbacks, the Soviets reduced their strategic objectives and put an end to the puppet Finnish communist government in late January 1940, and informed the legitimate Finnish government that they were willing to negotiate peace.<ref name=reiter2009>[[#reiter|Reiter (2009)]], pp. 126, 127</ref><ref name="Trotter 2002 pp. 234">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 234–235</ref> After the Soviet military reorganized and adopted different tactics, they renewed their offensive in February 1940 and overcame the Finnish defences on the Karelian Isthmus. This left the Finnish Army in the main theatre of war near the breaking point, with a retreat seeming inevitable. Consequently, Finnish commander-in-chief [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]] urged a peace deal with the Soviets, while the Finns still retained bargaining power.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mannerheim |first1=Carl Gustaf Emil |title=Memoirs |date=1953 |publisher=E.P. Dutton & Company |pages=364–365}}</ref>

Hostilities ceased in March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty in which Finland ceded 9% of its territory to the Soviet Union. Soviet losses were heavy, and the country's international reputation suffered.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/winter-war-finland.html|title=The Winter War – When the Finns Humiliated the Russians|first=Ivano|last=Massari|publisher=War History Online|date=18 August 2015|access-date=19 December 2021|archive-date=19 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219185618/https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/winter-war-finland.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Their gains exceeded their pre-war demands, and the Soviets received substantial territories along [[Lake Ladoga]] and further north. Finland retained its [[sovereignty]] and enhanced its international reputation. The poor performance of the [[Red Army]] encouraged German Chancellor [[Adolf Hitler]] to believe that an attack on the Soviet Union would be successful and confirmed negative Western opinions of the Soviet military. After 15 months of [[Interim Peace]], in June 1941, [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] commenced [[Operation Barbarossa]], and the [[Continuation War]] between Finland and the Soviets began.

==Background==
{{Main|Background of the Winter War}}{{See also|Timeline of the Winter War|Treaty of Tartu (Finland–Russia)}}

=== Finnish-Soviet relations and politics ===
{{Main|East Karelian uprising|Soviet–Finnish Non-Aggression Pact}}
{{See also|Independence of Finland}}
[[File:Northern europe november 1939.png|thumb|alt=A geopolitical map of Northern Europe in which Finland, Sweden, Norway and Denmark are tagged as neutral nations, and the Soviet Union is shown having military bases in the nations of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.|Geopolitical status in Northern Europe in November 1939<ref name="KR2007_10">[[#KilinRaunio2007|Kilin and Raunio (2007)]], p. 10</ref>{{sfnp|Hough|2019}}
{{legend|#98c807|Neutral countries}}{{legend|#636466|Germany and annexed countries}}{{legend|#d13814|Soviet Union and annexed countries}}{{legend|#ef9421|Neutral countries with military bases established by Soviet Union in October 1939}}]]
Until the early nineteenth century, Finland was the eastern part of the [[Kingdom of Sweden]]. From 21 February 1808 to 17 September 1809, the [[Russian Empire]] waged the [[Finnish War]] against the Kingdom of Sweden, ostensibly to protect the Russian capital, [[Saint Petersburg]]. Eventually Russia conquered and [[annexation|annexed]] Finland, and converted it into an [[autonomous entity|autonomous]] [[buffer state]].<ref name="Trotter2">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter 2002]], pp. 3–5</ref> The resulting [[Grand Duchy of Finland]] enjoyed wide autonomy within Russia until the end of the nineteenth century, when Russia began attempts [[Russification of Finland|to assimilate Finland]] as part of a general policy to strengthen the central government and unify the Empire by [[Russification]]. Those attempts were aborted because of Russia's internal strife, but they ruined Russia's relationship with Finland. In addition, support increased in Finland for self-determination movements.<ref name="Trotter_4-6">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 4–6</ref>

[[World War I]] led to the collapse of the Russian Empire during the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the [[Russian Civil War]]. On 15 November 1917, the [[Bolshevik]] Russian government [[Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia|declared that national minorities possessed the right of self-determination]], including the right to secede and form a separate state, which gave Finland a window of opportunity. On 6 December 1917, the [[Senate of Finland]] [[Finnish Declaration of Independence|declared the nation's independence]]. [[Soviet Russia]], later the [[Soviet Union]], recognised the new Finnish government just three weeks after the declaration.<ref name= "Trotter_4-6"/> Finland achieved full sovereignty in May 1918 after a [[Finnish Civil War|four-month civil war]] in which the conservative [[Whites (Finland)|Whites]] defeated the socialist [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic|Reds]] with the help of the [[German Army (German Empire)|Imperial German Army]], pro-German [[Jäger Movement|Jägers]], and some Swedish troops, in addition to the expulsion of Bolshevik troops.<ref name="JS2006_3">[[#Jow&Snod2006|Jowett & Snodgrass (2006)]], p. 3</ref>

Finland joined the League of Nations in 1920 and sought security guarantees, but Finland's primary goal was co-operation with the [[Scandinavian countries]] (mainly Sweden), and focused on the exchange of information and on defence planning (the joint defence of [[Åland]], for example), rather than on [[military exercises]] or on the stockpiling and deployment of [[materiel]]. Nevertheless, Sweden carefully avoided committing itself to Finnish foreign policy.<ref name="Turtola1999a_21-24">[[#Turtola1999a|Turtola (1999a)]], pp. 21–24</ref> Finland's military policy included clandestine [[Finnish–Estonian defence cooperation|defence co-operation]] with [[Estonia]].<ref name="Turtola1999a_33-34">[[#Turtola1999a|Turtola (1999a)]], pp. 33–34</ref>

The period after the Finnish Civil War to the early 1930s was a politically unstable time in Finland because of the continued rivalry between the conservatives and the socialists. The [[Communist Party of Finland]] was declared illegal in 1931, and the nationalist [[Lapua Movement]] organised [[anticommunist]] violence, which culminated in a [[Mäntsälä rebellion|failed coup attempt]] in 1932. The successor of the Lapua Movement, the [[Patriotic People's Movement (Finland)|Patriotic People's Movement]], had a minor presence in national politics and never had more than 14 seats of the 200 in the [[Finnish Parliament]].<ref name="Edwards_26-27">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], pp. 26–27</ref> By the late 1930s, the export-oriented Finnish economy was growing and the nation's extreme political movements had diminished.<ref name="Edwards_18">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 18</ref>

[[File:Soviet-finnish-nonaggression-pact (protokol 1934).jpg|thumb|The [[Soviet–Finnish Non-Aggression Pact]] was signed by [[Aarno Yrjö-Koskinen]] and [[Maxim Litvinov]] in Moscow 1932.]]
After Soviet involvement in the Finnish Civil War in 1918, no formal peace treaty was signed. In 1918 and 1919, Finnish volunteers conducted two unsuccessful military incursions across the Soviet border, the [[Viena expedition|Viena]] and [[Aunus expedition]]s, to annex areas in [[Karelia]] that according to the [[Greater Finland]] ideology would combine all [[Baltic Finnic peoples]] into a single state. In 1920, Finnish communists based in Soviet Russia attempted to assassinate the former Finnish [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]] Commander-in-Chief, Marshal [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]]. On 14 October 1920, Finland and Soviet Russia signed the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Finnish)|Treaty of Tartu]], confirming the old border between the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland and Imperial Russia proper as the new Finnish–Soviet border. Finland also received [[Petsamo Province]], with its [[ice-free harbour]] on the Arctic Ocean.<ref>[[#Polvinen1987|Polvinen (1987)]], pp. 156–161, 237–238, 323, 454</ref><ref>[[#Engman07|Engman (2007)]], pp. 452–454</ref> Despite the signing of the treaty, relations between the two countries remained strained. The Finnish government allowed volunteers to cross the border to support the [[East Karelian uprising and Soviet–Finnish conflict of 1921–22|East Karelian uprising]] in Russia in 1921, and Finnish communists in the Soviet Union continued to prepare for revenge and staged a cross-border raid into Finland, the [[Pork mutiny|Pork Mutiny]], in 1922.<ref name="Turtola1999a_30-33">[[#Turtola1999a|Turtola (1999a)]], pp. 30–33</ref> In 1932, the [[Soviet–Finnish Non-Aggression Pact]] was signed between both countries, and it was reaffirmed for ten years in 1934.<ref name="Turtola1999a_30-33" /> Foreign trade in Finland was booming, but less than 1% of it was with the Soviet Union.<ref name="Edwards_31">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 31</ref> In 1934, the Soviet Union also joined the League of Nations.<ref name="Turtola1999a_30-33" />

=== Justification ===
[[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet General Secretary]] [[Joseph Stalin]] regarded it a disappointment that the Soviet Union could not halt the Finnish Revolution.<ref>[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], pp. 43–46</ref> He thought that the pro-Finland movement in Karelia posed a direct threat to [[Leningrad]] and that the area and defences of Finland could be used to invade the Soviet Union or restrict fleet movements.<ref>[[#VanDyke1997|Van Dyke (1997)]], p. 13</ref> Soviet propaganda then painted Finland's leadership as a "vicious and reactionary [[fascist]] clique". Field Marshal Mannerheim and [[Väinö Tanner]], the leader of the [[Finnish Social Democratic Party]], were targeted for particular scorn.<ref name="Edwards_32-33">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], pp. 32–33</ref> When Stalin gained absolute power through the [[Great Purge]] of 1938, the Soviets changed their foreign policy toward Finland and began to pursue the reconquest of the provinces of Tsarist Russia that had been lost during the chaos of the [[October Revolution|October Revolution of 1917]] and the Russian Civil War almost two decades earlier.<ref name="Murphy 2021 p. 7">[[#murphy2021|Murphy (2021)]], p. 7</ref> Soviet leaders believed that the old empire's extended borders provided territorial security and wanted Leningrad, only {{convert|32|km|mi|lk=off|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} from the Finnish border, to enjoy a similar level of security against the rising power of [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="Lightbody_52">[[#Lightbody2004|Lightbody (2004)]], p. 52</ref><ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 15</ref>

=== Negotiations ===
{{Main|Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact}}

[[File:Finland's White Guard and Uusimaa regiment on manoeuvres 1938 (5134B; JOKAHBL3B I16-3).tif|thumb|left|Finland's [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]] and [[Nyland Brigade|Uusimaa regiment]] on winter manoeuvres in Helsinki rural municipality in February 1938]]

In April 1938, [[NKVD]] agent [[Boris Yartsev]] contacted Finnish Foreign Minister [[Rudolf Holsti]] and Finnish Prime Minister [[Aimo Cajander]], stating that the Soviets did not trust Germany and that war was considered possible between the two countries. The Red Army would not wait passively behind the border but would rather "advance to meet the enemy". Finnish representatives assured Yartsev that Finland was committed to a policy of neutrality and that the country would resist any armed incursion. Yartsev suggested that Finland cede or lease some islands in the [[Gulf of Finland]] along the seaward approaches to Leningrad, but Finland refused.<ref name="Trotter_12-13">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 12–13</ref><ref name="Turtola1999a_32-33">[[#Turtola1999a|Turtola (1999a)]], pp. 32–33</ref>

Negotiations continued throughout 1938 without results. The Finnish reception of Soviet entreaties was decidedly cool, as the violent collectivisation and purges in Stalin's Soviet Union resulted in a poor opinion of the country. Most of the Finnish communist elite in the Soviet Union had been executed during the Great Purge, further tarnishing the Soviets' image in Finland. Meanwhile, Finland was attempting to negotiate a military co-operation plan with Sweden and hoping to jointly defend Åland.<ref name="Turtola1999a_34-35">[[#Turtola1999a|Turtola (1999a)]], pp. 34–35</ref>

The Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] in August 1939. It was publicly a [[non-aggression treaty]], but it included a secret protocol in which Central and Eastern European countries were divided into [[Sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. Finland fell into the Soviet sphere. On 1 September 1939, Germany began its [[invasion of Poland]], and two days later, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. On 17 September, the [[Soviet invasion of Poland]] began. After the fall of Poland, Germany and the Soviet Union exchanged occupied Polish lands to establish a new border in accordance with the provisions of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Estonia, [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] were soon [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|forced to accept treaties]] that allowed the Soviets to establish military bases on their soil.<ref name="EP1985_6">[[#Engle&Paan1985|Engle and Paananen (1985)]], p. 6</ref> Estonia accepted the [[ultimatum]] by signing the agreement on 28 September. Latvia and Lithuania followed in October. Unlike the three Baltic countries, Finland started a gradual [[mobilisation]] under the guise of "additional [[refresher training]]".<ref name= "Turtola1999a_38-41">[[#Turtola1999a|Turtola (1999a)]], pp. 38–41</ref> The Soviets had already started intensive mobilisation near the Finnish border in 1938–39.<ref name="Murphy 2021 p. 7"/> Assault troops thought to be necessary for the invasion did not begin deployment until October 1939. Operational plans made in September called for the invasion to start in November.<ref name="Ries1988_55-56">[[#Ries1988|Ries (1988)]], pp. 55–56</ref><ref name="Manninen1999a_141-148">[[#Manninen1999a|Manninen (1999a)]], pp. 141–148</ref>

On 5 October 1939, the Soviets invited a Finnish delegation to Moscow for negotiations. [[Juho Kusti Paasikivi]], the Finnish envoy to Sweden, was sent to Moscow to represent the Finnish government.<ref name="Turtola1999a_38-41" /> Furthermore, the negotiations were attended by Stalin in person, signalling the seriousness of the effort.<ref name="Kotkin_960">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 960</ref> Paasikivi would later recount his surprise over the friendly atmosphere in which the delegation was received, and mentioned the pleasant manners of Stalin towards them.<ref name="Kotkin_963">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 963</ref>

[[File:Field Kitchen before Winter War.jpg|alt=During additional refresher training, a Finnish soldier has his breakfast served into a mess kit by another soldier from a steaming field kitchen in the forests of the Karelian Isthmus. More soldiers, two of them visible, wait in line for their turn behind him. It is early October, and the snow has not yet set in.|thumb|Finnish soldiers gather breakfast from a [[field kitchen]] during "additional [[Refresher training (military)|refresher training]]" at the Karelian Isthmus, on 10 October 1939.]]
The meetings began on 12 October, with Molotov's offer of a mutual assistance pact, which the Finns immediately refused. To the Finns' surprise, Molotov dropped the offer and instead proposed an exchange of territory.<ref name="Kotkin_960"/> The offer stipulated that the Finnish-Soviet border on the [[Karelian Isthmus]] be moved westward to a point only {{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of [[Viipuri]] ({{Langx|ru|Vyborg}}) and that Finland destroy all existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus. Likewise, the delegation demanded the cession of islands in the Gulf of Finland as well as [[Rybachy Peninsula]] ({{langx|fi|Kalastajasaarento}}). The Finns would also have to lease the [[Hanko Peninsula]] for 30 years and to permit the Soviets to establish a [[military base]] there. In exchange, the Soviet Union would cede [[Repola]] and [[Porajärvi]] from [[Eastern Karelia]] (2120 square miles), an area twice the size as that of the territory demanded from Finland (1000 square miles).<ref name="Turtola1999a_38-41" /><ref name="Trotter_14-16">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 14–16</ref><ref name="Kotkin_962">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 962</ref>

The Soviet offer divided the Finnish government: [[Gustaf Mannerheim]] had argued for an agreement, being pessimistic of the Finnish prospects in a war against the Soviet Union.<ref name="Kotkin_970">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], p. 970</ref> But the Finnish government was reticent in reaching an agreement out of mistrust for Stalin: there was a fear of repeated follow-up demands, which would have put the future of Finnish sovereignty in danger. There were also those, such as Foreign Minister [[Eljas Erkko]] and Prime Minister [[Aimo Cajander]], and the Finnish intelligence in general, who mistook the demands and the Soviet military build-up as a mere bluff on the part of Stalin, and were thus disinclined to reach an agreement.<ref name="Kotkin_970"/>

The Finns made two counteroffers that would cede the [[Terijoki]] area to the Soviet Union. This would have doubled the distance between Leningrad and the Finnish border, but was far less than the Soviets had demanded.<ref name="Turtola1999a_41-43">[[#Turtola1999a|Turtola (1999a)]], pp. 41–43</ref> The Finns would also cede the islands in the Gulf of Finland, but they would not agree to lease any territory to the Soviet Union for military purposes.<ref>[[#Tanner1950|Tanner (1950)]]</ref><ref name="Kotkin_964">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], p. 964</ref>

On the next meeting on 23 October, Stalin lessened his demands: a reduction in the amount of land demanded in Karelia; a reduction of the Hanko garrison from 5000 to 4000 men; and reducing the length of lease from 30 years to whatever date the ongoing (second world) war in Europe would end.<ref name="Kotkin_965">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 965</ref> However, this sudden change, contrary to previous statements that Soviet demands were minimalist and thus unalterable, had surprised the Finnish government, and lead them to believe more concession may be forthcoming. Thus, Paasikivi's idea of reaching some sort of compromise by offering the Soviets the island of Jussarö and the fort of Ino were refused by Helsinki.<ref name="Kotkin_963_971">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 963, 971</ref>

On 31 October, Molotov publicly announced the Soviet demands to the [[Supreme Soviet]]. This surprised the Finns, and lent credibility to Soviet claims that their demands were minimalist and thus unalterable, as it would have been impossible to reduce them without a loss of prestige after having made them public.<ref name="Kotkin_966">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], p. 966</ref> However, the Soviet offer was eventually rejected with respect to the opinion of the public and Parliament.<ref name="Turtola1999a_41-43"/>

At the meeting on 9 November, Paasikivi announced to the attending Stalin and Molotov the Finnish refusal to accept even their reduced demands. The Soviets were visibly surprised. Finnish Foreign Minister [[Väino Tanner]] later wrote that "the eyes of our opposite numbers opened wide". Stalin had asked "You don't even offer Ino?"<ref name="Kotkin_971">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], p. 971</ref> This would become the final meeting: the Soviets stopped responding to further Finnish letters and on 13 November, when the Finnish delegation was recalled from Moscow, no Soviet officials came to see them off.<ref name="Kotkin_973">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], p. 973</ref> The Finns had left under the expectation that the negotiations would continue.<ref name="talvisodanpikkujattilainen-turtola12">{{cite book |last=Turtola | first=Martti |editor1-first=Jari |editor1-last=Leskinen |editor2-first=Antti |editor2-last=Juutilainen |title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen |date=1999 |pages=41–43 |chapter=Kansainvälinen kehitys Euroopassa ja Suomessa 1930-luvulla}}</ref> Instead, the Soviet Union ramped up its military preparations.<ref name="Kotkin_975">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], p. 975</ref>

The negotiations had failed, as neither side was willing to substantially reduce their demands, nor was either side able to fully trust the other. The Finns were fearful of an encroachment on their sovereignty, while the Soviets were (claiming to be) fearful of a springboard for international enemies in Finland, in close proximity to Leningrad. No promises to the contrary managed to persuade the other.<ref name="Kotkin_961_974">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 961, 974</ref> Additionally, both sides had misunderstood the others position: the Finns had assumed that the Soviets had opened up on a maximalist demand, ready to be traded down smaller. The Soviets instead had stressed the minimalist nature of their demands, and were incredulous over Finnish reluctance to agree.<ref name="Kotkin_964"/> Finally, there was also Stalin's unwillingness or inability to accept that any territorial concessions on the part of Finland would have only been possible by a 4/5th majority in the Finnish parliament. He had mocked such a requirement, proposing that they count his and Molotov's votes, too.<ref name="Kotkin_974">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 974</ref>

===Shelling of Mainila and Soviet intentions===
{{Main|Shelling of Mainila}}

On 26 November 1939, an incident was reported near the Soviet village of [[Mainila]], near the border with Finland. A Soviet border guard post had been shelled by an unknown party resulting, according to Soviet reports, in the deaths of four and injuries of nine border guards. Research conducted by several Finnish and Russian historians later concluded that the shelling was a [[false flag]] operation since there were no artillery units there, and it was carried out from the Soviet side of the border by an NKVD unit with the purpose of providing the Soviets with a ''[[casus belli]]'' and a pretext to withdraw from the non-aggression pact.<ref name="Ries1988_77-78">[[#Ries1988|Ries (1988)]], pp. 77–78</ref><ref>[[#murphy2021|Murphy (2021)]], p. 9</ref>{{refn|The Soviet role is confirmed in [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s memoirs, which states that Artillery Marshal [[Grigory Kulik]] had personally supervised the bombardment of the Soviet village.<ref name="Edwards_105">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 105</ref><ref name="Turtola1999a_44-45">[[#Turtola1999a|Turtola (1999a)]], pp. 44–45</ref>|group="F"}} Soviet war games held in March 1938 and 1939 had been based on a scenario in which border incidents taking place at the village of Mainila would spark the war.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leskinen | first=Jari |trans-title=Hushed bridge of Finland |title=Vaiettu Suomen silta |year=1997 |pages=406–407 |trans-chapter=Blockade of the Gulf of Finland and the Soviet Union |chapter=Suomenlahden sulku ja Neuvostoliitto |language=fi |isbn=951-710-050-7 |publisher=Hakapaino Oy |location=Helsinki}}</ref>

[[File:Press at Mainila.jpg|thumb|29 November 1939, foreign [[journalists]] at Mainila, where a [[Shelling of Mainila|border incident between Finland and the Soviet Union]] escalated into the Winter War|alt=A group of foreign journalists observes something during snowfall in Mainila, where a border incident between Finland and the Soviet Union escalated into the Winter War.]]

Molotov claimed that the incident was a Finnish artillery attack. He demanded that Finland apologise for the incident and to move its forces beyond a line {{convert|20|-|25|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the border.<ref>[[#Tanner1950|Tanner (1950)]], pp. 85–86</ref> Finland denied responsibility for the attack, rejected the demands and called for a joint Finnish–Soviet commission to examine the incident. In turn, the Soviet Union claimed that the Finnish response was hostile, renounced the non-aggression pact and severed diplomatic relations with Finland on 28 November. In the following years, [[Soviet historiography]] described the incident as Finnish provocation. Doubt on the official Soviet version was cast only in the late 1980s, during the policy of ''[[glasnost]]''. The issue has continued to divide Russian historiography even after the [[end of the Soviet Union]] in 1991.<ref name="Kilin2007a_99-100">[[#Kilin2007a|Kilin (2007a)]], pp. 99–100</ref><ref>[[#Aptekar|Aptekar (2009)]]</ref>

====Soviet intentions====
In 2013, Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] stated at a meeting with military historians that the Soviets had launched the Winter War to "correct mistakes" made in determining the border with Finland after 1917.<ref>[[#Yle2013|Yle News (2013)]]</ref> Opinion on the scale of the initial Soviet invasion decision is divided. The puppet Finnish communist government and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact's secret protocol is used as proof that the Soviet Union had intended to conquer all of Finland.{{refn|See the following sources:<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/><ref name=":2"/><ref name=":3"/><ref name=":4"/>|group="F"}}

On 1 December 1939, the Soviet Union formed a [[puppet government]], named the [[Finnish Democratic Republic]], to govern Finland after Soviet conquest.{{refn|See the following sources:<ref>[[#Tanner1950|Tanner (1950)]], p. 114</ref><ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 58, 61</ref><ref>[[#Kokoshin1998|Kokoshin (1998)]], p. 93</ref><ref name=Killham>[[#Killham1993|Killham (1993)]], p. 78</ref>|group="F"}} A declaration delivered via [[TASS]] stated:

{{Blockquote|The People's Government in its present composition regards itself as a provisional government. Immediately upon arrival in Helsinki, capital of the country, it will be reorganised and its composition enlarged by the inclusion of representatives of the various parties and groups participating in the people's front of toilers.<ref>[[#Coates1940|Coates (1940)]]</ref>}}

Soviet leaflets dropped over Helsinki on the first day of the war stated: "Finnish Comrades! We come to you not as conquerors, but as liberators of the Finnish people from the oppression of the capitalists and the landlords".<ref>[[#Elliston1940|Elliston (1940)]], p. 237</ref><ref>[[#Sander2013|Sander (2013)]], pp. 38, 39</ref>

In 1939, Soviet military leadership had formulated a realistic and comprehensive plan for the occupation of Finland.<ref>[[#Nenye2015|Nenye (2015)]], p. 50</ref> However, Joseph Stalin was not pleased with the conservative pace that the operation required and demanded new plans be drawn up. With the new plans, the key deadline for Finland's capitulation was to be Stalin's 60th birthday on 21 December.<ref>[[#Nenye2015|Nenye (2015)]], pp. 50, 51</ref> Convinced of the invasion's forthcoming success, [[Andrei Zhdanov]], chairman of the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union, commissioned a celebratory piece of music from [[Dmitri Shostakovich]], ''[[Suite on Finnish Themes]]'', intended to be performed as the marching bands of the Red Army paraded through Helsinki.<ref name="Edwards_98">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 98</ref><ref>[[#Nenye2015|Nenye (2015)]], p. 51</ref>  The Soviets were confident that the Western powers would not come to Finland's aid. Ivan Maisky, the Soviet ambassador to the UK, said: "Who would help? The Swedes? The British? The Americans? There's no way in hell. There will be a fuss in the press, moral support, moaning and whining. But troops, aircraft, cannons, and machine guns – no."<ref>Rentola K. (2016): Stalin ja Suomen kohtalo. Otava, Helsinki.</ref>

Hungarian historian István Ravasz wrote that the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet Central Committee]] had set out in 1939 that the former borders of the Tsarist Empire were to be restored, including Finland.<ref name=":2"/> American political scientist [[Dan Reiter]] stated that the Soviets "sought to impose a [[regime change]]" and thus "achieve absolute victory". He quoted Molotov, who had commented in November 1939 on the regime change plan to a Soviet ambassador that the new government "will not be Soviet, but one of a democratic republic. Nobody is going to set up Soviets over there, but we hope it will be a government we can come to terms with as to ensure the security of Leningrad".<ref name=":5"/> According to Russian historian [[Yuri Kilin]], the Soviet terms encompassed the strongest fortified approaches of the Finnish defences for a reason. He claimed that Stalin had little hope for such a deal but would play for time for the ongoing mobilisation. He stated the objective as being to secure Finland from being used as a staging ground by means of regime change.<ref>[[#Iltasanomat2019|Iltasanomat (2019)]]</ref>

Others argue against the idea of a complete Soviet conquest. American historian [[William R. Trotter]] asserted that Stalin's objective was to secure Leningrad's flank from a possible German invasion through Finland. He stated that "the strongest argument" against a Soviet intention of full conquest is that it did not happen in either 1939 or during the [[Continuation War]] in 1944 even though Stalin "could have done so with comparative ease".<ref name="Trotter_17"/> Bradley Lightbody wrote that the "entire Soviet aim had been to make the Soviet border more secure".<ref name="Lightbody_55"/> In 2002, Russian historian A. Chubaryan stated that no documents had been found in Russian archives that support a Soviet plan to annex Finland. Rather, the objective was to gain Finnish territory and to reinforce Soviet influence in the region.<ref name=":6"/>

American historian [[Stephen Kotkin]] also shares the position that the Soviet Union did not aim for annexation. He points out the different treatment Finland was given, compared to the Baltics: unlike the pacts of mutual assistance that the Baltics were pressured into, resulting in their total Sovietization, the Soviets demanded limited territorial concessions from Finland, and even offered land in return, which would not have made sense if full Sovietization was intended.<ref name="Kotkin_966_974">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 966, 974</ref> And according to Kotkin, Stalin seemed to be genuinely interested in reaching an agreement during the negotiations: he had personally attended six of the seven meetings with the Finns, and had multiple times reduced his demands.<ref name="Kotkin_974_975">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 974-975</ref> However, mutual mistrust and misunderstandings would mar the negotiations, producing an impasse.<ref name="Kotkin_961_974"/>

==Opposing forces==
===Soviet military plan===
Before the war, Soviet leadership had expected total victory within a few weeks. The Red Army had just completed the invasion of eastern Poland at a cost of fewer than 4,000 casualties after Germany attacked Poland from the west. Stalin's expectations of a quick Soviet triumph were backed up by politician [[Andrei Zhdanov]] and military strategist [[Kliment Voroshilov]], but other generals were more reserved. Red Army Chief of Staff [[Boris Shaposhnikov]] advocated a narrow-front assault right on the Karelian isthmus.<ref name ="Kotkin_981_994">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], pp. 981, 994</ref> Additionally, Shaposhnikov argued for a fuller build-up, extensive [[fire support]] and logistical preparations, a rational [[order of battle]] and the deployment of the army's best units. Zhdanov's military commander, [[Kirill Meretskov]], reported, "The terrain of coming operations is split by lakes, rivers, swamps, and is almost entirely covered by forests.... The proper use of our forces will be difficult". These doubts were not reflected in Meretskov's troop deployments, and he publicly announced that the Finnish campaign would take two weeks at most. Soviet soldiers had even been warned not to cross the border mistakenly into Sweden.<ref name="Trotter_34">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 34</ref>

Stalin's purges in the 1930s had devastated the officer corps of the Red Army; those purged included three of its five marshals, 220 of its 264 division or higher-level commanders and 36,761 officers of all ranks. Fewer than half of all the officers remained.<ref name="RConquest">[[#Conquest2007|Conquest (2007)]], p. 450</ref><ref>[[#Bullock1993|Bullock (1993)]], p. 489</ref> They were commonly replaced by soldiers who were less competent but more loyal to their superiors. Unit commanders were overseen by [[political commissars]], whose approval was needed to approve and ratify military decisions, which they evaluated based on their political merits. The dual system further complicated the Soviet chain of command<ref>[[#Glanz1998|Glanz (1998)]], p. 58</ref><ref name="Ries1988_56">[[#Ries1988|Ries (1988)]], p. 56</ref> and annulled the independence of commanding officers.<ref name="Edwards_189">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 189</ref>

After the Soviet success at the [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol]] against Japan, on the Soviet Union's eastern border, Soviet High Command had divided into two factions. One side was represented by the [[Spanish Civil War]] veterans General [[Pavel Rychagov]] from the [[Soviet Air Forces]]; the tank expert General [[Dmitry Pavlov (general)|Dmitry Pavlov]] and Stalin's favourite general, Marshal [[Grigory Kulik]], the chief of artillery.<ref>[[#Coox1985|Coox (1985)]], p. 996</ref> The other faction was led by Khalkhin Gol veterans General [[Georgy Zhukov]] of the Red Army and General [[Grigory Kravchenko]] of the Soviet Air Forces.<ref>[[#Coox1985|Coox (1985)]], pp. 994–995</ref> Under this divided command structure, the lessons of the Soviet Union's "first real war on a massive scale using tanks, artillery, and aircraft" at Khalkin Gol went unheeded.<ref name=autogenerated1>[[#Coox1985|Coox (1985)]], p. 997</ref> As a result, Russian [[BT tank]]s were less successful during the Winter War, and it took the Soviet Union three months and over a million men to accomplish what Zhukov had managed at Khalkhin Gol in ten days (albeit in completely different circumstances).<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>[[#Goldman2012|Goldman (2012)]], p. 167</ref>

===Soviet order of battle===
{{See also|Red Army}}
[[File:Ladoga Karelia terrain.jpg|thumb|Dense forests of Ladoga Karelia at [[Kollaa River|Kollaa]]. A Soviet tank on the road in the background according to the photographer.|alt=A ground-level photo at Kollaa, with trees in the foreground, a snowy field in-between and dense forests as well as a Soviet tank in the distance.]]

Soviet generals were impressed by the success of German ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'' [[Military tactics|tactics]], but they had been tailored to conditions in [[Central Europe]], with its dense well-mapped network of paved roads. Armies fighting there had recognised supply and communications centres, which could be easily targeted by armoured vehicle regiments. Finnish Army centres, in contrast, were deep inside the country. There were no paved roads, and even gravel or dirt roads were scarce. Most of the terrain consisted of trackless forests and swamps. The war correspondent [[John Langdon-Davies]] observed the landscape: "Every acre of its surface was created to be the despair of an attacking military force".<ref>[[#LangdonDavies1941|Langdon-Davies (1941)]], p. 7</ref> Waging ''Blitzkrieg'' in Finland was a highly-difficult proposition, and according to Trotter, the Red Army failed to meet the level of tactical co-ordination and local initiative that would be required to execute such tactics in Finland.<ref name="Trotter_35-36">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 35–36</ref>

Commander of the [[Leningrad Military District]] Kiril Meretskov initially ran the overall operation against the Finns.<ref name="Edwards_93">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 93</ref> The command was passed on 9 December 1939 to the General Staff Supreme Command (later known as [[Stavka]]), directly under Kliment Voroshilov (chairman), [[Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov|Nikolai Kuznetsov]], Stalin and Boris Shaposhnikov.<ref name="Edwards_125">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 125</ref><ref>[[#Manninen2008|Manninen (2008)]], p. 14</ref> On 28 December, when Stalin asked for volunteers to take over military command, Semyon Timoshenko offered himself on the condition that he be allowed to implement Shaposhnikov's initial plan of a focused attack on the Karelian Isthmus to break the Mannerheim Line; it was accepted.<ref name ="Kotkin_994">[[#Kotkin2017|Kotkin (2017)]], p. 994</ref><ref name="Trotter_204">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 204</ref> In January 1940, the Leningrad Military District was reformed and renamed "North-Western Front".<ref name="Trotter_204"/>

The Soviet forces were organised as follows:<ref name="Trotter_38-39">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 38–39</ref>

* The [[7th Army (Soviet Union)|7th Army]], comprising nine divisions, a tank corps and three tank brigades, was located on the Karelian Isthmus. Its objective was to quickly overrun the Finnish defenses on the Karelian Isthmus and conquer Viipuri. From there, the 7th Army was to continue towards Lappeenranta, then turn west towards Lahti, before the final push to the capital Helsinki. The force was later divided into the 7th and [[13th Army (Soviet Union)|13th Armies]].<ref name="KR2007_13">[[#KilinRaunio2007|Kilin and Raunio (2007)]], p. 13</ref><ref>[[#Nenye2015|Nenye (2015)]], p. 54</ref>
* The [[8th Army (Soviet Union)|8th Army]], comprising six divisions and a tank brigade, was north of Lake Ladoga. Its mission was to execute a flanking manoeuvre around the northern shore of Lake Ladoga to strike at the rear of the [[Mannerheim Line]].<ref name="KR2007_13" />
* The [[9th Army (Soviet Union)|9th Army]] was positioned to strike into Central Finland through the [[Kainuu]] region. It was composed of three divisions with one more on its way. Its mission was to thrust westward to cut Finland in half.<ref name="KR2007_13" />
* The [[14th Army (Soviet Union)|14th Army]], comprising three divisions, was based in [[Murmansk]]. Its objectives were to capture the [[Arctic]] port of [[Pechenga (urban-type settlement), Murmansk Oblast|Petsamo]] and then advance to the town of [[Rovaniemi]].<ref name="KR2007_13" />

===Finnish order of battle===
{{See also|Finnish Army}}
[[File:Winterwar-december1939-soviet-attacks.png|thumb|alt=Diagram of Soviet offensives at the start of the war illustrating the positions of the four Soviet armies and their attack routes. The Red Army invaded dozens of kilometres deep into Finland along the 1,340 km border during the first month of the war.|Offensives of the four Soviet armies from 30 November to 22 December 1939 displayed in red<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]]</ref><ref>[[#Lesk&Juuti1999|Leskinen and Juutilainen (1999)]]</ref>]]

The Finnish strategy was dictated by geography. The {{convert|1340|km|mi|abbr=on}}{{refn|This is the border length currently, not before the Winter War.|group="F"}} border with the Soviet Union was mostly impassable except along a handful of [[Dirt roads|unpaved road]]s. In prewar calculations, the Finnish [[Defence Command (Finland)|Defence Command]], which had established its wartime headquarters at [[Mikkeli]],<ref name="Trotter_38-39" /> had estimated seven Soviet divisions on the Karelian Isthmus and no more than five along the whole border north of Lake Ladoga. In the estimation, the manpower ratio would have favoured the attacker by three to one. The true ratio was much higher, however, since for example, 12 Soviet divisions were deployed north of Lake Ladoga.<ref name="Trotter_42-44">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 42–44</ref>

Finland had a large force of reservists that trained in regular maneuvers, some of whom had experience from the recent Finnish Civil War. The soldiers were also almost universally trained in basic survival techniques, such as skiing. While the Finnish Army was not able to equip all of its soldiers with proper uniforms at the outbreak of war, its reservists were equipped with warm civilian clothing. The sparsely populated, highly agrarian Finland had to draft so many of its working men that the [[Finnish economy]] became massively strained due to a lack of workers. An even greater problem than the lack of soldiers was the lack of materiel, as foreign shipments of anti-tank weapons and aircraft had arrived only in small quantities. Stockpiles of cartridges, shells, and fuel were sufficient to last only 19 to 60 days. The ammunition shortage meant that the Finns could seldom afford [[counter-battery fire|counter-battery]] or [[saturation fire]]. Finnish tank forces were operationally nonexistent.<ref name="Trotter_42-44" /> The ammunition situation was somewhat alleviated by the fact that the Finns were mostly armed with [[Mosin–Nagant]] rifles dating from the Finnish Civil War, which used the same [[7.62×54mmR]] cartridge as the Red Army. Finnish soldiers occasionally resorted to looting the bodies of dead Soviet soldiers in order to maintain their supply of ammunition.<ref>[[#Laemlein2013|Laemlein (2013)]] pp. 95–99</ref>

The Finnish forces were positioned as follows:<ref name="Trotter_47">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 47</ref>

* The [[Army of the Isthmus]] was composed of six divisions under the command of [[Hugo Viktor Österman|Hugo Österman]]. The [[Finnish II Corps (Winter War)|II&nbsp;Army Corps]] was positioned on its right flank and the [[Finnish III Corps (Winter War)|III&nbsp;Army Corps]], on its left flank.
* The [[Finnish IV Corps (Winter War)|IV&nbsp;Army Corps]] was located north of Lake Ladoga. It was composed of two divisions under [[Juho Heiskanen]], who was soon replaced by [[Woldemar Hägglund]].
* The [[North Finland Group]] was a collection of White Guards, [[border guard]]s and drafted [[reservist]] units under [[Wiljo Tuompo]].

==Soviet invasion==
=== Start of invasion and political operations ===
On 30 November 1939, Soviet forces invaded Finland with 21 divisions, totalling 450,000 men, and [[Bombing of Helsinki in World War II#Winter War|bombed Helsinki]],<ref name="KR2007_13" /><ref name="JS2006_6">[[#Jow&Snod2006|Jowett & Snodgrass (2006)]], p. 6</ref> killing about 100 citizens and destroying more than 50 buildings. In response to international criticism, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov stated that the Soviet Air Force was not bombing Finnish cities but rather dropping humanitarian aid to the starving Finnish population; the bombs were sarcastically dubbed [[Molotov bread basket]]s by Finns.<ref>[[#Paskhover2015|Paskhover (2015)]]</ref><ref>[[#RusMilArchive34980|Russian State Military Archive]] F.34980 Op.14 D.108</ref> The Finnish statesman J. K. Paasikivi commented that the Soviet attack without a [[declaration of war]] violated three separate non-aggression pacts: the Treaty of Tartu, which was signed in 1920, the non-aggression pact between Finland and the Soviet Union, which was signed in 1932 and again in 1934; and also the [[Covenant of the League of Nations]], which the Soviet Union signed in 1934.<ref name="Turtola1999a_44-45"/> Field Marshal C.G.E. Mannerheim was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the [[Finnish Defence Forces]] after the Soviet attack. In a further reshuffling, [[Cajander III Cabinet|Aimo Cajander's caretaker cabinet]] was replaced by [[Risto Ryti]] and [[Ryti I Cabinet|his cabinet]], with Väinö Tanner as foreign minister because of opposition to Cajander's prewar politics.<ref name="Trotter_48-51">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 48–51</ref> Finland brought the matter of the Soviet invasion before the League of Nations. The League expelled the Soviet Union on 14 December 1939 and exhorted its members to aid Finland.<ref name="Trotter_61" /><ref>[[#League of Nations|League of Nations (1939)]], pp. 506, 540</ref>

Headed by [[Otto Wille Kuusinen]], the Finnish Democratic Republic puppet government operated in the parts of Finnish Karelia occupied by the Soviets, and was also referred to as the "Terijoki Government", after the village of [[Zelenogorsk, Saint Petersburg|Terijoki]], the first settlement captured by the advancing Red Army.<ref name="Trotter_58">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 58</ref> After the war, the puppet government was reabsorbed into the Soviet Union. From the very outset of the war, working-class Finns stood behind the legitimate government in Helsinki.<ref name="Trotter_61">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 61</ref> Finnish national unity against the Soviet invasion was later called the [[spirit of the Winter War]].<ref name="Soikk1999_235">[[#Soikk1999|Soikkanen (1999)]], p. 235</ref>

===First battles and Soviet advance to Mannerheim Line===
[[File:Winterwar-december1939-karelianisthmus.png|thumb|alt=Diagram of the Karelian Isthmus, next to Leningrad, illustrates the positions of the Soviet and Finnish troops early in the war. The Red Army penetrated around 25 to 50 kilometres into Finnish territory on the Isthmus, but was stopped at the defensive Mannerheim Line.|The situation on 7 December: Soviets have reached the [[Mannerheim Line]] on the [[Karelian Isthmus]].{{legend|blue|Finnish division (XX) or corps (XXX)}}{{legend|red|Soviet division (XX), corps (XXX) or army (XXXX)}}]]

The array of Finnish defence structures that during the war started to be called the Mannerheim Line was located on the Karelian Isthmus approximately {{convert|30|to|75|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Soviet border. The Red Army soldiers on the Isthmus numbered 250,000, facing 130,000 Finns.<ref name="UittoGeust8">[[#GeustUitto2006|Geust; Uitto (2006)]], p. 54</ref> The Finnish command deployed a [[defence in depth]] of about 21,000 men in the area in front of the Mannerheim Line to delay and damage the Red Army before it reached the line.<ref name="Trotter_69">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 69</ref> In combat, the most severe cause of confusion among Finnish soldiers was Soviet tanks. The Finns had few [[anti-tank weapon]]s and insufficient training in modern [[Anti-tank warfare|anti-tank tactics]]. According to Trotter, the favoured Soviet armoured tactic was a simple frontal charge, the weaknesses of which could be exploited. The Finns learned that at close range, tanks could be dealt with in many ways; for example, logs and crowbars jammed into the [[Bogie#Tracked vehicles|bogie wheels]] would often immobilise a tank. Soon, Finns fielded a better ad hoc weapon, the [[Molotov cocktail]], a glass bottle filled with [[Flammability|flammable]] liquids and with a simple hand-lit [[Fuse (explosives)|fuse]]. Molotov cocktails were eventually mass-produced by the Finnish ''[[Alko]]'' alcoholic-beverage corporation and bundled with matches with which to light them. 80 Soviet tanks were destroyed in the border zone engagements.<ref name="Trotter_72-73">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 72–73</ref>

By 6 December, all of the Finnish covering forces had withdrawn to the Mannerheim Line. The Red Army began its first major attack against the Line in [[Solovyovo, Priozersky District, Leningrad Oblast|Taipale]]{{snd}}the area between the shore of Lake Ladoga, the [[Burnaya River|Taipale river]] and the [[Lake Sukhodolskoye|Suvanto]] waterway. Along the Suvanto sector, the Finns had a slight advantage of elevation and dry ground to dig into. The Finnish [[artillery]] had scouted the area and made fire plans in advance, anticipating a Soviet assault. The [[Battle of Taipale]] began with a forty-hour Soviet artillery preparation. After the [[Barrage (artillery)|barrage]], Soviet infantry attacked across open ground but was repulsed with heavy casualties. From 6 to 12 December, the Red Army continued to try to engage using only a single division. Next, the Red Army strengthened its artillery and deployed tanks and the [[150th Rifle Division (Russia)|150th Rifle Division]] forward to the Taipale front. On 14 December, the bolstered Soviet forces launched a new attack but were pushed back again. A third Soviet division entered the fight but performed poorly and panicked under shell fire. The assaults continued without success, and the Red Army suffered heavy losses. One typical Soviet attack during the battle lasted just an hour but left 1,000 dead and 27 tanks strewn on the ice.<ref name="Trotter_76-78">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 76–78</ref> North of Lake Ladoga on the [[Ladoga Karelia]] front, the defending Finnish units relied on the terrain. Ladoga Karelia, a large forest wilderness, did not have road networks for the modern Red Army.<ref name="Trotter_51-55">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 51–55</ref> The [[8th Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 8th Army]] had extended a new railroad line to the border, which could double the supply capability on the front. On 12 December, the advancing Soviet [[139th Rifle Division]], supported by the [[56th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|56th Rifle Division]], was defeated by a much smaller Finnish force under [[Paavo Talvela]] in [[Battle of Tolvajärvi|Tolvajärvi]], the first Finnish victory of the war.<ref name="Trotter_121">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 121</ref>

In Central and Northern Finland, roads were few and the terrain hostile. The Finns did not expect large-scale Soviet attacks, but the Soviets sent eight divisions, heavily supported by armour and artillery. The [[155th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|155th Rifle Division]] attacked at [[Battle of Ilomantsi (1939)|Ilomantsi]] and [[Lieksa]], and further north the [[44th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|44th]] attacked at [[Battle of Kuhmo|Kuhmo]]. The 163rd Rifle Division was deployed at [[Suomussalmi]] and ordered to cut Finland in half by advancing on Raate road. In [[Finnish Lapland]], the Soviet [[88th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|88th]] and 122nd Rifle Divisions attacked at [[Battle of Salla (1939)|Salla]]. The Arctic port of Petsamo was attacked by the 104th Mountain Rifle Division by sea and land, supported by [[Naval gunfire support|naval gunfire]].<ref name="Trotter_53-54">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 53–54</ref>

==Operations from December to January==
===Weather conditions===
{{See also|Climate of Finland|Cold-weather warfare}}
[[File:Camouflaged simo hayha.jpg|Swedish volunteer with a [[Swedish Mauser|Carl Gustaf M/96]] rifle wearing a face wool mask<ref name="Second World War the Military Photo Archive 2019">{{cite web|title=Swedish volunteer in position during the Soviet-Finnish War | website=Second World War the Military Photo Archive | date=29 April 2019 | url=https://albumwar2.com/swedish-volunteer-in-position-during-the-soviet-finnish-war/ | access-date=10 February 2023 | archive-date=10 February 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114930/https://albumwar2.com/swedish-volunteer-in-position-during-the-soviet-finnish-war/ | url-status=live | author1=Redarmyman }}</ref>|thumb|left]]

The winter of 1939–40 was exceptionally cold with the Karelian Isthmus experiencing a record low temperature of {{convert|-43|°C|°F|abbr=on}} on 16 January 1940.<ref name="Paula1999_292">[[#Paula1999|Paulaharju (1999)]], p. 292</ref> At the beginning of the war, only those Finnish soldiers who were in [[Active duty|active service]] had [[uniforms]] and [[weapons]]. The rest had to make do with their own clothing, which for many soldiers was their normal winter clothing with a semblance of insignia added. Finnish soldiers were skilled in [[cross-country skiing]].<ref name="Paula1999_289-290">[[#Paula1999|Paulaharju (1999)]], pp. 289–290</ref> The cold, snow, forest, and long hours of darkness were factors that the Finns could use to their advantage. The Finns dressed in layers, and the [[Ski warfare|ski troopers]] wore a lightweight white snow cape. This snow-camouflage made the ski troopers almost invisible so that they could more easily execute [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla attacks]] against Soviet columns. At the beginning of the war, Soviet tanks were painted in standard [[olive drab]] and men dressed in regular [[khaki]] uniforms. Not until late January 1940 did the Soviets paint their equipment white and issue [[snowsuit]]s to their infantry.<ref name="Trotter_145-146">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 145–146</ref>

Most Soviet soldiers had proper winter clothes, but this was not the case with every unit. In the [[Battle of Suomussalmi]], thousands of Soviet soldiers died of [[frostbite]]. The Soviet troops also lacked skill in skiing, so soldiers were restricted to movement by road and were forced to move in long columns. The Red Army lacked proper winter tents, and troops had to sleep in improvised shelters.<ref name="Paula1999_297-298">[[#Paula1999|Paulaharju (1999)]], pp. 297–298</ref> Some Soviet units incurred frostbite casualties as high as ten per cent even before crossing the Finnish border.<ref name="Trotter_145-146" /> However, the cold weather did give an advantage to Soviet tanks, as they could move over frozen terrain and bodies of water, rather than being immobilised in swamps and mud.<ref name="Paula1999_297-298" /> According to Krivosheev, at least 61,506 Soviet troops were sick or [[frostbitten]] during the war.<ref name="Krivosheyev, Table 100"/>

===Finnish guerrilla tactics===
{{see also|Sissi (Finnish light infantry)}}
[[File:Soviet tracks during chase.jpg|thumb|upright|Soviet tracks at [[Kiantajärvi|Kianta Lake]], Suomussalmi during a Finnish pursuit in December 1939. Nordic combined skier [[Timo Murama]] is pictured.|alt=A Finnish soldier on skis, with a fur hat and a tobacco pipe in his mouth, points with a ski pole at the snowy ground where Soviet soldiers have left tracks. The Finnish troops are in pursuit.]]

In battles from Ladoga Karelia to the Arctic port of [[Battle of Petsamo (1939)|Petsamo]], the Finns used [[guerrilla tactics]]. The Red Army was superior in numbers and material, but Finns used the advantages of speed, [[manoeuvre warfare]] and [[economy of force]]. Particularly on the Ladoga Karelia front and during the [[Battle of Raate road|Battle of Raate Road]], the Finns isolated smaller portions of numerically superior Soviet forces. With Soviet forces divided into smaller groups, the Finns dealt with them individually and attacked from all sides.<ref name="Trotter_131-132">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 131–132</ref>

For many of the encircled Soviet troops in a [[Pocket (military)|pocket]] (called a ''[[Pocket (military)#Motti|motti]]'' in Finnish, originally meaning {{Convert|1|m3|cuft|abbr=on}} of firewood), staying alive was an ordeal comparable to combat. The men were freezing and starving and endured poor sanitary conditions. Historian William R. Trotter described these conditions as follows: "The Soviet soldier had no choice. If he refused to fight, he would be shot. If he tried to sneak through the forest, he would freeze to death. And surrender was no option for him; Soviet propaganda had told him how the Finns would torture prisoners to death."<ref name="Trotter_148-149">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 148–149</ref> The problem however was that the Finns were mostly too weak to fully exploit their success. Some of the pockets of encircled Soviet soldiers held out for weeks and even months, binding a huge number of Finnish forces.

===Battles of the Mannerheim Line===
The terrain on the Karelian Isthmus did not allow guerrilla tactics, so the Finns were forced to resort to the more conventional Mannerheim Line, with its flanks protected by large bodies of water. Soviet propaganda claimed that it was as strong as or even stronger than the [[Maginot Line]]. Finnish historians, for their part, have belittled the line's strength, insisting that it was mostly conventional trenches and log-covered [[Dugout (military)|dugouts]].<ref name="Trotter_62-63">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 62–63</ref> The Finns had built 221 strong-points along the Karelian Isthmus, mostly in the early 1920s. Many were extended in the late 1930s. Despite these defensive preparations, even the most fortified section of the Mannerheim Line had only one [[reinforced concrete|reinforced-concrete]] bunker per kilometre. Overall, the line was weaker than similar lines in mainland Europe.<ref name="Vuore1999_494-495">[[#Vuore1999|Vuorenmaa (1999)]], pp. 494–495</ref> According to the Finns, the real strength of the line was the "stubborn defenders with a lot of ''[[sisu]]''" – a Finnish idiom roughly translated as "[[Courage|guts, fighting spirit]]".<ref name="Trotter_62-63" />

On the eastern side of the Isthmus, the Red Army attempted to break through the Mannerheim Line at the battle of Taipale. On the western side, Soviet units faced the Finnish line at Summa, near the city of Viipuri, on 16 December. The Finns had built 41 reinforced-concrete bunkers in the Summa area, making the defensive line in this area stronger than anywhere else on the Karelian Isthmus. Because of a mistake in planning, the nearby Munasuo swamp had a {{convert|1|km|mi|adj=on}}-wide gap in the line.<ref name="Laaks1999_407">[[#Laaksonen1999|Laaksonen (1999)]], p. 407</ref> During the [[battle of Summa|First Battle of Summa]], a number of Soviet tanks broke through the thin line on 19 December, but the Soviets could not benefit from the situation because of insufficient co-operation between branches of service. The Finns remained in their trenches, allowing the Soviet tanks to move freely behind the Finnish line, as the Finns had no proper anti-tank weapons. The Finns succeeded in repelling the main Soviet assault. The tanks, stranded behind enemy lines, attacked the strongpoints at random until they were eventually destroyed, 20 in all. By 22 December, the battle ended in a Finnish victory.<ref name="Laaks1999_411-412">[[#Laaksonen1999|Laaksonen (1999)]], pp. 411–412</ref>

The Soviet advance was stopped at the Mannerheim Line. Red Army troops suffered from poor morale and a shortage of supplies, eventually refusing to participate in more [[Human wave attack|suicidal frontal attacks]]. The Finns, led by General [[Harald Öhquist]], decided to launch a counter-attack and encircle three Soviet divisions into a ''motti'' near Viipuri on 23 December. Öhquist's plan was bold; however it failed. The Finns lost 1,300 men, and the Soviets were later estimated to have lost a similar number.<ref name="Trotter_87-89">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 87–89</ref>

===Battles in Ladoga Karelia and North Karelia===
[[File:Mestariampuja Simo Häyhä "Saharan kauhun" komppaniasta, SAKuva-9479.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Simo Häyhä]], the legendary Finnish sniper, known as "the White Death" in Finnish wartime propaganda<ref name="Kinnunen2019">[[#Kinnunen2019|Kinnunen (2019)]]</ref>]]

The strength of the Red Army north of Lake Ladoga in Ladoga Karelia surprised the Finnish Headquarters. Two Finnish divisions were deployed there, the 12th Division led by [[Lauri Tiainen]] and the 13th Division led by [[Hannu Hannuksela]]. They also had a support group of three [[brigade]]s, bringing their total strength to over 30,000. The Soviets deployed a [[Division (military)|division]] for almost every road leading west to the Finnish border. The 8th Army was led by [[Ivan Khabarov]], who was replaced by [[Grigory Shtern]] on 13 December.<ref name="KR2007_113">[[#KilinRaunio2007|Kilin and Raunio (2007)]], p. 113</ref> The Soviets' mission was to destroy the Finnish troops in the area of Ladoga Karelia and advance into the area between [[Sortavala]] and [[Joensuu]] within 10 days. The Soviets had a 3:1 advantage in manpower and a 5:1 advantage in artillery, as well as [[air supremacy]].<ref name="Juuti1999a_504-505">[[#Juuti1999a|Juutilainen (1999a)]], pp. 504–505</ref>

Finnish forces panicked and retreated in front of the overwhelming Red Army. The commander of the Finnish IV Army Corps Juho Heiskanen was replaced by Woldemar Hägglund on 4 December.<ref name="Juuti1999a_506">[[#Juuti1999a|Juutilainen (1999a)]], p. 506</ref> On 7 December, in the middle of the Ladoga Karelian front, Finnish units retreated near the small stream of Kollaa. The waterway itself did not offer protection, but alongside it, there were [[ridge]]s up to {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} high. The ensuing [[Battle of Kollaa]] lasted until the end of the war. A memorable quote, "Kollaa holds" ({{langx|fi|Kollaa kestää}}) became a legendary motto among Finns.<ref name="Juuti1999a_520">[[#Juuti1999a|Juutilainen (1999a)]], p. 520</ref> Further contributing to the legend of Kollaa was the sniper [[Simo Häyhä]], dubbed "the White Death" in Finnish media,<ref name="Kinnunen2019" /> credited with over 500 kills in the war.{{sfnp|Kauppinen|2017}} Captain [[Aarne Juutilainen]], dubbed "the Terror of Morocco", also became a living legend in the Battle of Kollaa.<ref>[https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-5495067 YLE: Marokon Kauhu nousi legendaksi Kollaalla] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103205732/https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-5495067 |date=3 November 2020 }} (in Finnish)</ref> To the north, the Finns retreated from [[Ägläjärvi]] to [[Tolvajärvi]] on 5 December and then repelled a Soviet offensive in the battle of Tolvajärvi on 11 December.<ref name="Trotter_110">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 110</ref>

In the south, two Soviet divisions were united on the northern side of the Lake Ladoga coastal road. As before, these divisions were trapped as the more mobile Finnish units counterattacked from the north to flank the Soviet columns. On 19 December, the Finns temporarily ceased their assaults due to exhaustion.<ref name="Juuti1999a_510-511">[[#Juuti1999a|Juutilainen (1999a)]], pp. 510–511</ref> It was not until the period of 6–16 January 1940 that the Finns resumed their offensive, dividing Soviet divisions into smaller ''mottis.''<ref name="Juuti1999a_514">[[#Juuti1999a|Juutilainen (1999a)]], p. 514</ref> Contrary to Finnish expectations, the encircled Soviet divisions did not try to break through to the east but instead entrenched. They were expecting reinforcements and supplies to [[airlift|arrive by air]]. As the Finns lacked the necessary heavy artillery equipment and were short of men, they often did not directly attack the ''mottis'' they had created; instead, they worked to eliminate only the most dangerous threats. Often the ''motti'' tactic was not applied as a strategy, but as a Finnish adaptation to the behaviour of Soviet troops under fire.<ref name="JS2006_44">[[#Jow&Snod2006|Jowett & Snodgrass (2006)]], p. 44</ref> In spite of the cold and hunger, the Soviet troops did not surrender easily but fought bravely, often entrenching their tanks to be used as [[Pillbox (military)|pillboxes]] and building timber dugouts. Some specialist Finnish soldiers were called in to attack the ''mottis''; the most famous of them was Major [[Matti Aarnio]], or "Motti-Matti" as he became known.<ref name="Juuti1999a_516-517">[[#Juuti1999a|Juutilainen (1999a)]], pp. 516–517</ref>

In [[North Karelia]], Soviet forces were outmanoeuvred [[Battle of Ilomantsi (1939)|at Ilomantsi]] and Lieksa. The Finns used effective guerrilla tactics, taking special advantage of their superior skiing skills and snow-white [[layered clothing]] and executing surprise ambushes and raids. By the end of December, the Soviets decided to retreat and transfer resources to more critical fronts.<ref name="Vuore1999_559-561">[[#Vuore1999|Vuorenmaa (1999)]], pp. 559–561</ref>

===Battles in Kainuu===
[[File:Raate road.jpg|thumb|Dead Soviet soldiers and their equipment at Raate Road, Suomussalmi, after being ambushed and encircled at the [[Battle of Raate Road]]|alt=Fallen Soviet soldiers and their equipment litter the road and the ditch next to it after being encircled at the [[Battle of Raate Road]]]]

The Suomussalmi–Raate engagement was a double operation<ref name="Vuore1999_550">[[#Vuore1999|Vuorenmaa (1999)]], p. 550</ref> which would later be used by [[Military academy|military academics]] as a classic example of what well-led troops and innovative tactics can do against a much larger adversary. In 1939, Suomussalmi was a municipality of 4,000 inhabitants, with long lakes, wild forests and few roads. The Finnish command believed that the Soviets would not attack there, but the Red Army committed two divisions to the Kainuu area with orders to cross the wilderness, capture the city of [[Oulu]] and effectively cut Finland in two. There were two roads leading to Suomussalmi from the frontier: the northern Juntusranta road and the southern Raate road.<ref name="Trotter_150">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 150</ref>

The [[Battle of Raate Road]], which occurred during the month-long [[Battle of Suomussalmi]], resulted in one of the largest Soviet losses in the Winter War. The Soviet 44th and parts of the 163rd Rifle Division, comprising about 14,000 troops,<ref name="Kulju2007_230">[[#Kulju2007|Kulju (2007)]], p. 230</ref> were almost completely destroyed by a Finnish ambush as they marched along the forest road. A small unit blocked the Soviet advance while Finnish Colonel [[Hjalmar Siilasvuo]] and his 9th Division cut off the retreat route, split the enemy force into smaller ''mottis'', and then proceeded to destroy the remnants [[Defeat in detail|in detail]] as they retreated. The Soviets suffered 7,000–9,000 casualties;<ref name="Kulju2007_229">[[#Kulju2007|Kulju (2007)]], p. 229</ref> the Finnish units, 400.<ref name="Kanta1998_283">[[#Kanta1998|Kantakoski (1998)]], p. 283</ref> The Finnish troops captured dozens of tanks, artillery pieces, anti-tank guns, hundreds of trucks, almost 2,000 horses, thousands of rifles, and much-needed ammunition and medical supplies.<ref name="Kulju2007_217-218">[[#Kulju2007|Kulju (2007)]], pp. 217–218</ref> So sure of their victory had the Soviets been that a military band, complete with instruments, banners and notes, was traveling with the 44th Division to perform in a victory parade. The Finns found their instruments among the captured materiel.<ref>Pöntinen, P.: [https://suomenkuvalehti.fi/jutut/kotimaa/raatteen-tie-suomalaiset-ja-ukrainalaiset-joukot-taistelivat-jaatyneessa-helvetissa/ Jäätynyt helvetti: Tällainen on Raatteen tie tänään] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903142748/https://suomenkuvalehti.fi/jutut/kotimaa/raatteen-tie-suomalaiset-ja-ukrainalaiset-joukot-taistelivat-jaatyneessa-helvetissa/ |date=3 September 2019 }}. ''Suomen Kuvalehti'', 2015.</ref>

===Battles in Finnish Lapland===
[[File:A Finnish guard during the Battle of Salla.jpg|thumb|upright|A Finnish soldier on guard near [[Kemijärvi]] in February 1940]]

The Finnish area of [[Lapland (Finland)|Lapland]], bestriding the [[Arctic Circle]], is sparsely developed, with little daylight and persistent snow-cover during winter; the Finns expected nothing more than raiding parties and reconnaissance patrols. Instead, the Soviets sent full divisions.<ref name="Trotter_171-174">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 171–174</ref> On 11 December, the Finns rearranged the defence of Lapland and detached the [[Lapland Group]] from the North Finland Group. The group was placed under the command of [[Kurt Martti Wallenius|Kurt Wallenius]].<ref>[[#Lesk&Juuti1999|Leskinen and Juutilainen (1999)]], p. 164</ref>

In southern Lapland, near the village of Salla, the Soviet 88th and 122nd Divisions, totaling 35,000 men, advanced. In the [[Battle of Salla (1939)|Battle of Salla]], the Soviets proceeded easily to Salla, where the road split. Further ahead was [[Kemijärvi]], while the fork to [[Pelkosenniemi]] led northwest. On 17 December, the Soviet northern group, comprising an infantry regiment, a [[battalion]], and a company of tanks, was outflanked by a Finnish battalion. The 122nd retreated, abandoning much of its heavy equipment and vehicles. Following this success, the Finns shuttled reinforcements to the defensive line in front of Kemijärvi. The Soviets hammered the defensive line without success. The Finns counter-attacked, and the Soviets retreated to a new defensive line where they stayed for the rest of the war.<ref name="Trotter_178-180">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 178–180</ref><ref name="Vuore1999_545-549">[[#Vuore1999|Vuorenmaa (1999)]], pp. 545–549</ref>

To the north was Finland's only ice-free port in the Arctic, Petsamo. The Finns lacked the manpower to defend it fully, as the main front was distant at the Karelian Isthmus. In the [[Battle of Petsamo (1939)|Battle of Petsamo]], the Soviet 104th Division attacked the Finnish 104th Independent Cover Company. The Finns abandoned Petsamo and concentrated on delaying actions. The area was treeless, windy, and relatively low, offering little defensible terrain. The [[polar night|almost constant darkness]] and extreme temperatures of the Lapland winter benefited the Finns, who executed guerrilla attacks against Soviet supply lines and patrols. As a result, the Soviet movements were halted by the efforts of one-fifth as many Finns.<ref name="Trotter_171-174" />

==Aerial warfare==
{{Main|Aerial warfare in the Winter War}}

===Soviet Air Force===
The Soviet Union enjoyed [[air superiority]] throughout the war. The [[Soviet Air Force]], supporting the Red Army's invasion with about 2,500 aircraft (the most common type being [[Tupolev SB]]), was not as effective as the Soviets might have hoped. The material damage by the bomb raids was slight as Finland offered few valuable targets for [[strategic bombing]]. For example, the city of [[Tampere]] was one of the most important targets because it was an important railway junction, and also housed [[Valtion lentokonetehdas|State Aircraft Factory]] and the [[Tampella|Tampere Linen and Iron Industry]] premises, which manufactured [[munition]]s and weapons, including [[grenade launcher]]s.<ref>Esko Lammi: ''Talvisodan Tampere''. Vammala: Häijää Invest (Vammaspaino), 1990. {{ISBN|9529017073}}|. (in Finnish)</ref><ref>Jouko Juonala: ''Ilmahälytys!'' Talvisota: Ilta-Sanomien erikoislehti 2019, pp. 62–66. Helsinki: Sanoma Media Finland Oy. (in Finland)</ref> Often, targets were village depots with little value. The country had few modern highways in the interior, therefore making the railways the main targets for bombers. [[Rail track]]s were cut thousands of times but the Finns hastily repaired them and service resumed within a matter of hours.<ref name="Trotter 2002 p. 187"/> The Soviet Air Force learned from its early mistakes, and by late February instituted more effective tactics.<ref name="Trotter_193">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 193</ref>

The largest bombing raid against the capital of Finland, [[Helsinki]], occurred on the first day of the war. The capital was bombed only a few times thereafter. All in all, Soviet bombings cost Finland five per cent of its total man-hour production. Nevertheless, Soviet air attacks affected thousands of civilians, killing 957.<ref name="Kur&Lent2005_1152"/> The Soviets recorded 2,075 bombing attacks in 516 localities. The city of Viipuri, a major Soviet objective close to the Karelian Isthmus front, was almost levelled by nearly 12,000 bombs.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 187–188</ref> No attacks on civilian targets were mentioned in Soviet radio or newspaper reports. In January 1940, the Soviet ''[[Pravda]]'' newspaper continued to lie that no civilian targets in Finland had been struck, even accidentally.<ref name="Tillo1993_157">[[#Tillotson1993|Tillotson (1993)]], p. 157</ref> It is estimated that the Soviet air force lost about 400 aircraft because of inclement weather, lack of fuel and tools, and during transport to the front. The Soviet Air Force flew approximately 44,000 sorties during the war.<ref name="Trotter_193"/>

===Finnish Air Force===
[[File:Bristol Blenheim refueling.jpg|thumb|March 1940, a Finnish [[Bristol Blenheim]] Mk. IV bomber of the [[No. 44 Squadron (Finland)|No. 44 Squadron]] refuelling at its air base on a frozen lake in [[Tikkakoski]]. On the fuselage is the swastika, which the [[Finnish Air Force]] had adopted as their symbol in 1918. Despite the similarity, it was not a Nazi design but was based on the personal owner; [[Eric von Rosen]] had donated the first aircraft to the Air Force.|alt=A Finnish bomber plane is being refueled by hand by six servicemen at an air base on a frozen lake.]]

At the beginning of the war, Finland had a small air force, with only 114 combat planes fit for duty. Missions were limited, and [[fighter aircraft]] were mainly used to repel Soviet bombers. Strategic bombings doubled as opportunities for military [[reconnaissance]]. Old-fashioned and few in number, aircraft offered little support for Finnish ground troops. In spite of losses, the number of planes in the [[Finnish Air Force]] rose by over 50 per cent by the end of the war.<ref name="Peltonen_607-608">[[#Peltonen|Peltonen (1999)]], pp. 607–608</ref> The Finns received shipments of British, French, Italian, Swedish and American aircraft.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 189</ref>

Finnish fighter pilots often flew their motley collection of planes into Soviet formations that outnumbered them 10 or even 20 times. Finnish fighters shot down 200 Soviet aircraft, while losing 62 of their own on all causes.<ref name="Tillo1993_160">[[#Tillotson1993|Tillotson (1993)]], p. 160</ref> Finnish anti-aircraft guns downed more than 300 enemy aircraft.<ref name= "Tillo1993_160"/> Often, a Finnish forward [[air base]] consisted of a frozen lake, a [[windsock]], a telephone set and some tents. Air-raid warnings were given by Finnish women organised by the [[Lotta Svärd]].<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 191–192</ref> The top scoring fighter ace was [[Jorma Sarvanto]], with 12.83 victories. He would increase his tally during the Continuation War.

==Naval warfare==
{{Main|Naval warfare in the Winter War}}

===Naval activity===
There was little naval activity during the Winter War. The [[Baltic Sea]] began to freeze over by the end of December, impeding the movement of [[warship]]s; by mid-winter, only [[ice breaker]]s and [[submarine]]s could still move. The other reason for low naval activity was the nature of [[Soviet Navy]] forces in the area. The [[Baltic Fleet]] was a coastal defence force which did not have the training, logistical structure, or [[landing craft]] to undertake large-scale operations. The Baltic Fleet possessed two [[battleship]]s, one [[heavy cruiser]], almost 20 [[destroyer]]s, 50 [[motor torpedo boat]]s, 52 submarines, and other miscellaneous vessels. The Soviets used naval bases in [[Paldiski]], [[Tallinn]] and [[Liepāja]] for their operations.<ref name="Elfv1999_681">[[#Elfv1999|Elfvegren (1999)]], p. 681</ref>

The [[Finnish Navy]] was a coastal defence force with two [[coastal defence ship]]s, five submarines, four [[gunboat]]s, seven motor torpedo boats, one [[minelayer]] and six [[Minesweeper (ship)|minesweepers]] and at least 5 [[Icebreakers|icebreaker]]s. The two coastal defence ships, {{Ship|Finnish coastal defence ship|Ilmarinen||2}} and {{Ship|Finnish coastal defence ship|Väinämöinen||2}}, were moved to harbour in [[Turku]] where they were used to bolster the air defence. Their anti-aircraft guns shot down one or two planes over the city, and the ships remained there for the rest of the war.<ref name="Trotter_48-51"/> At 18 January, Finnish armed icebreaker [[Tarmo (1907 icebreaker)|''Tarmo'']] was severely damaged at [[Kotka]], received 2 bombs from a Soviet bomber with 39 Finnish troops killed in action. As well as coastal defence, the Finnish Navy protected the Ålandish and Finnish [[merchant vessel]]s in the Baltic Sea.<ref name="Elfv1999_678">[[#Elfv1999|Elfvegren (1999)]], p. 678</ref>

Soviet aircraft bombed Finnish vessels and harbours and dropped [[Naval mine|mines]] into Finnish [[sea lane|seaways]]. Still, only five merchant ships were lost to Soviet action. World War II, which had started before the Winter War, proved more costly for the Finnish merchant vessels, with 26 lost due to hostile action in 1939 and 1940.<ref name="Elfv1999_692">[[#Elfv1999|Elfvegren (1999)]], p. 692</ref>

===Coastal artillery===
Finnish coastal artillery batteries defended important harbours and naval bases. Most batteries were left over from the Imperial Russian period, with {{convert|152|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} guns being the most numerous. Finland attempted to modernise its old guns and installed a number of new batteries, the largest of which featured a {{convert|305|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} gun battery on the island of [[Kuivasaari]] in front of Helsinki, originally intended to block the Gulf of Finland to Soviet ships with the help of batteries on the Estonian side.<ref name="Lesk1999_130">[[#Lesk1999|Leskinen (1999)]], p. 130</ref>

The first naval battle occurred in the Gulf of Finland on 1 December, near the island of [[Russarö]], {{convert|5|km|mi|abbr=on}} south of [[Hanko, Finland|Hanko]]. That day, the weather was fair and visibility was excellent. The Finns spotted the Soviet cruiser {{Ship|Soviet cruiser|Kirov||2}} and two destroyers. When the ships were at a range of {{convert|24|km|nmi mi|abbr=on}}, the Finns opened fire with four {{convert|234|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} coastal guns. After five minutes of firing by the coastal guns, the cruiser had been damaged by near misses and retreated. The destroyers remained undamaged, but the ''Kirov'' suffered 17 dead and 30 wounded. The Soviets already knew the locations of the Finnish coastal batteries, but were surprised by their range.<ref name="Silvast">[[#Silvast|Silvast (1999)]], pp. 694–696</ref>

Coastal artillery had a greater effect on land by reinforcing defence in conjunction with army artillery. Two sets of fortress artillery made significant contributions to the early battles on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ladoga Karelia. These were located at [[Kaarnajoki]] on the Eastern Isthmus and at [[Mantsinsaari Island|Mantsi]] on the northeastern shore of Lake Ladoga. The fortress of [[Primorsk, Leningrad Oblast|Koivisto]] provided similar support from the southwestern coast of the Isthmus.<ref name="Tillo1993_152-153">[[#Tillotson1993|Tillotson (1993)]], pp. 152–153</ref>

==Soviet breakthrough in February==
===Red Army reforms and offensive preparations===
[[File:Inspecting Soviet skiing manuals.jpg|thumb|alt=Four Finnish officers in uniform are sitting and reading Soviet skiing manuals with relaxed looks on their faces. A pile of the books is in front of them on a table, and a large drape of [[Joseph Stalin]] hangs above their heads on the wall.|Finnish officers inspecting Soviet skiing manuals gained as loot from the [[Battle of Suomussalmi]]]]

Joseph Stalin was not pleased with the results of December 1939 in the Finnish campaign. The Red Army had been humiliated in defeats by smaller Finnish forces. By the third week of the war, Soviet propaganda was already working to explain the failures of the Soviet military to the populace: blaming bad terrain and harsh climate, and falsely claiming that the Mannerheim Line was stronger than the Maginot Line, and that the Americans had sent 1,000 of their best pilots to Finland. However, the Soviets were confronted with the unavoidable reality of the poor performance of their troops against the Finns. Stalin in particular was concerned about the effects of the war on Soviet reputation.<ref>[[#reiter|Reiter (2009)]], p. 126</ref> In late December, the Soviets decided to reduce their strategic objectives and focused on bringing the war to an end.<ref name=reiter2009 />

Chief of Staff Boris Shaposhnikov was given full authority over operations in the Finnish theatre, and he ordered the suspension of frontal assaults in late December. Kliment Voroshilov was replaced with [[Semyon Timoshenko]] as the commander of the Soviet forces in the war on 7 January 1940.<ref name="Trotter_203-204">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 203–204</ref> The main focus of the Soviet attack was switched to the Karelian Isthmus. Timoshenko and Zhdanov reorganised and tightened control between different branches of service in the Red Army. They also changed tactical doctrines to meet the realities of the situation.<ref name="Laaks1999_424-425">[[#Laaksonen1999|Laaksonen (1999)]], pp. 424–425</ref>

The Soviet forces on the Karelian Isthmus were divided into two armies: the 7th and the 13th Army. The 7th Army, now under Kirill Meretskov, would concentrate 75 per cent of its strength against the {{convert|16|km|mi|abbr=on}} stretch of the Mannerheim Line between Taipale and the Munasuo swamp. Tactics would be basic: an armoured wedge for the initial breakthrough, followed by the main infantry and vehicle assault force. The Red Army would prepare by pinpointing the Finnish frontline fortifications. The 123rd Rifle Division then rehearsed the assault on life-size [[mockup|mock-ups]]. The Soviets shipped large numbers of new tanks and artillery pieces to the theatre. Troops were increased from ten divisions to 25–26 divisions with six or seven tank brigades and several independent tank platoons as support, totalling 600,000 soldiers.<ref name="Laaks1999_424-425"/> On 1 February, the Red Army began a large offensive, firing 300,000 shells into the Finnish line in the first 24&nbsp;hours of the [[bombardment]].<ref name="Trotter_214-215" />

===Soviet offensive on the Karelian Isthmus===
Although the Karelian Isthmus front was less active in January than in December, the Soviets increased bombardments, wearing down the defenders and softening their fortifications. During daylight hours, the Finns took shelter inside their fortifications from the bombardments and repaired damage during the night. The situation led quickly to war exhaustion among the Finns, who lost over 3,000 soldiers in [[trench warfare]]. The Soviets also made occasional small infantry assaults with one or two companies.<ref name="Laaks1999_426-427">[[#Laaksonen1999|Laaksonen (1999)]], pp. 426–427</ref> Because of the shortage of ammunition, Finnish artillery emplacements were under orders to fire only against directly threatening ground attacks. On 1 February, the Soviets further escalated their artillery and air bombardments.<ref name="Trotter_214-215">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 214–215</ref>

Even though the Soviets refined their tactics and morale improved, the generals were still willing to accept massive losses to reach their objectives. Soviet attacks were now being screened by smoke, heavy artillery, and armour support, but the infantry charged in the open and in dense formations.<ref name="Trotter_214-215" /> Unlike their tactics in December, Soviet tanks advanced in smaller numbers. The Finns could not easily eliminate tanks if infantry troops protected them.<ref name="Laaks1999_430">[[#Laaksonen1999|Laaksonen (1999)]], p. 430</ref> After 10 days of constant artillery barrage, the Soviets achieved a breakthrough on the Western Karelian Isthmus in the Second Battle of Summa.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 218</ref>

By 11 February, the Soviets had approximately 460,000 soldiers, 3,350 artillery pieces, 3,000 tanks and 1,300 aircraft deployed on the Karelian Isthmus. The Red Army was constantly receiving new recruits after the breakthrough.<ref name="UittoGeust9">[[#GeustUitto2006|Geust; Uitto (2006)]], p. 77</ref> Opposing them, the Finns had eight divisions, totalling about 150,000 soldiers. One by one, the defenders' strongholds crumbled under the Soviet attacks and the Finns were forced to retreat. On 15 February, Mannerheim authorised a general retreat of the II Corps to a fallback line of defence.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 233</ref> On the eastern side of the isthmus, the Finns continued to resist Soviet assaults, achieving a stalemate in the Battle of Taipale.<ref name="Laaks1999_452">[[#Laaksonen1999|Laaksonen (1999)]], p. 452</ref>

===Peace negotiations===
While the Finns attempted to re-open negotiations with Moscow by every means during the war, the Soviets did not respond. In early January, Finnish communist [[Hella Wuolijoki]] contacted the Finnish Government. She offered to contact Moscow through the Soviet Union's ambassador to Sweden, [[Alexandra Kollontai]]. Tanner, Ryti, and Paasikivi accepted Wuolijoki's offer and granted her permission to meet with Kollontai in Stockholm, where she arrived on 10 January.<ref>[[#Sander2013|Sander (2013)]], p. 230</ref> Kollontai and Wuolijoki would meet almost every day for the next three weeks at Stockholm's [[Grand Hotel (Stockholm)|Grand Hotel]]. A back channel to the Kremlin had been established. On 29 January, Molotov put an end to the puppet [[Terijoki Government]] and recognized the Ryti–Tanner government as the legal government of Finland, informing it that the Soviet Union was willing to negotiate peace.<ref name="Trotter 2002 pp. 234"/><ref>[[#Enkenberg|Enkenberg (2020)]], p.215</ref>

By mid-February, it became clear that the Finnish forces were rapidly approaching exhaustion. For the Soviets, casualties were high, the situation was a source of political embarrassment to the Soviet regime, and there was a risk of [[Franco-British plans for intervention in the Winter War|Franco-British intervention]] (which was overestimated by Soviet intelligence in February and March 1940<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rentola |first1=Kimmo |title=Intelligence and Stalin's Two Crucial Decisions in the Winter War, 1939–40 |journal=The International History Review |date=1 October 2013 |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1089–1112 |doi=10.1080/07075332.2013.828637 |s2cid=155013785 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07075332.2013.828637 |issn=0707-5332 |access-date=6 August 2022 |archive-date=6 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220806160555/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07075332.2013.828637 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>). With the spring thaw approaching, the Soviet forces risked becoming bogged down in the forests. Finnish Foreign Minister Väinö Tanner arrived in Stockholm on 12 February and negotiated the peace terms with the Soviets through the Swedes. German representatives, not aware that the negotiations were underway, suggested on 17 February that Finland negotiate with the Soviet Union.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 246–247</ref>

Both Germany and Sweden were keen to see an end to the Winter War. The Germans feared losing the [[Swedish iron-ore mining during World War II|iron ore fields in Northern Sweden]] and threatened to attack at once if the Swedes granted the Allied forces [[right of passage]]. The German invasion plan, named ''Studie Nord'', was later implemented as [[Operation Weserübung]].<ref name="Edwards_261">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 261</ref> [[Leon Trotsky]] opined after the war that Hitler would view a Soviet occupation of Finland as a threat to this plan. Any potential German plans for bases in Finland would also be thwarted if the Soviets occupied Finland, though Trotsky himself believed that Hitler was not interested in occupying Finland, but rather its role as a buffer between Germany and the Soviet Union.<ref name="ML">{{cite journal |last1=Lähteenmäki |first1=Maria |title=Bad blood and humiliation: Finns' experiences of the Moscow peace negotiations in 1940 |journal=Nordia Geographical Publications |date=1 January 2014 |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=101–113 |url=https://nordia.journal.fi/article/view/65103 |language=en |issn=2736-9722 |access-date=6 August 2022 |archive-date=6 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220806160502/https://nordia.journal.fi/article/view/65103 |url-status=live }}</ref>

As the Finnish Cabinet dithered in the face of harsh Soviet conditions, Sweden's King [[Gustav V of Sweden|Gustav&nbsp;V]] made a [[statsrådsdiktamen by Gustaf V|public statement]] on 19 February in which he confirmed having declined Finnish pleas for support from Swedish troops. On 25 February, the Soviet peace terms were spelt out in detail. On 29 February, the Finnish Government accepted the Soviet terms in principle and was willing to enter into negotiations.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 247–248</ref> Red Army commanders wished to continue the war as their forces were starting to make progress against the Finns, whereas the Communist Party pointed out that the war was becoming too costly and called for the signing of a peace treaty. The party believed that Finland could be taken over later by means of a revolution. The heated discussion that ensued failed to yield any clear result and the matter went to a vote, in which the party's opinion prevailed and the decision was taken to bring hostilities to an end.<ref name="ML" />

===End of war in March===
[[File:Karelian Isthmus 13 March 1940.png|thumb|alt=A diagram of the Karelian Isthmus during the last day of the war illustrates the final positions and offensives of the Soviet troops, now vastly reinforced. They have now penetrated approximately 75 kilometres deep into Finland and are about to break free from the constraints of the Isthmus.|Situation on the Karelian Isthmus on 13 March 1940, the last day of the war<ref name="KR2007_260">[[#KilinRaunio2007|Kilin and Raunio (2007)]], pp. 260–295</ref>{{legend|blue|Finnish corps (XXX) or [[Karl Lennart Oesch|Oesch]]'s coast group}}{{legend|red|Soviet corps (XXX) or army (XXXX)}}]]

On 5 March, the Red Army advanced {{convert|10|to|15|km|mi|abbr=on}} past the Mannerheim Line and entered the [[Battle of Vyborg Bay (1940)|suburbs of Viipuri]]. The same day, the Red Army established a beachhead on the Western [[Gulf of Viipuri]]. The Finns proposed an [[armistice]] on 6 March, but the Soviets, wanting to keep the pressure on the Finnish government, declined the offer. The Finnish peace delegation travelled to Moscow via Stockholm and arrived on 7 March. They were disappointed to find that Stalin was not present during peace negotiations, likely due to the Red Army's humiliation by the Finns.<ref name="ML" /> The Soviets had further demands, as their military position was strong and improving. On 9 March, the Finnish military situation on the Karelian Isthmus was dire, as troops were experiencing heavy casualties. Artillery ammunition was exhausted and weapons were wearing out. The Finnish government, realizing that the hoped-for Franco-British military expedition would not arrive in time, as Norway and Sweden had not given the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] right of passage, had little choice but to accept the Soviet terms.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 249–251</ref> Finnish President [[Kyösti Kallio]] resisted the idea of giving up any territory to the Soviet Union, but eventually agreed to sign the Moscow Peace Treaty. When he signed the document, the tormented president uttered the well-known words: "Let the hand wither that signs this monstrous treaty!"{{sfnp|Fadiman|1985|p=320}}

===Moscow Peace Treaty===
{{Main|Moscow Peace Treaty}}
[[File:Finnish areas ceded in 1940.png|thumb|alt=A drawing shows that the Finns ceded a small part of Rybachy Peninsula and part of Salla in the Finnish Lapland; and a part of Karelia and the islands of the Gulf of Finland in the south as well as a lease on the Hanko peninsula in southwestern Finland.|Finland's territorial concessions to the Soviet Union displayed in red]]

The Moscow Peace Treaty was signed in Moscow on 12 March 1940. A [[cease-fire]] took effect the next day at noon Leningrad time, 11&nbsp;a.m. Helsinki time.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 254</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://yle.fi/news/3-5527174|title=70th Anniversary of the End of the Winter War|work=[[Yle News]]|date=13 March 2010|access-date=13 March 2022|archive-date=13 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313031511/https://yle.fi/news/3-5527174|url-status=live}}</ref> With it, Finland ceded the Karelian Isthmus and most of Ladoga Karelia. The area included Viipuri (Finland's second-largest city [Population Register] or fourth-largest city [Church and Civil Register], depending on the census data<ref>[[#FinnYearbook1940|Statistics Finland (1940)]]</ref>), much of Finland's industrialised territory, and significant land still held by Finland's military{{snd}}all in all, nine per cent of Finnish territory. The ceded territory included 13 per cent of Finland's economic assets.<ref name="Kirby_215">[[#Kirby2006|Kirby (2006)]], p. 215</ref> 12 per cent of Finland's population, 422,000 to 450,000 Karelians, [[Evacuation of Finnish Karelia|were evacuated and lost their homes]].{{sfnp|Gadolin|1952|p=7}}<ref name="EP1985_142-143">[[#Engle&Paan1985|Engle and Paananen (1985)]], pp. 142–143</ref><ref name="helsinginsanomat1" /> Finland also ceded a part of the region of Salla, the Rybachy Peninsula in the [[Barents Sea]], and four islands in the Gulf of Finland. The Hanko peninsula was leased to the Soviet Union as a military base for 30 years. The region of Petsamo, captured by the Red Army during the war, was returned to Finland according to the treaty.<ref name="JS2006_10">[[#Jow&Snod2006|Jowett & Snodgrass (2006)]], p. 10</ref>

Finnish concessions and territorial losses exceeded [[Background of the Winter War#Soviet demands in late 1939|Soviet pre-war demands]]. Before the war, the Soviet Union demanded for the frontier with Finland on the Karelian Isthmus to be moved westward to a point {{convert|30|km|mi|0}} east of Viipuri to the line between Koivisto and [[Khiytola|Lipola]]; for existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus to be demolished and for the islands of [[Suursaari]], [[Tytärsaari]], and [[Beryozovye Islands|Koivisto]] in the Gulf of Finland and Rybachy Peninsula to be ceded. In exchange, the Soviet Union proposed to cede Repola and Porajärvi from Eastern Karelia, an area twice as large as the territories that were originally demanded from the Finns.<ref name="vanDyke_44">[[#VanDyke1997|Van Dyke (1997)]], pp. 189–190</ref><ref name="Turtola1999a_38-41"/><ref name="Trotter3">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter 2002]], pp. 14–16</ref>

==Foreign support==
{{Main|Foreign support of Finland in the Winter War}}

===Foreign volunteers===
[[File:Norwegian Winter War Volunteers.jpg|thumb|Norwegian volunteers somewhere in Northern Finland]]

World opinion largely supported the Finnish cause, and the Soviet aggression was generally deemed unjustified. World War II had not yet directly affected France, the United Kingdom or the United States; the Winter War was practically the only conflict in Europe at that time and thus held major world interest. Several foreign organisations sent material aid, and many countries granted credit and military materiel to Finland. Nazi Germany allowed arms to pass through its territory to Finland, but after a Swedish newspaper made this public, Adolf Hitler initiated a policy of silence towards Finland, as part of improved German–Soviet relations following the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.<ref name="Trotter_194-202">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 194–202</ref>

The largest foreign contingent came from neighboring Sweden, which provided nearly 8,760 volunteers during the war. The [[Swedish Volunteer Corps (Winter War)|Volunteer Corps]] was formed of predominantly Swedes, as well as 1,010 Danes and 727 Norwegians. They fought on the northern front at Salla during the last days of the war. A Swedish unit of [[Gloster Gladiator]] fighters, named "the Flight Regiment 19" also participated. Swedish anti-air batteries with [[Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60|Bofors {{convert|40|mm|abbr=on}} guns]] were responsible for air defence in northern Finland and the city of Turku.<ref name="JS2006_21-22">[[#Jow&Snod2006|Jowett & Snodgrass (2006)]], pp. 21–22</ref> Volunteers arrived from [[Hungarian Volunteers in the Winter War|Hungary]], Italy and Estonia. 350 [[Finnish American|American nationals of Finnish background]] volunteered, and 210 volunteers of other nationalities arrived in Finland before the war ended.<ref name="JS2006_21-22"/> [[Max Manus]], a [[Norwegian people|Norwegian]], fought in the Winter War before returning to [[Norway]] and later achieved fame as a resistance fighter during the [[German occupation of Norway]]. In total, Finland received 12,000 volunteers, 50 of whom died during the war.<ref name="Juuti1999b_776">[[#Juuti1999b|Juutilainen (1999b)]], p. 776</ref> The British actor [[Christopher Lee]] volunteered in the war for two weeks, but did not face combat.{{Sfnp|Rigby|2003|pp=59–60}}

==== White émigrés and Russian prisoners-of-war ====
Finland officially refused overtures from the anti-Soviet [[Russian All-Military Union]] (ROVS) for aid.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beyda |first=Oleg |title=For Russia with Hitler. White Russian Émigrés and the German-Soviet War |date=2024 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4875-5648-8}}</ref> Nevertheless, Mannerheim eventually agreed to establish a small Russian detachment (''Russkaya narodnaya armiya'', RNA) of 200 men after being introduced to [[Boris Bazhanov]], a high-ranking ROVS member, in person in January 1940. The project was deemed top secret, and was under the auspices of the intelligence division of the Finnish Army headquarters.<ref name="Yle_Jormanainen">{{Cite web | url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-11254603 | title=Venäläisemigranttien talvisota – Mannerheim hyväksyi huippusalaisen suunnitelman bolševikkien vastaisen sotavankiarmeijan perustamisesta | publisher=[[Yle]] | author=Jormanainen, Heli | date=15 March 2020 | accessdate=8 June 2022 | archive-date=17 February 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217145822/https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-11254603 | url-status=live }}</ref>

The ranks of RNA were to be filled by prisoners-of-war, but it would be commanded by White émigrés instead of captured Soviet Army officers, who were deemed unreliable. Bazhanov's Finnish assistant Feodor Schulgin chose Captain Vladimir Kiseleff, Lieutenant Vladimir Lugovskoy, Anatoly Budyansky and brothers Nikolay and Vladimir Bastamov as officers for the unit. Of the five, the Bastamovs were not Finnish citizens, but had [[Nansen passport]]s. The prisoners-of-war were trained in [[Huittinen]], although it is possible that some were also trained in [[Lempäälä]].<ref name="Yle_Jormanainen"/>

RNA never participated in battle, despite Boris Bazhanov's later claims to the contrary in his memoirs. About 35 to 40 members of it were present during a battle in [[:fi:Ruskeala|Ruskeala]] in early March 1940, where they spread flyers and broadcast propaganda to encircled Soviet troops, but did not carry weapons. The men were subsequently detained by Finnish forces, who mistook them for Soviet infiltrators. After the war's end, Bazhanov was immediately asked to leave Finland, which he did. Finnish military historian [[:fi:Carl-Fredrik Geust|Carl Geust]] presumes that most members of the RNA were executed after they were returned to the Soviet Union after the war. Additionally, Vladimir Bastamov was later extradited into the Soviet Union as one of the [[Leino prisoners]] in 1945, and was sentenced to 20 years of hard labour. He was released after Stalin's death and returned to Finland in 1956.<ref name="Yle_Jormanainen"/>

===Franco-British intervention plans===
{{Main|Franco-British plans for intervention in the Winter War}}
[[File:Lapland1940.png|thumb|alt=A drawing shows that the Allies had two possible roads into Finland: through Soviet-occupied Petsamo or through Narvik in neutral Norway.|Franco-British support was offered on the condition their forces could pass freely from [[Narvik]] through [[Neutral country|neutral]] Norway and Sweden instead of the difficult passage through Soviet-occupied [[Pechengsky District|Petsamo]].]]

France had been one of the earliest supporters of Finland during the Winter War. The French saw an opportunity to weaken Germany's resource imports via a Finnish counteroffensive, as both Sweden and the Soviet Union were strategic trading partners to Germany. France had another motive, preferring to have a major war in a remote part of Europe rather than on French soil. France planned to re‑arm the [[Polish Armed Forces in the West|Polish exile units]] and transport them to the Finnish Arctic port of Petsamo. Another proposal was a massive air strike with Turkish co-operation against the [[Caucasus]] [[oil field]]s.<ref name="Trotter_235-236" />

The British, for their part, wanted to block the flow of iron ore from Swedish mines to Germany as the Swedes supplied up to 40 per cent of Germany's iron demand.<ref name="Trotter_235-236">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 235–236</ref> The matter was raised by British Admiral [[Reginald Plunkett]] on 18 September 1939, and the next day [[Winston Churchill]] brought up the subject in the [[Chamberlain war ministry|Chamberlain War Cabinet]].<ref name="Edwards_141">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 141</ref> On 11 December, Churchill opined that the British should gain a foothold in Scandinavia with the objective to help the Finns, but without a war with the Soviet Union.<ref name="Edwards_145">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 145</ref> Because of the heavy German reliance on Northern Sweden's iron ore, Hitler had made it clear to the Swedish government in December that any Allied troops on Swedish soil would immediately provoke a German invasion.<ref name="Trotter_237">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 237</ref>

On 19 December, French Prime Minister [[Édouard Daladier]] introduced his plan to the General Staff and the War Cabinet. In his plan, Daladier created linkage between the war in Finland and the iron ore in Sweden.<ref name="Edwards_145"/> There was a danger of Finland's possible fall under Soviet hegemony. In turn, Nazi Germany could occupy both Norway and Sweden. These two powers could divide Scandinavia between them, as they had already done with Poland. The main motivation of the French and the British was to reduce German war-making ability.<ref name= "Edwards_146">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], p. 146</ref>

The Military Co-ordination Committee met on 20 December in London, and two days later the French plan was put forward.<ref name="Edwards_146"/> The [[Anglo-French Supreme War Council]] elected to send notes to Norway and Sweden on 27 December, urging the Norwegians and Swedes to help Finland and offer the Allies their support. Norway and Sweden rejected the offer on 5 January 1940.<ref name="Trotter_237"/> The Allies came up with a new plan, in which they would demand that Norway and Sweden give them right of passage by citing a League of Nations resolution as justification. The expedition troops would disembark at the Norwegian port of Narvik and proceed by rail toward Finland, passing through the Swedish ore fields on the way. This demand was sent to Norway and Sweden on 6 January, but it was likewise rejected six days later.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 237–238</ref>

Stymied but not yet dissuaded from the possibility of action, the Allies formulated a final plan on 29 January. First, the Finns would make a formal request for assistance. Then, the Allies would ask Norway and Sweden for permission to move the "volunteers" across their territory. Finally, to protect the supply line from German actions, the Allies would send units ashore at [[Namsos (town)|Namsos]], [[Bergen]], and [[Trondheim]]. The operation would have required 100,000 British and 35,000 French soldiers with naval and air support. The supply convoys would sail on 12 March and the landings would begin on 20 March.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], pp. 238–239</ref> The end of the war on 13 March cancelled Franco-British plans to send troops to Finland through Northern [[Scandinavia]].<ref name="Trotter_239">[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 239</ref>

==Aftermath and casualties==
{{Main|Aftermath of the Winter War|Continuation War|Lapland War}}
{{See also|Cross of Sorrow}}

=== Result ===

The outcome of the Winter War is viewed differently among historians. Some view it as a Soviet victory and Finnish defeat.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Aini Rajanen |title=Of Finnish Ways |year=1992 |publisher=Collins |page=45 |isbn=0060923822}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Karl G. Heinze |title=Baltic Sagas: Events and Personalities That Changed the World |year=2003 |publisher=Virtual Bookworm.Com Pub Inc |page=303 |isbn=1589394984}}</ref> However, others view the war as a Soviet failure for failing to absorb Finland.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Roger R. Reese |title=Lessons of the Winter War: A Study in the Military Efectiveness of the Red Army, 1939-1940 |url=https://www.academia.edu/93330404/Lessons_of_the_Winter_War_A_Study_in_the_Military_Effectiveness_of_the_Red_Army_1939_1940 |year=2008 |publisher=Society for Military History|quote=The Soviet war against Finland (1939-40) is generally seen as a fiasco because the U.S.S.R. failed to conquer and absorb Finland, as Joseph Stalin had planned; and the Finns inflicted losses on the Red Army that were far out of proportion to the small size of their army and their own casualties.}}</ref>

Historically, the Soviet invasion of Finland has been deemed one of the most embarrassing periods in Russian history and a severe failure,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sprague |first=Martina |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Swedish_Volunteers_in_the_Russo_Finnish/6Ay5sMLvPR0C?hl=pl&gbpv=1&dq=winter+war+result&pg=PA98&printsec=frontcover |title=Swedish Volunteers in the Russo-Finnish Winter War, 1939-1940 |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5753-3 |pages=189-190 |language=en}}</ref> or a "less than convincing" victory,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sella |first=Amnon |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Value_of_Human_Life_in_Soviet_Warfar/KoYFx_FQ9rkC?hl=pl&gbpv=1&dq=winter+war+result&pg=PT84&printsec=frontcover |title=The Value of Human Life in Soviet Warfare |date=19 August 2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-97464-1 |language=en |quote=By the end of the Winter War, with the background of the German successes in Europe, the '''less than convincing victory over Finland''' and the crisis in the training year 1940, the Soviet Government decided to rebuild the morale of its High Command and to do so by means of harsher discipline.}}</ref> while also being considered a "botched campaign" and the outcome hurting Soviet prestige.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tuunainen |first=Pasi |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Finnish_Military_Effectiveness_in_the_Wi/t_OODAAAQBAJ?hl=pl&gbpv=1&dq=winter+war&pg=PA207&printsec=frontcover |title=Finnish Military Effectiveness in the Winter War, 1939-1940 |date=25 June 2016 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-1-137-44606-0 |page=207 |language=en}}</ref>

===Finland===
[[File:Sankarihautajaiset Joensuussa 19.5.1940.jpg|thumb|left|Heroes' Memorial Day in [[Joensuu]] 19 May 1940]]

The 105-day war had a profound and depressing effect in Finland. Meaningful international support was minimal and arrived late, and the German blockade had prevented most armament shipments.<ref name="Edwards_272-273">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], pp. 272–273</ref> The 15-month period between the Winter War and [[Operation Barbarossa]], part of which was the Continuation War, was later called the [[Interim Peace]].<ref name="JS2006_10"/> After the end of the war, the situation of the Finnish Army on the Karelian Isthmus became a subject of debate in Finland. Orders had already been issued to prepare a retreat to the next line of defence in the Taipale sector. Estimates of how long the Red Army could have been delayed by retreat-and-stand operations varied from a few days to a few weeks,<ref>[[#Laaksonen2005|Laaksonen (2005)]], p. 365</ref><ref>[[#Paasikivi1958|Paasikivi (1958)]]. p. 177</ref> or to a couple of months at most.<ref>[[#Halsti1955|Halsti (1955)]], p. 412</ref>

Immediately after the war, Helsinki officially announced 19,576 dead.<ref>[[#Dallin42|Dallin (1942)]], p. 191</ref> According to revised estimates in 2005 by Finnish historians, 25,904 people died or went missing and 43,557 were wounded on the Finnish side during the war.{{refn|A detailed classification of dead and missing is as follows:<ref name="Kur&Lent2005_1152"/><ref name=autogenerated2 />

* Dead, buried 16,766;
* Wounded, died of wounds 3,089;
* Dead, not buried, later declared as dead 3,503;
* Missing, declared as dead 1,712;
* Died as a prisoner of war 20;
* Other reasons (diseases, accidents, suicides) 677;
* Unknown 137;
* Died during the additional refresher training (diseases, accidents, suicides) 34.|group="F"}} Finnish and Russian researchers have estimated that there were 800–1,100 [[Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union|Finnish prisoners of war]], of whom between 10 and 20 per cent died. The Soviet Union repatriated 847 Finns after the War.<ref name="Malmi1999_792" /> Air raids killed 957 civilians.<ref name="Kur&Lent2005_1152"/> Between 20 and 30 tanks were destroyed and 62 aircraft were lost.<ref name="Tillo1993_160"/> Also, Finland had to cede all ships of the [[Finnish Ladoga Naval Detachment]] to the Soviet Union by virtue of the [[Moscow Peace Treaty]].

During the Interim Peace, Finland aimed to improve its defensive capabilities and conducted negotiations with Sweden on a military alliance, but negotiations ended once it became clear that both Germany and the Soviet Union opposed such an alliance.<ref name="Turtola1999b_863">[[#Turtola1999b|Turtola (1999b)]], p. 863</ref> On 31 July 1940, German Chancellor [[Adolf Hitler]] gave the order to plan an assault on the Soviet Union and so Germany had to reassess its position regarding Finland. Until then, Germany had rejected Finnish appeals to purchase arms. However, the prospect of an invasion of the Soviet Union reversed the policy. In August, the secret sale of weapons to Finland was permitted.<ref>[[#reiter|Reiter (2009)]], p. 132</ref>

Karelian evacuees established an interest group, the [[Karjalan Liitto|Finnish Karelian League]], to defend Karelian rights and interests and to find a way to [[Karelian question|return ceded regions of Karelia]] to Finland.<ref name="helsinginsanomat1">[[#Ahtiainen2000|Ahtiainen (2000)]]</ref><ref>[[#KarelianLeague|Finnish Karelian League]]</ref> Finland wished to re-enter the war mainly because of the Soviet invasion of Finland during the Winter War, which had taken place after Finland had failed by relying on the League of Nations and on Nordic neutrality.<ref>[[#lunde|Lunde (2011)]], p. 9</ref> Finland aimed primarily to reverse its territorial losses from the Moscow Peace Treaty and, depending on the success of the German invasion of the Soviet Union, possibly to expand its borders, especially into [[East Karelia]]. Some right-wing groups, such as the [[Academic Karelia Society]], supported a Greater Finland ideology.<ref>[[#jokipii|Jokipii (1999)]], pp. 145–146</ref> The Continuation War began in June 1941 and led to Finnish participation in the [[Siege of Leningrad]] as well as the [[Finnish military administration in Eastern Karelia|Finnish occupation of East Karelia]].<ref>[[#rutherford|Rutherford (2014)]], p. 190</ref><ref>[[#yarov|Yarov (2009)]], p. 7</ref>

===Soviet Union===
[[File:Fin monument.jpg|thumb|upright|Monument devoted to the victims of the Winter War in St. Petersburg]]

The Soviet General Staff Supreme Command (''Stavka'') met in April 1940, reviewed the lessons of the Finnish campaign and recommended reforms. The role of frontline political commissars was reduced, and old-fashioned ranks and forms of discipline were reintroduced. Clothing, equipment and tactics for winter operations were improved. Not all of the reforms had been completed when Germans initiated Operation Barbarossa 14 months later.<ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]] p. 264</ref>

Between the Winter War and ''[[perestroika]]'' in the late 1980s, Soviet historiography relied solely on Molotov's speeches on the Winter War. In his radio speech of 29 November 1939, Molotov argued that the Soviet Union had tried to negotiate guarantees of security for Leningrad for two months. The Finns had taken a hostile stance to "please foreign imperialists". Finland had undertaken military provocation, and the Soviet Union could no longer abide by the non-aggression pacts. According to Molotov, the Soviet Union did not want to occupy or annex Finland, but the goal was purely to secure Leningrad.<ref name="Viha1999_893-896">[[#Vihavainen|Vihavainen (1999)]], pp. 893–896</ref>

The official Soviet figure, with reference to the command of the Leningrad Military District, was published at a session of the Supreme Soviet on 26 March 1940, with 48,475 dead and 158,863 sick and wounded.<ref name="Sokolov00_340" /> More recent Russian estimates vary: in 1990, [[Mikhail Semiryaga]] claimed 53,522 dead, and [[N. I. Baryshnikov]], 53,500. In 1997, [[Grigoriy Krivosheyev]] claimed 126,875 dead and missing and total casualties of 391,783, with 188,671 wounded.<ref name="Krivo1997_77-78" /> In 1991, Yuri Kilin claimed 63,990 dead and total casualties of 271,528. In 2007, he revised the estimate of dead to 134,000<ref name="Kilin2007b_91" /> and in 2012, he updated the estimate to 138,533.{{sfnp|Kilin|2012|pp=21–24}} In 2013, [[Pavel Petrov (historian)|Pavel Petrov]] stated that the Russian State Military Archive has a database confirming 167,976 killed or missing along with the soldiers' names, dates of birth and ranks.<ref name=autogenerated3 /> [[Nikita Khrushchev]] stated in his memoirs that over one million Soviet soldiers were killed.<ref>[[#reiter|Reiter (2009)]], pp. 128</ref><ref>[[#Nenye2015|Nenye (2015)]], p. 284</ref>

There were 5,572 [[Soviet prisoners of war in Finland]].<ref name="Manninen1999b_815" /><ref>[[#VanDyke1997|Van Dyke (1997)]], p. 191</ref><ref>[[#Trotter2002|Trotter (2002)]], p. 263</ref> After the Winter War, the Soviet prisoners were returned to the USSR in accordance with the Moscow Peace Treaty. Of these, 450 were released, 4,354 were sentenced to imprisonment in labour camps ranging from 3 to 10 years and 414 were exposed to be "active in traitorous activities while in captivity", with 334 criminal cases being transferred to the [[Supreme Court of the Soviet Union]]; 232 of those cases ended in a death penalty.{{sfnp|Bichekhvost|2012}}

Between 1,200 and 3,543 Soviet tanks were destroyed. The official figure was 611 tank casualties, but Yuri Kilin found a note received by the head of the Soviet General Staff, Boris Shaposhnikov, reporting 3,543 tank casualties and 316 tanks destroyed. According to Finnish historian [[Ohto Manninen]], the 7th Soviet Army lost 1,244 tanks during the breakthrough battles of the Mannerheim Line in mid-winter. In the immediate aftermath of the war, the Finnish estimate of the number of lost Soviet tanks was 1,000 to 1,200.<ref name="Kilin1999" /><ref name="Kanta1998_286" /><ref name="Manninen1999b_810-811" /> The Soviet Air Forces lost around 1,000 aircraft, but fewer than half of them were combat casualties.<ref name="Manninen1999b_810-811" /><ref name="Kilin1999_381" /> According to Carl Fredrik Geust, based on the studies of Soviet air force units, Finnish anti-aircraft units shot down 119 and Finnish fighter pilots 131 Soviet aircraft, though all Soviet aircraft losses had been more than 900.

===Germany===
The Winter War was a political success for the Germans. Both the Red Army and the League of Nations were humiliated, and the Anglo-French Supreme War Council had been revealed to be chaotic and powerless. The German policy of neutrality was unpopular in the homeland, and relations with Italy had suffered. After the Moscow Peace Treaty, Germany improved its ties with Finland, and within two weeks, [[Finnish-German relations]] were at the top of the agenda.<ref name= "Edwards_277-279">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], pp. 277–279</ref><ref name="Lightbody_55"/> More importantly, the very poor performance of the Red Army convinced Hitler that [[Operation Barbarossa|an invasion of the Soviet Union]] would be successful. In June 1941, Hitler declared, "we have only to kick in the door and the whole rotten structure will come crashing down".<ref>[[#Sedlar2007|Sedlar (2007)]], p. 8</ref>

===Allies===
The Winter War laid bare the disorganisation and ineffectiveness of the Red Army and that of the Allies. The Anglo-French Supreme War Council was unable to formulate a workable plan, revealing its unsuitability to make effective war in either Britain or France. This failure led to the collapse of the [[Édouard Daladier#Daladier's third ministry, 10 April 1938 – 21 March 1940|Third Daladier Government]] in France and the nomination of [[Paul Reynaud]] as the new [[Prime Minister of France]].<ref name="Edwards_13-14">[[#Edwards2006|Edwards (2006)]], pp. 13–14</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Finland|Soviet Union}}
{{div col|colwidth=}}
* [[List of Finnish military equipment of World War II]]
* [[List of Soviet Union military equipment of World War II]]
* [[List of Finnish corps in the Winter War]]
* [[List of Finnish divisions in the Winter War]]
* [[Military history of Finland during World War II]]
* [[Winter War in popular culture]]
{{div col end}}

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Reflist|group=F}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|17em}}

== General and cited references ==
=== English ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite news|last=Ahtiainen|first=Ilkka|title=The Never-Ending Karelia Question|url=http://www2.hs.fi/english/archive/news.asp?id=20000718xx17|date=16 July 2000|ref=Ahtiainen2000|newspaper=Helsinki Times|access-date=5 November 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629164923/http://www2.hs.fi/english/archive/news.asp?id=20000718xx17|archive-date=29 June 2011}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Bullock|first1=Alan|author-link1=Alan Bullock|title=Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives|year=1993|publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-679-72994-5|ref=Bullock1993}}
* {{Cite book |author=Chubaryan, A. |editor1=Kulkov, E. |editor2=Rzheshevskii, O. |editor3=Shukman, H. |chapter=Foreword |title=Stalin and the Soviet-Finnish War, 1939–1940 |year=2002 |publisher=Frank Cass |isbn=978-0-7146-5203-0 |ref=Chubaryan}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Clemmesen |editor1-first=Michael H. |editor2-last=Faulkner |editor2-first=Marcus |title=Northern European Overture to War, 1939–1941: From Memel to Barbarossa|ref=Clemmesen| year=2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-24908-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Coates |first1=William Peyton |last2=Coates |first2=Zelda Kahan |title=Russia, Finland and the Baltic |location=London |publisher=[[Lawrence & Wishart]] |date=1940 |ref=Coates1940}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Conquest|first1=Robert|author-link1=Robert Conquest|title=The Great Terror: A Reassessment|year=2007|orig-year=1991|publisher=Oxford University Press, US|edition=40th Anniversary|isbn=978-0-19-531700-8|ref=Conquest2007}}
* {{cite book | last = Coox | first = Alvin D. | author-link = Alvin Coox | title = Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939 |year = 1985| publisher = Stanford University Press | isbn = 0-8047-1160-7|ref=Coox1985}}
* {{cite book|first=David|last=Dallin|author-link=David Dallin|title=Soviet Russia's Foreign Policy, 1939–1942|url=https://archive.org/details/sovietrussiasfor00dall|url-access=registration|translator=Leon Dennen|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1942|ref=Dallin42}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Edwards|first1=Robert|title=White Death: Russia's War on Finland 1939–40|year=2006|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|isbn= 978-0-297-84630-7|ref=Edwards2006}}
* {{cite book |last1=Elliston |first1=H.B. |title=Finland Fights |location=London |publisher=G. Harrap |date=1940 |ref=Elliston1940}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Engle|first1=Eloise|last2=Paananen|first2=Lauri|title=The Winter War: The Russo-Finnish Conflict, 1939–40|year=1985|orig-year=1973|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=0-8133-0149-1|ref=Engle&Paan1985}}
* {{cite book |last=Fadiman |first=Clifton |title=The Little, Brown book of anecdotes |publisher=Little, Brown |location=Boston |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-316-08472-7 |oclc=759509883 |url=https://archive.org/details/littlebrownbooko00fadi/page/320/mode/2up?q=%22Let+the+hand+wither+that+signs+this+monstrous+treaty%22 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gadolin |first=Axel |title=The Solution of the Karelian Refugee Problem in Finland |publisher=Springer Netherlands |location=Dordrecht |year=1952 |isbn=978-9401179645 |oclc=9401179646}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Glanz|first1=David|author-link1=David Glantz|title=Stumbling Colossus: The Red Army on the Eve of World War|year=1998|publisher=University Press of Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-0879-9|ref =Glanz1998}}
* {{Cite book |ref=Goldman2012| last = Goldman | first = Stuart D. | title = Nomonhan 1939, The Red Army's Victory That Shaped World War II | year = 2012 | publisher = Naval Institute Press | isbn = 978-1-59114-329-1}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hough |first=William J.H. |title=The Annexation of the Baltic States and Its Effect on the Development of Law Prohibiting Forcible Seizure of Territory |journal=Nyls Journal of International and Comparative Law |date=10 September 2019 |volume=6 |issue=2 |url=https://digitalcommons.nyls.edu/journal_of_international_and_comparative_law/vol6/iss2/5/ |access-date=29 September 2020 }}
* {{Cite book|last1=Jowett|first1=Philip|last2=Snodgrass|first2=Brent|title=Finland at War 1939–45| year=2006|publisher=Osprey|isbn=978-1-84176-969-1|ref=Jow&Snod2006}}
* {{cite web|title=Karjalan Liitto – Briefly in English|url=http://www.karjalanliitto.fi/english|publisher=Finnish Karelian League|ref=KarelianLeague|access-date=18 October 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820064028/http://www.karjalanliitto.fi/english|archive-date=20 August 2009}}
* {{cite book |last=Killham|first=EdwardL|title=The Nordic Way: A Path to Baltic Equilibrium|publisher=Howells House|year=1993}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Kirby|first1=David|title=A Concise History of Finland|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-0-521-53989-0|ref=Kirby2006}}
* {{cite book |last=Kokoshin|first=Andrei|title=Soviet Strategic Thought, 1917-91|publisher=MIT Press|year=1998}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kotkin |first1=Stephen |title=Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941 |date=2017 |publisher=Penguin Press|ref=Kotkin2017}}
* {{Cite book|last=Krivosheyev|first=Grigoriy|author-link=Grigoriy Krivosheyev|publisher=Greenhill Books|year=1997b|title=Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTTfAAAAMAAJ|isbn=1-85367-280-7|ref=Krivo1997|access-date=12 October 2015|archive-date=18 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118205310/https://books.google.com/books?id=CTTfAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal|last=Laemlein|first=Tom|ref=Laemlein2013|title=Where Will We Bury Them All?|journal=American Rifleman|date=October 2013|volume=161}}
* {{cite book|last=Langdon-Davies|first=John|author-link=John Langdon-Davies|title=Invasion in the Snow: A Study of Mechanized War|date=1941|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|ref=LangdonDavies1941|oclc=1535780}}
* {{cite journal|title=Expulsion of the U.S.S.R.|author=League of Nations|ref=League of Nations|journal=League of Nations Official Journal|date=14 December 1939|author-link=League of Nations}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lightbody |first=Bradley |title=The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-22404-7 |ref=Lightbody2004}}
* {{cite book |title=Finland's War of Choice: The Troubled German-Finnish Alliance in World War II|last=Lunde|first=Henrik O.|year=2011|publisher=Casemate Publishers|location=Newbury|isbn=978-1612000374|ref=lunde}}
* {{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=David|title=The Finnish-Soviet Winter War 1939–40 Stalin's Hollow Victory|year=2021|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc|others=Johnny Shumate|isbn=978-1-4728-4394-4|location=London|oclc=1261364794|ref=murphy2021}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Nenye |editor1-first=Vesa |editor2-last=Munter |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Wirtanen |editor3-first=Toni |editor4-last=Birks |editor4-first=Chris |title=Finland at War: The Winter War 1939–1945 |year=2015 |publisher=Osprey |isbn=978-1-4728-2718-0 |ref=Nenye2015}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Reiter|first1=Dan|title=How Wars End|edition=Illustrated|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691140605|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_Avp1TNYjMC|access-date=29 October 2010|ref=reiter|archive-date=19 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419083258/https://books.google.com/books?id=-_Avp1TNYjMC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Ries|first1=Tomas|title=Cold Will: The Defense of Finland|edition=1st|year=1988| publisher=Brassey's Defence Publishers|isbn=0-08-033592-6|ref=Ries1988}}
* {{cite book|first=Jonathan|last=Rigby|title=Christopher Lee: The Authorised Screen History|publisher=Reynolds & Hearn|year=2003|isbn=978-1903111642}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_oHRAwAAQBAJ|title=Combat and Genocide on the Eastern Front: The German Infantry's War, 1941–1944|last=Rutherford|first=Jeff|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1107055711|pages=190|quote=The ensnaring of Leningrad between the German and Finnish armies did not end the combat in the region as the Soviets launched repeated and desperate attempts to regain contact with the city.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227153427/https://books.google.ch/books?id=_oHRAwAAQBAJ|archive-date=27 February 2018|ref=rutherford}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sander |first1=Gordon F. |title=The Hundred Day Winter War: Finland's Gallant Stand against the Soviet Army |publisher=University Press of Kansas |date=2013 |ref=Sander2013}}
* {{cite book|last=Sedlar|first=Jean W.|title=Hitler's Central European Empire 1938–1945|year=2007|publisher=BookLocker|isbn=978-1591139102|ref=Sedlar2007}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Tanner|first1=Väinö|author-link1=Väinö Tanner|title=The Winter War: Finland against Russia 1939–1940|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1elAAAAIAAJ&q=Tanne%20The%20Winter%20War%3A%20Finland%20against%20Russia&pg=PA1|year=1957|orig-year=1950|publisher=Stanford University Press|ref=Tanner1950|isbn=978-0-8047-0482-3|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=19 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419083249/https://books.google.com/books?id=J1elAAAAIAAJ&q=Tanne%20The%20Winter%20War%3A%20Finland%20against%20Russia&pg=PA1|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Tillotson|first1=H.M.|title=Finland at Peace & War 1918–1993|year= 1993|publisher=Michael Russell|isbn=0-85955-196-2|ref=Tillotson1993}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Trotter|first1=William R.|author-link1=William R. Trotter|title=The Winter War: The Russo–Finnish War of 1939–40|edition=5th|year=2002|orig-year=1991|publisher=Aurum Press|isbn=1-85410-881-6|ref=Trotter2002}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Van Dyke|first1=Carl|title=The Soviet Invasion of Finland, 1939–40|year=1997| publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-7146-4314-9|ref=VanDyke1997}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8iQuDwAAQBAJ|title=Leningrad 1941–42: Morality in a City under Siege|last=Yarov|first=Sergey|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|others=Foreword by John Barber|year=2017|isbn=978-1509508020|pages=7|quote=While the exact number who died during the siege by the German and Finnish armies from 8 September 1941 to 27 January 1944 will never be known, available data point to 900,000 civilian deaths, over half a million of whom died in the winter of 1941–2 alone.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227153547/https://books.google.ch/books?id=8iQuDwAAQBAJ|archive-date=27 February 2018|ref=yarov}}
* {{cite web|url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/putin_winter_war_aimed_at_correcting_border_mistakes/6539940|title=Putin: Winter War aimed at correcting border "mistakes"|author=Yle News|date=15 March 2013|access-date=14 December 2017|ref=Yle2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214072040/https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/putin_winter_war_aimed_at_correcting_border_mistakes/6539940|archive-date=14 December 2017|url-status=live|author-link=Yle}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.is.fi/ulkomaat/art-2000006352401.html|title=Yuri Kilin interview|author=Iltasanomat|date=22 December 2019|access-date=3 December 2021|ref=Iltasanomat2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130193704/https://www.is.fi/ulkomaat/art-2000006352401.html|archive-date=30 November 2021|url-status=live|author-link=Iltasanomat}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Zeiler |editor1-first=Thomas W. |editor2-last=DuBois |editor2-first=Daniel M. |title=A Companion to World War II|series=Wiley Blackwell Companions to World History |volume=11 | year=2012 |ref=Zeiler |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-9681-9}}
{{Refend}}

=== Finnish, Russian and other languages ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite web|first=Pavel|last=Aptekar|title=Casus Belli: о Майнильском инциденте, послужившим поводом, для начала "Зимней войны" 1939–40 гг.|trans-title=Casus Belli: about the Mainila incident, which served as a pretext for the beginning of the "Winter War" of 1939–40|url=http://www.rkka.ru/analys/mainila/mainila.htm|website=Raboche-Krest'yanskaya Krasnaya Armiya (website)|access-date=2 September 2009|ref=Aptekar|language=ru|archive-date=2 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202014421/http://www.rkka.ru/analys/mainila/mainila.htm|url-status=live}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author1=Baryshnikov, N. |author2=Salomaa, E. |editor=Chernov, M. |encyclopedia=Крестовый поход на Россию [Crusade Against Russia] |script-title=ru: Вовлечение Финляндии во Вторую Мировую войну |trans-title=Finland's Entrance into World War II |year=2005 |publisher=Yauza |isbn=5-87849-171-0 |ref=Baryshnikov2005 |url=http://militera.lib.ru/h/sb_crusade_in_rossia/02.html |language=ru |access-date=1 July 2008 |archive-date=6 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081106001029/http://militera.lib.ru/h/sb_crusade_in_rossia/02.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite journal |last=Bichekhvost |first=Alexander Fedorovich |title=Репрессивная политика советского государства и судьбы военнопленных Красной армии участников советско-финской войны 1939-1940 годов |journal=Известия Саратовского Университета. Новая Серия. Серия История. Международные Отношения |trans-title=The Repressive Policy of the Soviet State and the Fate of the Red Army Prisoners of War Participants in the Soviet-Finnish War 1939–1940 |year=2012 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=99–108 |url=https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/repressivnaya-politika-sovetskogo-gosudarstva-i-sudby-voennoplennyh-krasnoy-armii-uchastnikov-sovetsko-finskoy-voyny-1939-1940-godov |language=ru |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=8 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708002351/https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/repressivnaya-politika-sovetskogo-gosudarstva-i-sudby-voennoplennyh-krasnoy-armii-uchastnikov-sovetsko-finskoy-voyny-1939-1940-godov |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last=Elfvegren|first=Eero|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999|chapter=Merisota talvisodassa|ref=Elfv1999|language=fi|trans-chapter=Naval Warfare in the Winter War}}
* {{Cite book|last=Engman|first=Max|title=Raja – Karjalankannas 1918–1920|publisher=WSOY|year=2007|isbn=978-951-0-32765-4|ref=Engman07|trans-title=Border – The Karelian Isthmus 1918–1920}}
* {{cite book|last=Enkenberg|first=Ilkka|title=Talvisota Väreissä|year=2020|publisher=Readme.fi|isbn=978-952-373-053-3|language=fi|ref=Enkenberg}}
* {{cite book|last1=Geust|first1=Carl-Fredrik|last2=Uitto|first2=Antero|title= Mannerheim-linja: Talvisodan legenda|year=2006|publisher=Ajatus|isbn=951-20-7042-1|ref= GeustUitto2006|language=fi|trans-title=The Mannerheim Line: Legend of the Winter War}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Hallberg |editor-first=Torsten |year=2006 |title=Karelen: ett gränsland i Norden |publisher=Föreningen Norden |isbn=978-9185276806 |language=sv |ref=Hallberg2006}}
* {{cite book|last1=Halsti|first1=Wolfgang Hallstén|title=Talvisota 1939–1940|year=1955|publisher=Otava|ref=Halsti1955|language=fi|trans-title=The Winter War 1939–1940}}
* {{cite book|script-title=ru:Финляндия на пути к войне: Исследование о военном сотрудничестве Германии и Финляндии в 1940–1941 гг|trans-title=Birth of the Continuation War: Research of German–Finnish Military Collaboration 1940–1941|last=Jokipii|first=Mauno|year=1999|publisher=Karelia|location=Petrozavodsk |isbn=5754507356|language=ru|ref=jokipii}}
* {{cite book|last1=Juutilainen|first1=Antti|last2=Koskimaa|first2=Matti|title=Jatkosodan pikkujättiläinen| year=2005|chapter=Maavoimien joukkojen perustaminen|ref=Juuti&Koski2005|language=fi|trans-chapter=Establishing the Army Forces}}
* {{cite book|last=Juutilainen|first=Antti|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|date=1999a|chapter=Laatokan Karjalan taistelut|ref=Juuti1999a|language=fi|trans-chapter=Battles in Ladoga Karelia}}
* {{cite book|last=Juutilainen|first=Antti|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|date=1999b|chapter=Talvisodan ulkomaalaiset vapaaehtoiset|ref=Juuti1999b|language=fi|trans-chapter=Foreign Volunteers in the Winter War}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kantakoski|first1=Pekka|title=Punaiset panssarit: Puna-armeijan panssarijoukot 1918–1945|year=1998|publisher=PS-Elso|isbn= 951-98057-0-2|ref=Kanta1998|language=fi|trans-title=Red Armour: The Red Army's Tank Forces, 1918–1945}}
* {{cite news |last=Kauppinen |first=Kari |title=Sotasankari Simo Häyhän ennennäkemätön päiväkirja löytyi – "Tässä on minun syntilistani" |newspaper=Iltalehti |url=https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/201707172200270836 |location=Helsinki |date=18 July 2017 |language=fi |access-date=15 September 2020 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612162546/https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/201707172200270836_u0.shtml |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last=Kilin|first=Juri|editor1-first=Markku|editor1-last=Jokisipilä| title=Sodan totuudet. Yksi suomalainen vastaa 5,7 ryssää|date=2007a|chapter=Leningradin sotilaspiirin rajakahakka|ref=Kilin2007a|publisher=Ajatus|author-link1=Yuri Kilin|language=fi|trans-title=Truths of War. One Finn equals 5.7 Russians}}
* {{cite book|last=Kilin|first=Juri|editor1-first=Markku|editor1-last=Jokisipilä|title= Sodan totuudet. Yksi suomalainen vastaa 5,7 ryssää|date=2007b|chapter=Rajakahakan hidas jäiden lähtö|author-link1=Yuri Kilin|ref=Kilin2007b|language=fi|trans-title=Truths of War. One Finn equals 5.7 Russians}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kilin|first1=Juri|last2=Raunio|first2=Ari|author-link1=Yuri Kilin| title=Talvisodan taisteluja|publisher=Karttakeskus|year=2007|isbn=978-951-593-068-2|ref= KilinRaunio2007|language=fi|trans-title=Winter War Battles}}
* {{cite book|last=Kilin|first=Yuri|author-link=Yuri Kilin |title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999| chapter=Puna-armeijan Stalinin tahdon toteuttajana|ref=Kilin1999|language=fi|trans-chapter=The Red Army as an Executor of Stalin's Will}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kilin |first=Yu. M. |title=Soviet–Finish War 1939–1940 and Red Army's Losses |journal=Proceedings of Petrozavodsk State University. Social Sciences & Humanities |issue=126 |year=2012 |volume=5 |issn=1998-5053 |pages=21–24 |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=200645 |url-access=subscription |access-date=27 June 2018 |archive-date=6 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006003211/https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=200645 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite web |last=Kinnunen |first=Annika |date=5 November 2019 |title=Sotamuistoja – Simo Häyhän kuvaus talvisodasta |url=http://jultika.oulu.fi/files/nbnfioulu-201911293204.pdf |access-date=20 August 2022 |publisher=University of Oulu |page=13 |language=fi |type=Candidate thesis |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630040854/http://jultika.oulu.fi/files/nbnfioulu-201911293204.pdf |url-status=live |ref=Kinnunen2019}}
* {{cite book |author=Kovalyov, E. |script-title=ru:Короли подплава в море червонных валетов |trans-title=Submarine Kings of the Knave of Hearts Sea |chapter=7: Зимняя война балтийских подводных лодок (1939–1940 гг.) |trans-chapter=Winter War and the Baltic Submarines (1939–1940) |year=2006 |publisher=Tsentrpoligraf |isbn=5-9524-2324-8 |ref=Kovalyov2006 |url=http://militera.lib.ru/h/kovalev_ea2/07.html |language=ru |access-date=1 July 2008 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101075218/http://militera.lib.ru/h/kovalev_ea2/07.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last1=Kulju|first1=Mika|title=Raatteen tie: Talvisodan pohjoinen sankaritarina|year=2007|publisher=Ajatus|isbn= 978-951-20-7218-7|ref=Kulju2007|language=fi|trans-title=The Raate Road: Tale of Northern Heroism during the Winter War}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kurenmaa|first1=Pekka|last2=Lentilä|first2=Riitta|title=Jatkosodan pikkujättiläinen|year= 2005|chapter=Sodan tappiot|ref=Kur&Lent2005|language=fi|trans-chapter=Casualties of the War}}
* {{cite book|last1=Laaksonen|first1=Lasse|title=Todellisuus ja harhat| year=2005|orig-year=1999|publisher=Ajatus|isbn=951-20-6911-3|ref=Laaksonen2005|language=fi|trans-title=Reality and Illusions}}
* {{cite book|last=Laaksonen|first=Lasse|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999|chapter=Kannaksen taistelut|ref=Laaksonen1999|language=fi|trans-chapter=Battles in the Isthmus}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lentilä|first1=Riitta|last2=Juutilainen|first2=Antti|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999| chapter=Talvisodan uhrit|ref=Lent&Juuti1999|trans-chapter=Victims of the Winter War}}
* {{cite book|last1=Leskinen|first1=Jari|last2=Juutilainen|first2=Antti|year=2005|title=Jatkosodan pikkujättiläinen|edition=1st|publisher=WSOY|isbn=951-0-28690-7|language=fi|trans-title=Continuation War Guidebook|ref=Lesk&Juuti1999}}
* {{cite book|last=Leskinen|first=Jari|editor1-first=Jari|editor1-last=Leskinen| editor2-first=Antti|editor2-last=Juutilainen|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999|chapter=Suomen ja Viron salainen sotilaallinen yhteistyö Neuvostoliiton hyökkäyksen varalta 1930-luvulla|ref=Lesk1999|language=fi|trans-chapter=The Clandestine Finnish-Estonian Military Collaboration against a Possible Soviet Invasion in the 1930s}}
* {{cite book|last1=Leskinen|first1=Jari|last2=Juutilainen|first2=Antti|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen| year=1999|chapter=Suomen kunnian päivät|language=fi|trans-chapter=Glory Days of Finland}}
* {{cite book|last=Malmi|first=Timo|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999|chapter=Suomalaiset sotavangit|ref=Malmi1999|language=fi|trans-chapter=Finnish Prisoners of War}}
* {{cite book|last1=Manninen|first1=Ohto|author-link1=Ohto Manninen|title=Miten Suomi valloitetaan: Puna-armeijan operaatiosuunnitelmat 1939–1944|year=2008|publisher=Edita|isbn=978-951-37-5278-1|ref=Manninen2008|language=fi|trans-title=How to Conquer Finland: Operational Plans of the Red Army 1939–1944}}
* {{cite book|last=Manninen|first=Ohto|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|date=1999a|chapter=Neuvostoliiton tavoitteet ennen talvisotaa ja sen aikana|ref=Manninen1999a|language=fi|trans-chapter=Soviet objectives before and during the Winter War}}
* {{cite book|last=Manninen|first=Ohto|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|date=1999b|chapter=Venäläiset sotavangit ja tappiot|ref=Manninen1999b|language=fi|trans-chapter=Russian Prisoners of War and Casualties}}
* {{cite book|last1=Manninen |first1=Ohto|author-link1=Ohto Manninen|title=Talvisodan salatut taustat (Hidden background of the Winter War)|year=1994|publisher=Kirjaneuvos|isbn=952-90-5251-0|ref=Manninen1994|language=fi}}
* {{cite book|last=Meltiukhov|first=Mikhail|author-link=Mikhail Meltiukhov|trans-title=Stalin's Missed Chance|script-title=ru:Упущенный шанс Сталина. Советский Союз и борьба за Европу|year=2000|publisher=Veche|url=http://militera.lib.ru/research/meltyukhov/04.html|ref=Meltiukhov2000|access-date=29 October 2010|language=ru|archive-date=9 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209214754/http://militera.lib.ru/research/meltyukhov/04.html|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last1=Paasikivi|first1=Juho Kusti|author-link1=Juho Kusti Paasikivi|title= Toimintani Moskovassa ja Suomessa 1939–41|year=1958|publisher=WSOY|ref= Paasikivi1958|language=fi|trans-title=My Actions in Moscow and Finland 1939–1941}}
* {{cite book|last=Palokangas|first=Markku|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999|chapter= Suomalaisjoukkojen aseistus ja varustus|ref=Palo1999|language=fi|trans-chapter=Armament and Equipment of the Finnish Forces}}
* {{cite book|last=Paulaharju|first=Jyri|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999|chapter=Pakkastalven kourissa|ref=Paula1999|language=fi|trans-chapter=In the Grip of Winter}}
* {{cite news|last=Paskhover|first=A.|url=http://www.istpravda.com.ua/blogs/2015/06/3/148356/|trans-title=Red Army – the most peaceful, the most heroic...|script-title=uk:Красная Армия – самая миролюбивая, самая героическая...|newspaper=[[Ukrayinska Pravda]]|date=3 June 2015|ref=Paskhover2015|language=ru|access-date=21 June 2015|archive-date=27 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627060926/https://www.istpravda.com.ua/blogs/2015/06/3/148356/|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Peltonen|first=Martti|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999|chapter=Ilmasota talvisodassa|ref=Peltonen|language=fi|trans-chapter=Aerial Warfare in the Winter Wari}}
* {{cite book|last=Petrov|first=Pavel|title=Venäläinen talvisotakirjallisuus: Bibliografia 1939–1945|publisher=Docendo|date=2013|isbn=978-952-5912-97-5|trans-title=Russian Winter War Literature: Bibliography 1939–1945|language=fi|ref=Petrov2013}}
* {{Cite book|title=Venäjän vallankumous ja Suomi 1917–1920 II: toukokuu 1918–joulukuu 1920|last=Polvinen|first=Tuomo|publisher=WSOY|year=1987|isbn=951-0-14299-9|orig-year=1971|ref=Polvinen1987|trans-title=Russian Revolution and Finland 1917–1920 II: May 1918 – December 1920}}
* {{cite book |author=Shirokorad, A. |script-title=ru:Северные войны России |trans-title=Russia's Northern Wars |chapter=IX: Зимняя война 1939–1940 гг. [Winter War 1939–1940] |year=2001 |publisher=ACT |isbn=5-17-009849-9 |url=http://militera.lib.ru/h/shirokorad1/9_01.html |ref=Shirokorad2001 |language=ru |access-date=1 July 2008 |archive-date=7 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207011754/http://militera.lib.ru/h/shirokorad1/9_01.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |author-last=Ravasz |author-first=István |url=http://www.wysocki.hu/old/irasok/dok/ravasz_finn.pdf |title=Finnország függetlenségi harca 1917–1945, Magyar önkéntesek Finnországban |trans-title=Finland's struggle for independence from 1917 to 1945, Hungarian volunteers in Finland |publisher=Wysocki Légió Hagyományőrző Egyesületnek |ref=Ravasz |year=2003 |language=hu |access-date=26 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020105939/http://www.wysocki.hu/old/irasok/dok/ravasz_finn.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2017 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Holtsmark |editor1-first=Sven G. |editor2-last=Pharo |editor2-first=Helge Ø. |editor3-last=Tamnes |editor3-first=Rolf|ref=Rentola |author-last=Rentola |author-first=Kimmo |title=Motstrøms: Olav Riste og norsk internasjonal historieskrivning|trans-title=Counter Currents: Olav Riste and Norwegian international historiography.|publisher=Cappelen Akademisk Forlag |year=2003|isbn=8202218284 |language=no}}
* {{cite book|author=Russian State Military Archive|trans-title=Russian State Military Archive|script-title=ru:Российский государственный военный архив (РГВА)|ref=RusMilArchive34980|language=ru}}
* {{cite book|last=Silvast|first=Pekka|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999|chapter=Merivoimien ensimmäinen voitto: Russarö|ref=Silvast|language=fi|trans-chapter=The Navy's First Victory: Russarö}}
* {{cite book|last=Soikkanen|first=Timo|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999|chapter=Talvisodan henki| ref=Soikk1999|language=fi|trans-chapter=The Spirit of the Winter War}}
* {{cite book|author=Statistics Finland|title=Suomenmaan Tilastollinen Vuosikirja 1940|trans-title=Finnish Statistics Yearbook 1940|year=1941|pages=14–15|ref=FinnYearbook1940|language=fi|url=https://www.doria.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/69230/stv_1940.pdf|access-date=13 March 2022|archive-date=7 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307113634/https://www.doria.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/69230/stv_1940.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Turtola|first=Martti|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|date=1999a|chapter=Kansainvälinen kehitys Euroopassa ja Suomessa 1930-luvulla|ref=Turtola1999a|language=fi|trans-chapter=International Developments in Europe and Finland in the 1930s}}
* {{cite book|last=Turtola|first=Martti|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|date=1999b|chapter=Katkera rauha ja Suomen ulkopoliittinen asema sodan jälkeen|ref=Turtola1999b|language=fi|trans-chapter=Bitter Peace and the Post-War Position of Finnish Foreign Policy}}
* {{cite book|last=Vihavainen|first=Timo|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen|year=1999|chapter=Talvisota neuvostohistoriakirjoituksessa|ref=Vihavainen|language=fi|trans-chapter=The Winter War in Soviet historiography}}
* {{cite book|last=Sokolov|first=Boris|title=Тайны финской войны|year=2000|chapter=Путь к миру|publisher=Вече |ref=Sokolov00|language=ru|trans-chapter=Secrets of the Russo-Finnish War|isbn=5-7838-0583-1}}
* {{cite book|last1=Vuorenmaa|first1=Anssi|last2=Juutilainen|first2=Antti|title=Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen| year=1999|chapter=Myytti Mannerheim-linjasta|ref=Vuore1999|language=fi}} (Myth of the Mannerheim Line)
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wIr-DAAAQBAJ |title=Finnish soldier versus Soviet soldier: Winter War 1939-40 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4728-1324-4 |series=Combat |location=Oxford [England]}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chew |first=Allen F. |url=https://archive.org/details/whitedeathepicof0000chew |title=The white death: the epic of the Soviet-Finnish Winter War |date=1971 |publisher=[[Michigan State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-87013-167-7 |location=East Lansing |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cox |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Cox (journalist) |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206747 |title=The Red Army Moves |publisher=[[Victor Gollancz]] |year=1941 |location=London |oclc=502873 |ref=Cox1941}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Engle |first1=Eloise |url=https://archive.org/details/winterwarrussofi0000paan |title=The winter war; the Russo-Finnish conflict, 1939-40 |last2=Paananen |first2=Lauri |date=1972 |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |isbn=978-0-684-13047-7 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hill |first=Alexander |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLOSDQAAQBAJ |title=The Red Army and the Second World War |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-107-02079-5 |series=Armies of the Second World War |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kolomiec |first1=Maksim V. |title=Tanks in the Winter War 1939-1940 |last2=Kolomiec |first2=Maksim V. |date=2008 |publisher=Leandoer & Ekholm |isbn=978-91-975895-2-9 |series=Operations Scandinavia |location=Stockholm |translator-last=Dinan |translator-first=Tim}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Nenye |first1=Vesa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bYOXCwAAQBAJ |title=Finland at War: The Winter War 1939–40 |last2=Munter |first2=Peter |last3=Wirtanen |first3=Toni |date=2015 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4728-1358-9 |location=Oxford |oclc=899228795}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Rahikainen |first1=Paavo |title=Artillery barrage at Taipaleenjoki |last2=Vainio |first2=Eino |date=1996 |publisher=Finnish War Veterans Association |isbn=978-951-97557-0-0 |location=Helsinki |translator-last=Mayow |translator-first=Nicholas |oclc=41278218 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Reese |first=Roger R. |date=July 2008 |title=Lessons of the Winter War: A Study in the Military Effectiveness of the Red Army, 1939–1940 |journal=[[The Journal of Military History]] |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=825–852 |doi=10.1353/jmh.0.0004 |issn=1543-7795 |s2cid=110326295}}
* {{Cite book |last=Saarelainen |first=Tapio A. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bN48DQAAQBAJ |title=The white sniper: Simo Häyhä |publisher=[[Casemate Publishers]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-61200-429-7 |location=Philadelphia}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sander |first=Gordon F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MG7CEAAAQBAJ |title=The Hundred Day Winter War: Finland's gallant stand against the Soviet Army |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7006-1910-8 |series=Modern war studies |location=Lawrence, Kansas}}
* {{Cite book |author=Soviet Information Bureau |author-link=Soviet Information Bureau |title=Falsifiers of History (Historical Survey) |publisher=[[Foreign Languages Publishing House (Soviet Union)|Foreign Languages Publishing House]] |year=1948 |location=Moscow |lccn=48024356 |oclc=5180512 |ol=6038495M |ref=SovietInformationBureau1948}}
* {{Cite news |last=Taylor |first=Alan |date=23 May 2013 |title=Finland in World War II |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2013/05/finland-in-world-war-ii/100519/ |work=[[The Atlantic]]}}
* {{Cite book |last=Trotter |first=William R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yXsLNVaDfcoC |title=A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939-1940 |date=1991 |publisher=[[Algonquin Books]] |isbn=978-0-945575-22-1 |location=Chapel Hill, N.C}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tuunainen |first=Pasi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_OODAAAQBAJ |title=Finnish Military Effectiveness in the Winter War, 1939-1940 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-137-44604-6 |location=London |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-44606-0 |oclc=956625046}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Tuuri |first1=Antti |author-link1=Antti Tuuri |title=[[The Winter War (novel)|The Winter War]] |last2=Impola |first2=Richard A. |author-link2=Richard Impola |publisher=Aspasia Books |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-9731053-7-7 |series=Aspasia classics in Finnish literature |location=Ontario |oclc=ocm53793184 |orig-year=1984}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weeks |first=Jessica L. P. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1287f18 |title=Dictators at war and peace |date=2014 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8014-7982-3 |series=Cornell studies in security affairs |location=Ithaca, NY |jstor=10.7591/j.ctt1287f18 }}
* {{Cite news |last=Woody |first=Christopher |date=1 December 2017 |title=These 17 photos show Finland's brutally cold World War II battle with the Soviet Union |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/ussr-russia-finald-wwii-winter-war-photos-2017-3 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219083546/http://uk.businessinsider.com/ussr-russia-finald-wwii-winter-war-photos-2017-3 |archive-date=19 February 2023 |access-date=11 January 2018 |work=[[Business Insider]]}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Winter War}}{{Wiktionary|motti}}
* [http://waralbum.ru/category/war/east/winter_war/ Военный альбом] (photographs of the Soviet–Finnish War 1939–1940)
* [https://finna.fi/?lng=en-gb Finna] (search service for information from Finnish archives, libraries and museums)
* [http://sa-kuva.fi/ Finnish Wartime Photograph Archive] (under [[CC BY 4.0]])
* [http://media.wfyi.org/fireandice/history/history.htm Fire and Ice: The Winter War of Finland and Russia] (Winter War history from a documentary film's website)
* [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ National Archives of the United Kingdom]

{{World War II}}
{{Finland topics}}
{{Finnish Defence Forces}}
{{Russian Conflicts}}
{{Nazi–Soviet relations}}
{{Joseph Stalin}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Winter War| ]]
[[Category:1939 in Finland]]
[[Category:1939 in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:1940 in Finland]]
[[Category:1940 in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1939]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1940]]
[[Category:November 1939 in Europe]]
[[Category:December 1939 in Europe]]
[[Category:January 1940 in Europe]]
[[Category:February 1940 in Europe]]
[[Category:March 1940 in Europe]]
[[Category:Eastern European theatre of World War II]]
[[Category:Finland in World War II]]
[[Category:Germany–Soviet Union relations (1918–1941)]]
[[Category:History of Karelia]]
[[Category:Karelian Isthmus]]
[[Category:League of Nations]]
[[Category:Soviet-Finnish wars|Winter]]
[[Category:Winter in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:European winters]]