View source for Will-o'-the-wisp

{{Short description|Atmospheric ghost lights}}
{{other uses}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2023}}
[[File:Will-o-the-wisp and snake by Hermann Hendrich 1823.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The Will o' the Wisp and the Snake by [[Hermann Hendrich]] (1854–1931)]]

In folklore, a '''will-o'-the-wisp''', '''will-o'-wisp''', or {{langnf|la|'''ignis fatuus'''|foolish flame|paren=left}};<ref name="Bergovia">{{cite magazine |last=Phipson|first=T. L. |date=October 1868 |title=Will-o'-the-wisp |magazine=[[Belgravia (magazine)|Belgravia]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtcYAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA392 |location=London |publisher=Robson and Son |page=392 |volume=6 |access-date=2020-07-24}}</ref> {{plural form|'''{{lang|la|ignes fatui}}'''}}), is an [[atmospheric ghost light]] seen by travellers at night, especially over bogs, swamps or marshes.

The phenomenon is known in the United Kingdom by a variety of names, including '''[[jack-o'-lantern]]''',{{Refn|{{harvp|Kittredge|1900|p=440}}: Jack-with-a-lantern, Jack-a-Lantern and n3, Jack-o'-Lantern, citing Allies (1846)<ref name="allies1846"/>}} '''friar's lantern''',{{Refn|In Milton's ''[[L'Allegro]]''.{{sfnp|Kittredge|1900|pp=429–430}}}}<ref>{{harvp|Denham|1895|loc='''2''': 78}}: friars' lanthorns</ref> and '''hinkypunk''', and is said to mislead and/or guide travellers by resembling a flickering lamp or lantern.<ref>{{cite book |title=Folk-Lore and Folk-Stories of Wales |first=Marie |last=Trevelyan |author-link=<!--Marie Trevelyan--> |location=London |publisher=Elliot Stock|year=1909 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cybaAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA178<!--https://books.google.com/books?id=zmYHrsC6cYIC--> |page=178 |isbn=978-0854099382 |access-date=2010-09-18}}{{dead link |date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Equivalents of the will-o'-the-wisps appear in [[European folklore]] by various names, e.g., {{lang|la|ignis fatuus}} in Latin, {{lang|fr|feu follet}} in French, {{lang|de|Irrlicht}} or {{lang|de|Irrwisch}} in Germany. Equivalents occur in traditions of cultures worldwide (cf. {{section link||Global terms}}); e.g., the [[Naga fireball]]s on the [[Mekong]] in [[Thailand]]. In North America the phenomenon is known as the [[Paulding Light]] in [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]], [[the Spooklight]] in Southwestern Missouri and Northeastern Oklahoma, and [[St. Louis Light]] in [[Saskatchewan]]. In Arab folklore it is known as [[Abu Fanous]].

In folklore, will-o'-the-wisps are typically attributed as ghosts, fairies or elemental spirits meant to reveal a path or direction. These wisps are portrayed as dancing or flowing in a static form, until noticed or followed, in which case they visually fade or disappear. Modern science explains the light aspect as natural phenomena such as [[bioluminescence]] or [[chemiluminescence]], caused by the [[oxidation]] of [[phosphine]] ({{chem|P|H|3}}), [[diphosphane]] ({{chem|P|2|H|4}}) and methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}), produced by [[organic compound|organic]] decay.

==Nomenclature==
===Etymology===
The term ''will-o'-the-wisp'' comes from ''wisp'', a bundle of sticks or paper sometimes used as a torch and the name '[[Will (given name)|Will]]', thus meaning 'Will of the torch'. The term ''[[jack-o'-lantern]]'' ('Jack of the lantern') originally referred to a will-o'-the-wisp.<ref>{{cite web|last=Harper|first=Douglas|title=Jack-o'-lantern (n.)|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/Jack-o'-lantern|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019235119/https://www.etymonline.com/word/Jack-o'-lantern|archive-date=2017-10-19|work=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=9 May 2013}}</ref> In the United States, they are often called ''spook-lights'', ''ghost-lights'', or ''orbs'' by folklorists.<ref name="Wagner">{{cite web|title=Spooklights: Where to Find Them|first=Stephen|last=Wagner|url=http://paranormal.about.com/library/weekly/aa080601a.htm|work=About.com|access-date=2007-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022153333/http://paranormal.about.com/library/weekly/aa080601a.htm|archive-date=2007-10-22}}</ref><ref name="Floyd">{{cite web|title=Historical Mysteries: Ghostly lights as common as dew in Dixie|first=Randall|last=Floyd|url=http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/060897/fea_floyd.html|work=[[The Augusta Chronicle]]|year=1997|access-date=December 8, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moonslipper.com/ghostlightsandorbs.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311080723/http://www.moonslipper.com/ghostlightsandorbs.html|archive-date=March 11, 2007|title=Ghost Lights and Orbs|website=Moonslipper.com|access-date=November 18, 2011}}</ref>

The Latin name {{lang|la|ignis fatuus}} is composed of {{lang|la|[[wikt:ignis#Latin|ignis]]}}, meaning 'fire' and {{lang|la|[[wikt:fatuus|fatuus]]}}, an adjective meaning 'foolish', 'silly' or 'simple'; it can thus be literally translated into English as 'foolish fire' or more idiomatically as 'giddy flame'.<ref name="Bergovia" /> Despite its [[Latin]] origins, the term {{lang|la|ignis fatuus}} is not attested in antiquity, and the name for the will-o'-the-wisp used by the [[Ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] is uncertain.<ref name="Bergovia" /> The term is not attested in the Middle Ages either. Instead, the Latin {{lang|la|ignis fatuus}} is documented no earlier than the 16th century in Germany, where it was coined by a German [[humanist]], and appears to be a free translation of the long-existing German name {{lang|de|[[wikt:Irrlicht|Irrlicht]]}} ('wandering light' or 'deceiving light') conceived of in [[German folklore]] as a mischievous spirit of nature; the Latin translation was made to lend the German name intellectual credibility.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brown |first=Jane K. |title=Irrlichtelieren |journal=Goethe Yearbook |volume=27 |year=2020 |pages=337–344 |doi=10.1353/gyr.2020.0017 |s2cid=240765012 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/762257/summary|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="HdA-Olbrich-irrlicht"/>

Beside {{lang|de|Irrlicht}}, the will-o'-the-wisp has also been called in German {{lang|de|Irrwisch}} (where {{lang|de|[[wikt:Wisch|Wisch]]}} translates to 'wisp'), as found in e.g. [[Martin Luther]]'s writings of the same 16th century.<ref name="HdA-Olbrich-irrlicht"/>

===Synonyms===
The names ''will-o'-the-wisp'' and ''jack-o'-lantern'' are used in [[origin myth|etiological folk-tales]], recorded in many variant forms in [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]], [[England]], [[Wales]], [[Appalachia]], and [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~dash/willowisp.html|title=Will-o'-the-Wisp, Jack-o'-Lantern|last=Ashliman|first=D.|date=January 19, 2019|website=University of Pittsburgh|access-date=October 23, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Mystical Mountains|last=Jackson|first=Darla|date=September 3, 2015|pages=109–110}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nlunexplained.ca/2016/09/jack-lantern-in-shoe-cove-bight-will-o.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103161228/http://www.nlunexplained.ca/2016/09/jack-lantern-in-shoe-cove-bight-will-o.html|archive-date=2017-01-03|title=Jack the Lantern in Shoe Cove Bight|last=Jarvis|first=Dale|website=www.nlunexplained.ca|access-date=October 23, 2019}}</ref>

Folk belief attributes the phenomenon explicitly in the term ''[[Hob (folklore)|hob]] lantern'' or ''hobby lantern''<ref name="wright1914"/> (var. 'Hob and his Lantern',<ref name="allies1846"/> 'hob-and-lanthorns").{{sfnp|Denham|1895|loc='''2''': 78}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|And "Hoberdy's Lantern", "Hobany's Lantern" "Hob and his Lantern"<ref name="allies1846"/> probably corrupted from "Hob and his Lantern" accord. Kittredge, 440, n3.}} In her book ''A Dictionary of Fairies,'' [[Katharine Mary Briggs|K. M. Briggs]] provides an extensive list of other names for the same phenomenon, though the place where they are observed (graveyard, bogs, etc.) influences the naming considerably. When observed in graveyards, it is known as a ''ghost candle'' or ''corpse candle''.<ref name="odonnell1955"/><ref>{{harvp|Denham|1895|loc='''2''': 79}}: "corpse lights or candles"</ref>

==Folklore==
[[File:Arnold Böcklin - Das Irrlicht -1882.jpeg|thumb|An 1862 oil painting of a will-o'-the-wisp by [[Arnold Böcklin]]]]

In the etiological (origin)  tales, protagonists named either Will or Jack are doomed to haunt the marshes with a light for some misdeed. One version from [[Shropshire]] is recounted by Briggs in ''A Dictionary of Fairies'' and refers to Will Smith. Will is a wicked blacksmith who is given a second chance by [[Saint Peter]] at the gates of heaven, but leads such a bad life that he ends up being doomed to wander the earth. The Devil provides him with a single burning coal with which to warm himself, which he then uses to lure foolish travellers into the marshes.

An Irish version of the tale has a ne'er-do-well named Drunk Jack or [[Stingy Jack]] who, when the Devil comes to collect his soul, tricks him into turning into a coin, so he can pay for his one last drink. When the Devil obliges, Jack places him in his pocket next to a crucifix, preventing him from returning to his original form. In exchange for his freedom, the Devil grants Jack ten more years of life. When the term expires, the Devil comes to collect his due. But Jack tricks him again by making him climb a tree and then carving a cross underneath, preventing him from climbing down. In exchange for removing the cross, the Devil forgives Jack's debt. However, no one as bad as Jack would ever be allowed into heaven, so Jack is forced upon his death to travel to hell and ask for a place there. The Devil denies him entrance in revenge but grants him an ember from the fires of hell to light his way through the twilight world to which lost souls are forever condemned. Jack places it in a carved turnip to serve as a lantern.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Jack-O-Lantern|first=Mark|last=Hoerrner|url=http://www.buzzle.com/articles/history-jacko-lantern-irish-tale-halloween.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061114193117/http://www.buzzle.com/articles/history-jacko-lantern-irish-tale-halloween.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=November 14, 2006 |work=buzzle.com|year=2006|access-date=May 9, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Jack O'Lantern and the Legend of Stingy Jack|author=Leslie O'Malley|date=2015-10-15|publisher=authenticireland.com|url=https://www.authenticireland.com/blog/history-of-the-jack-olantern-and-the-legend-of-stingy-jack/|access-date=2017-12-11}}</ref> Another version of the tale is "Willy the Whisp", related in ''Irish Folktales'' by [[Henry Glassie]]. ''Séadna'' by [[Peadar Ua Laoghaire]] is yet another version—and also the first modern novel in the Irish language.

==Global folklore==
===Americas===
{{redirect|Feu follet|other uses|Feu follet (disambiguation)}}

[[Mexico]] has equivalents. Folklore explains the phenomenon to be witches who transformed into these lights.  Another explanation refers to the lights as indicators to places where gold or hidden treasures are buried which can be found only with the help of children. In this one, they are called luces del dinero (money lights) or luces del tesoro (treasure lights).

The swampy area of [[Massachusetts]] known as the [[Bridgewater Triangle]] has folklore of ghostly orbs of light, and there have been modern observations of these ghost-lights in this area as well.

The fifollet (or feu-follet) of [[Louisiana]] derives from the French. The legend says that the fifollet is a soul sent back from the dead to do God's penance, but instead attacks people for vengeance. While it mostly takes part in harmless mischievous acts, the fifollet sometimes sucked the blood of children. Some legends say that it was the soul of a child who died before baptism.<ref name="J._Gordon_Melton">{{cite book|last=Melton|first=J. Gordon|date=1999|title=The Vampire Book|publisher=Visible Ink Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/vampirebookencyc00melt/page/7 7]|isbn=978-1578592814|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/vampirebookencyc00melt/page/7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://vampireunderworld.com/category/types-of-vampires/north-american-vampires/ |title=North American Vampires|website=VampireUnderworld.com|date=2012-03-25}}</ref>

Boi-tatá ({{IPA|pt|bojtaˈta}}) is the [[Brazil]]ian equivalent of the will-o'-the-wisp.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.terrabrasileira.net/folclore/regioes/3contos/boitata.html|title=O Boitatá |trans-title=The Boitatá |website=Terrabrasileira.net|language=pt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091218220628/http://www.terrabrasileira.net/folclore/regioes/3contos/boitata.html|archive-date=December 18, 2009|url-status=usurped|access-date=November 18, 2011}}</ref> Regionally it is called ''Boitatá'', ''Baitatá'', ''Batatá'', ''Bitatá'', ''Batatão'', ''Biatatá'', ''M'boiguaçu'', ''Mboitatá'' and ''Mbaê-Tata''. The name comes from the [[Old Tupi language]] and means "fiery serpent" (''mboî tatá''). Its great fiery eyes leave it almost blind by day, but by night, it can see everything. According to legend, Boi-tatá was a big serpent which survived a great [[Flood myth|deluge]]. A "boiguaçu" (cave anaconda) left its cave after the deluge and, in the dark, went through the fields preying on the animals and corpses, eating exclusively its favourite morsel, the eyes. The collected light from the eaten eyes gave "Boitatá" its fiery gaze. Not really a dragon but a giant snake (in the native language, ''boa'' or ''mboi'' or ''mboa'').

In [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]], the will-o'-the-wisp phenomenon is known as luz mala (''evil light'') and is one of the most important myths in both countries' folklore. This phenomenon is quite feared and is mostly seen in rural areas. It consists of an extremely shiny ball of light floating a few inches from the ground.

In [[Colombia]], [[la Bolefuego]] or Candileja is the will-o'-the-wisp ghost of a vicious grandmother who raised her grandchildren without morals, and as such they became thieves and murderers. In the afterlife, the grandmother's spirit was condemned to wander the world surrounded in flames. In [[Trinidad and Tobago]], a [[soucouyant]] is a "fireball witch" — an evil spirit that takes on the form of a flame at night. It enters homes through any gap it can find and drinks the blood of its victims.

===Asia===
{{anchor|India}}
{{See also|Chir Batti|Naga fireball}}
Aleya (or marsh ghost-light) is the name given to a strange light phenomenon occurring over the marshes as observed by [[Bengali people|Bengalis]], especially the fishermen of [[Bangladesh]] and [[West Bengal]]. This marsh light is attributed to some kind of [[marsh gas]] apparitions that confuse fishermen, make them lose their bearings, and may even lead to drowning if one decided to follow them moving over the marshes. Local communities in the region believe that these strange hovering marsh-lights are in fact Ghost-lights representing the ghosts of fisherman who died fishing. Sometimes they confuse the fishermen, and sometimes they help them avoid future dangers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.pak-times.com/2009/04/07/bengali-ghosts/|title=Bengali Ghosts|first=Ambarish|last=Pandey|work=[[Pakistan Times]]|date=April 7, 2009|access-date=November 18, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025215051/http://www.pak-times.com/2009/04/07/bengali-ghosts/|archive-date=October 25, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://booksobsession.blogspot.com/2009/10/hbt-guest-post-with-author-saundra.html|title=Blog post by the author Saundra Mitchel of the novel "Shadowed Summer" at Books Obsession|website=Booksobsession.blogspot.com|date=October 9, 2009 |access-date=November 18, 2011}}</ref> Chir batti (ghost-light), also spelled "chhir batti" or "cheer batti", is a dancing light phenomenon occurring on dark nights reported from the [[Banni grasslands]], its seasonal marshy wetlands<ref name="Ghost lights that dance on Banni grasslands when it's very dark; August 28, 2007; The Indian Express Newspaper">{{cite news|url=http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=253114|title=Ghost lights that dance on Banni grasslands when it's very dark|author=D V Maheshwari|date=August 28, 2007|work=[[The Indian Express]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114034106/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=253114|archive-date=January 14, 2009}}</ref> and the adjoining desert of the marshy [[Salt pan (geology)|salt flats]] of the [[Rann of Kutch]]<ref>"I read somewhere that on dark nights there are strange lights that dance on the Rann. The locals call them cheer batti or ghost lights. It's a phenomenon widely documented but not explained." Source: [http://www.intoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&issueid=&id=313&Itemid=&sectionid=8&secid=48&completeview=1 Stark beauty (Rann of Kutch)]; Bharati Motwani; September 23, 2008; [[India Today]] Magazine, Cached: Page 2 of 3 page article with these search terms highlighted: cheer batti ghost lights rann kutch [http://www.intoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=313&Itemid=1&issueid=&sectionid=8&secid=48&limit=1&limitstart=1], Cached: Complete View – 3 page article seen as a single page [https://archive.today/20120803102541/http://www.intoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&issueid=&id=313&Itemid=&sectionid=8&secid=48&completeview=1]</ref><ref name="Ghost lights that dance on Banni grasslands when it's very dark; August 28, 2007; The Indian Express Newspaper" /> Other varieties (and sources) of ghost-lights appear in folklore across India, including the Kollivay Pey of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, the Kuliyande Choote of Kerala, and many variants from different tribes in Northeast India.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bhairav|first1=J. Furcifer|title=Ghosts, Monsters, and Demons|last2=Khanna|first2=Rakesh|publisher=Blaft Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year=2020|isbn=978-9380636474|location=India|pages=11–13}}</ref> In Kashmir, the [[Bramrachokh]] carries a pot of fire on its head.

[[File:Will-o'-the-wisp of Russia.jpg|thumb|A Japanese rendition of a Russian will-o'-the-wisp]]

Similar phenomena are described in Japanese folklore, including {{nihongo||人魂|[[hitodama]]|extra=literally "Human Soul" as a ball of energy}}, ''hi no tama'' ("ball of flame"), ''aburagae'', {{nihongo||小右衛門火|koemonbi}}, ''ushionibi'', etc. All these phenomena are described as associated with graveyards. [[Kitsune]], mythical [[yokai]] demons, are also associated with will 'o the wisp, with the marriage of two kitsune producing kitsune-bi (狐火), literally meaning 'fox-fire'.<ref>Lombardi, Linda. "Kitsune: The Fantastic Japanese Fox". tofugu.com</ref> These phenomena are described in [[Shigeru Mizuki]]'s 1985 book ''Graphic World of Japanese Phantoms'' (妖怪伝 in Japanese).<ref name="Shigeru">Mizuki, Shigeru. "Graphic World of Japanese Phantoms". 講談社, 1985. {{ISBN|978-4062023818}} {{page needed|date=December 2022}}</ref>

In Korea the lights are associated with rice paddies, old trees, mountains or even in some houses and were called '[[Dokkaebi|dokkebi]] bul’ (Hangul: 도깨비 불), meaning goblin fire (or goblin light). They were deemed malevolent and impish, as they confused and lured passersby to lose their way or fall into pits at night.
[[File:粦-bronze.svg|thumb|Character 粦 in bronze script. Its shape depicting a person surrounded by fire like dot and dancing with emphasised feet.]]
The earliest Chinese reference to a will-o'-the-wisp appears to be the Chinese character 粦 lín, attested as far back as the Shang dynasty oracle bones, depicting a human-like figure surrounded by dots presumably representing the glowing lights of the will-o'-the-wisp, to which feet such as those under 舞 wǔ, 'to dance' were added in bronze script. Before the [[Han dynasty]] the top had evolved or been corrupted to represent fire (later further corrupted to resemble 米 mǐ, rice), as the small seal script graph in a dictionary [[Shuowen Jiezi]], compiled in the Han dynasty, shows. The dictionary explained that it was "ghost fire" coming from dead men, horses and cattle during wars and their blood turned into this kind of fire after many years. Although no longer in use alone, 粦 lín is in the character 磷 lín phosphorus, an element involved in scientific explanations of the will-o'-the-wisp phenomenon, and is also a phonetic component in other common characters with the same pronunciation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=%E7%B2%A6&oldid=71954921|title=粦|date=March 17, 2023|via=Wiktionary}}</ref>

Chinese polymath [[Shen Kuo|Shen Gua]] may have recorded such a phenomenon in the [[Dream Pool Essays|Book of Dreams]], stating, "In the middle of the reign of emperor Jia You, at Yanzhou, in the Jiangsu province, an enormous pearl was seen especially in gloomy weather. At first it appeared in the marsh… and disappeared finally in the Xinkai Lake." It was described as very bright, illuminating the surrounding countryside and was a reliable phenomenon over ten years, an elaborate Pearl Pavilion being built by local inhabitants for those who wished to observe it.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XINLC2ubHqwC&q=pearl+pavilion+light+marsh&pg=PT99 |title=Wonders in the Sky: Unexplained Aerial Objects from Antiquity to Modern Times |isbn=978-1101444726 |last1=Vallee |first1=Jacques |last2=Aubeck |first2=Chris |date= 2010|publisher=Penguin }}</ref>

===Europe===
{{See also|Supernatural beings in Slavic folklore}}

In European folklore the lights are often believed to be the spirits of un-baptised or stillborn children, flitting between heaven and hell ([[purgatory]]).{{sfnp|Kittredge|1900|loc=p. 438, n3}}

In Germany there was a belief that a ''Irrlicht'' was the soul of an [[Unbaptized Infants|unbaptised child]], but that it could be redeemed if  the remains are first buried near the eaves of the church, so that at the moment rainwater splashes onto this grave, the churchman could pronounce the [[baptismal formula]] to sanctify the child.{{Refn|Zerrenner (1783)<ref name="zerrenner1783"/> cited by Rochholz.<ref name="rochholz1862"/>}}

In [[Sweden]] also, the will-o'-the-wisp represents the soul of an [[baptism|unbaptised]] person "trying to lead travellers to water in the hope of being baptized".<ref>The Element Encyclopedia of Vampires (Theresa Cheung), HarperCollins</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=July 2023}}

[[Danish people|Danes]], [[Finns]], [[Swedish people|Swedes]], [[Estonians]], [[Latvians]], [[Lithuanians]], and Irish people and amongst some other groups believed that a will-o'-the-wisp also marked the location of a treasure deep in ground or water, which could be taken only when the fire was there. Sometimes magical procedures, and even a [[Hand of Glory|dead man's hand]], were required as well, to uncover the treasure. In Finland and several other northern countries, it was believed that early autumn was the best time to search for will-o'-the-wisps and treasures below them. It was believed that when someone hid treasure in the ground, he made the treasure available only at the summer solstice [[Midsummer|(Midsummer, or Saint John's Day)]], and set a will-o'-the-wisp to mark the exact place and time so that he could reclaim the treasure.

The Aarnivalkea (also known as virvatuli, aarretuli and aarreliekki), in [[Finnish mythology]], are spots where an eternal flame associated with will-o'-the-wisps burns. They are claimed to mark the places where [[faerie]] gold is buried. They are protected by a glamour that would prevent anyone finding them by pure chance. However, if one finds a fern seed from a mythical flowering [[fern]], the magical properties of that seed will lead the fortunate person to these treasures, in addition to providing one with a glamour of invisibility. Since in reality the fern produces no flower and reproduces via spores under the leaves, the myth specifies that it blooms only extremely rarely.

====Britain====
{{See also|Puck (mythology)}}
[[File:Will-o-the-Wisp by Harriet Hosmer.jpg|thumb|upright|Sculpture of a will-o'-the-wisp by [[Harriet Hosmer]]]]
In [[Welsh language|Welsh]] folklore, it is said that the light is "fairy fire" held in the hand of a [[púca]], or pwca, a small goblin-like fairy that mischievously leads lone travellers off the beaten path at night.{{citation needed|reason="Can find direct quoting of this article but no original source"|date=December 2022}} As the traveller follows the púca through the marsh or bog, the fire is extinguished, leaving them lost. The púca is said to be one of the [[Tylwyth Teg]], or fairy family. In [[Wales]] the light predicts a funeral that will take place soon in the locality. [[Wirt Sikes]] in his book ''British Goblins'' mentions the following [[Welsh mythology|Welsh]] tale about púca.

A peasant travelling home at dusk sees a bright light travelling along ahead of him. Looking closer, he sees that the light is a lantern held by a "dusky little figure", which he follows for several miles. All of a sudden he finds himself standing on the edge of a vast chasm with a roaring torrent of water rushing below him. At that precise moment the lantern-carrier leaps across the gap, lifts the light high over its head, lets out a malicious laugh and blows out the light, leaving the poor peasant a long way from home, standing in pitch darkness at the edge of a precipice. This is a fairly common cautionary tale concerning the phenomenon; however, the ignis fatuus was not always considered dangerous. Some tales present the will-o'-the-wisp as a treasure-guardian, leading those brave enough to follow it to certain riches - a form of behaviour sometimes ascribed also to the Irish [[leprechaun]]. Other stories tell of travellers surprising a will-o'-the-wisp while lost in the woods and being either guided out or led further astray, depending on whether they treated the spirit kindly or harshly.

Also related, the pixy-light from [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] which leads travellers away from the safe and reliable route and into the bogs with glowing lights. "Like [[Poltergeist]] they can generate uncanny sounds. They were less serious than their German [[Weiße Frauen]] kin, frequently blowing out candles on unsuspecting courting couples or producing obscene kissing sounds, which were always misinterpreted by parents."<ref>[http://rodneymackay.com/writing/pdf%20files/worldmyth.pdf] [[Portable Document Format|PDF]]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225001000/http://rodneymackay.com/writing/pdf%20files/worldmyth.pdf|date=February 25, 2009}}</ref> Pixy-Light was also associated with "lambent light"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lambent|title=lambent - alphaDictionary * Free English On-line Dictionary |website=Alphadictionary.com|access-date=November 18, 2011}}</ref> which the [[Old Norse]] might have seen guarding their tombs. In Cornish folklore, Pixy-Light also has associations with the [[Colt pixie]]. "A colt pixie is a pixie that has taken the shape of a horse and enjoys playing tricks such as neighing at the other horses to lead them astray".<ref>{{cite web|website=Shadowdrake.com|url=http://www.shadowdrake.com/waterhorse.html|title=House Shadow Drake – Water Horses and Other Fairy Steeds|access-date=November 18, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927144745/http://www.shadowdrake.com/waterhorse.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pandius.com/coltpixy.html|title=Colypixy|website=Pandius.com|access-date= November 18, 2011}}</ref> In [[Guernsey]], the light is known as the ''faeu boulanger'' (rolling fire), and is believed to be a lost soul. On being confronted with the spectre, tradition prescribes two remedies. The first is to turn one's cap or coat inside out. This has the effect of stopping the ''faeu boulanger'' in its tracks. The other solution is to stick a knife into the ground, blade up. The faeu, in an attempt to kill itself, will attack the blade.<ref>Folklore of Guernsey by Marie de Garis (1986) {{ASIN|B0000EE6P8}} {{Page needed|date=December 2022}}</ref>

The will-o'-the-wisp was also known as the Spunkie in the [[Scottish Highlands]] where it would take the form of a [[linkboy]] (a boy who carried a flaming torch to light the way for pedestrians in exchange for a fee), or else simply a light that always seemed to recede, in order to lead unwary travellers to their doom.<ref name="Stewart">William Grant Stewart (1823). ''The Popular Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the Highlanders of Scotland''. pp. 161–162. {{ISBN?}}</ref> The spunkie has also been blamed for shipwrecks at night after being spotted on land and mistaken for a harbour light.<ref name="Briggs">Katharine Briggs (1976). ''An Encyclopedia of Fairies''. [[Pantheon Books]]. p. 381. {{ISBN|0394409183}}</ref> Other tales of Scottish folklore regard these mysterious lights as omens of death or the ghosts of once living human beings. They often appeared over lochs<ref name="Alasdair">Alasdair Alpin MacGregor (1937). ''The Peat Fire Flame: Folktales and Traditions of the Highlands and Islands''. Moray Press. pp. 284–285. {{ISBN?}}</ref> or on roads along which funeral processions were known to travel.<ref name="Witchcraft">John Gregorson Campbell (1902). ''Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland''. James MacLehose and Sons. pp. 169–172. {{ISBN?}}</ref> A strange light sometimes seen in the [[Hebrides]] is referred to as the ''teine sith'', or "fairy light", though there was no formal connection between it and the fairy race.<ref name="Campbell">John Gregorson Campbell (1900). ''Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland''. James MacLehose and Sons. pp. 6–7. {{ISBN?}}</ref>

====Ireland====
In the late 1930s, schoolchildren across Ireland were tasked with the interviewing of older neighbours and relatives with regards to collecting local history and folklore as part of the [[Irish Folklore Commission]]'s ''[[Irish_Folklore_Commission#School's_Collection|Schools' Collection]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/info/cbe|title=National Folklore Collection (NFC) and its collections|date = 2014-01-01|website=[[Dúchas]].ie |access-date=2025-04-26 }}</ref> Numerous sightings of the phenomenon were recorded as part of the project. One such child, James Curran, relayed information taken from his father about a sighting in [[Harristown, Naas South|Harristown]], [[County Kildare]]:
<blockquote>
My father told me that when he was about fourteen years of age, he was crossing the limekiln of Harristown and he saw a little red ball of fire rolling along in front of him. He ran after it, but he could not catch it as when he would run it would roll quicker, and quicker, and when he would stop, it would stop.
He followed it, all through Clarke's bottoms, across Major Mc Gees land and on to the railway and then it disappeared. He did not know what it was, but his father told him it was Will o' the Wisp.<ref name = duchas_cat>{{Cite journal |last= Curran |first=James | title= Will o' the Wisp |url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/5260470/5256180?HighlightText=%22harristown%22&Route=stories&SearchLanguage=ga |date= 1938-02-02|access-date=27 April 2025| journal= [[Irish_Folklore_Commission#School's_Collection|The Schools' Collection 1937-1939]] ([[Irish Folklore Commission|The Irish Folklore Commission]])|volume=0776C |pages=12_037}}</ref>
</blockquote>

===Oceania===
{{See also|Min Min light}}

The [[Australia]]n equivalent, known as the Min Min light is reportedly seen in parts of the outback after dark.<ref name="perrigrew1">{{cite journal |author=Pettigrew, John D. |title=The Min Min light and the Fata Morgana. An optical account of a mysterious Australian phenomenon |journal=Clin Exp Optom |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=109–120 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12643807 |doi=10.1111/j.1444-0938.2003.tb03069.x |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="kozicka1">Kozicka, M.G. "The Mystery of the Min Min Light". Bolton Imprint, Cairns 1994 {{ISBN?}}</ref> The majority of sightings are reported to have occurred in the [[Channel Country]] region.<ref name="perrigrew1" />

Stories about the lights can be found in aboriginal myth pre-dating western settlement of the region and have since become part of wider [[Australian folklore]].<ref name="perrigrew1" /> [[Indigenous Australians]] hold that the number of sightings has increased alongside the increasing ingression of Europeans into the region.<ref name="perrigrew1" /> According to folklore, the lights sometimes followed or approached people and have disappeared when fired upon, only to reappear later on.<ref name="perrigrew1" /><ref name="kozicka1" />

==Scientific explanations==

Scientists propose that will-o'-the-wisp phenomena (ignis fatuus) are caused by the [[oxidation]] of [[phosphine]] (PH<sub>3</sub>), [[diphosphane]] (P<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>), and methane (CH<sub>4</sub>). These compounds, produced by [[Decomposition|organic decay]], can cause [[photon]] emissions. Since phosphine and diphosphane mixtures spontaneously ignite on contact with the oxygen in air, only small quantities of it would be needed to ignite the much more abundant methane to create ephemeral fires.<ref name="roels2001">{{cite journal|author=Joris Roels & Willy Verstrae|year=2001|title=Biological formation of volatile phosphorus compounds|journal=Bioresource Technology|volume=79|issue=3|pages=243–250|url=http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/ckhachi/phosphorous/Roels_2001.pdf|doi=10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00032-3|pmid=11499578|bibcode=2001BiTec..79..243R |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060919012514/http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/ckhachi/phosphorous/Roels_2001.pdf|archive-date=2006-09-19}}</ref> Furthermore, phosphine produces [[phosphorus pentoxide]] as a by-product, which forms [[phosphoric acid]] upon contact with water vapor, which can explain "viscous moisture" sometimes described as accompanying ignis fatuus.

===Historical explanations===
The idea of the will-o'-the-wisp phenomena being caused by natural gases can be found as early as 1596, as mentioned in the works of [[Ludwig Lavater]].{{efn|"That many naturall things are taken to be ghoasts": "Many times candles & small fires appeare in the night, and seeme to runne up and downe... Sometime these fires goe alone in the night season, and put such as see them, as they travel by night, in great feare. But these things, and many such lyke have their naturall causes... Natural Philosophers write, that thicke exhilations aryse out of the earth, and are kindled. Mynes full of sulphur and brimstone, if the aire enter unto it, as it lyeth in the holes and veines of the earth, will kindle on fier, and strive to get out." From ''[[iarchive:ofghostesspirite00lava|Of Ghostes and Spirites, Walking by Night, And of Straunge Noyses, Crackes, and Sundrie forewarnings, which commonly happen before the death of men: Great Slaughters, and alterations of Kingdomes]]''.}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ofghostesspirite00lava|title=Of ghostes and spirites, walking by night: and of straunge noyses, crackes, and sundrie forewarnings: which commonly happen before the death of men: great slaughters, and alterations of kingdoms.|last=Lavatar|first=Ludwig|date=1596|publisher=Thomas Creede|others=Blough-Weis Library Susquehanna University|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ofghostesspirite00lava/page/51 51]–52}}</ref> In 1776 [[Alessandro Volta]] first proposed that natural electrical phenomena (like lightning) interacting with [[methane]] [[marsh gas]] may be the cause of ignis fatuus.<ref name="volta">{{cite book |first=Marco |last=Ciardi |editor1=Fabio Bevilacqua |editor2=Lucio Fregonese |title=Nuova Voltiana: Studies on Volta and His Times |chapter=Falling Stars, Instruments and Myths: Volta and the Birth of Modern Meteorology |publisher=Editore Ulrico Hoepli |year=2000 |page=43 |chapter-url=http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Pages/Libri/Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap2/2.pdf}}</ref> This was supported by the British [[polymath]] [[Joseph Priestley]] in his series of works ''[[Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air]]'' (1772–1790); and by the French physicist [[Pierre Bertholon de Saint-Lazare]] in ''De l'électricité des météores'' (1787).<ref name="tomlinson">{{cite journal|first=Charles|last=Tomlinson|year=1893|title=On Certain Low-Lying Meteors|editor=A. Cowper Ranyard|journal=[[Knowledge (magazine)|Knowledge: An Illustrated Magazine of Science. Simply Worded{{snd}}Exactly Described]]|volume=16|issue=New Series, Vol. III|pages=[https://archive.org/details/knowledgev140nov16londuoft/page/46 46]–48|url=https://archive.org/details/knowledgev140nov16londuoft |format=PDF}}</ref>

Early critics of the marsh gas hypothesis often dismissed it on various grounds including the unlikeliness of spontaneous combustion, the absence of warmth in some observed ignis fatuus, the odd behavior of ignis fatuus receding upon being approached, and the differing accounts of [[ball lightning]] (which was also classified as a kind of ignis fatuus).<ref name="tomlinson" /> An example of such criticism is found in ''Folk-Lore from Buffalo Valley'' (1891) by the American anthropologist [[John G. Owens]].{{efn|
"This is a name that is sometimes applied to a phenomenon perhaps more frequently called Jack-o'-the-Lantern, or Will-o'-the-Wisp. It seems to be a ball of fire, varying in size from that of a candle-flame to that of a man's head. It is generally observed in damp, marshy places, moving to and fro; but it has been known to stand perfectly still and send off scintillations. As you approach it, it will move on, keeping just beyond your reach; if you retire, it will follow you. That these fireballs do occur, and that they will repeat your motion, seems to be established, but no satisfactory explanation has yet been offered that I have heard. Those who are less superstitious say that it is the ignition of the gases rising from the marsh. But how a light produced from burning gas could have the form described and move as described, advancing as you advance, receding as you recede, and at other times remaining stationary, without having any visible connection with the earth, is not clear to me".}}<ref>{{cite journal |author=Owens J.G. |year=1891 |title=Folk-Lore from Buffalo Valley |journal=Journal of American Folk-Lore |volume=4 |pages=123–124 }}</ref>

The apparent retreat of ignis fatuus upon being approached might be explained simply by the agitation of the air by nearby moving objects, causing the gases to disperse. This was observed in the very detailed accounts of several close interactions with ignis fatuus published earlier in 1832 by Major Louis Blesson after a series of experiments in various localities where they were known to occur.<ref name="blesson">{{cite journal|first=Louis|last=Blesson|year=1832–1833|title=Observations on the Ignis Fatuus, or Will-with-the-Wisp, Falling Stars, and Thunder Storms|journal=The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal|volume=14|pages=90–94|url=http://inamidst.com/lights/wisp/blesson1832}}</ref> Of note is his first encounter with ignis fatuus in a marshland between a deep valley in the forest of Gorbitz, [[Neumark|Newmark]], Germany. Blesson observed that the water was covered by an iridescent film, and during day-time, bubbles could be observed rising abundantly from certain areas. At night, Blesson observed bluish-purple flames in the same areas and concluded that it was connected to the rising gas. He spent several days investigating the phenomenon, finding to his dismay that the flames retreated every time he tried to approach them. He eventually succeeded and was able to confirm that the lights were indeed caused by ignited gas. The British scientist [[Charles Tomlinson (scientist)|Charles Tomlinson]] in ''On Certain Low-Lying Meteors'' (1893) described Blesson's experiments.{{efn|"On visiting the spot at night, the sensitive flames retired as the major advanced; but on standing quite still, they returned, and he tried to light a piece of paper at them, but the current of air produced by his breath kept them at too great a distance. On turning away his head, and screening his breath, he succeeded in setting fire to the paper. He was also able to extinguish the flame by driving it before him to a part of the ground where no gas was produced; then applying a flame to the place whence the gas issued, a kind of explosion was heard over eight or nine square feet of the marsh; a red light was seen, which faded to a blue flame about three feet high and this continued to burn with an unsteady motion. As the morning dawned the flames became pale and they seemed to approach nearer and nearer to the earth, until at last they faded from sight".}}<ref name="tomlinson" />

Blesson also observed differences in the colour and heat of the flames in different marshes. The ignis fatuus in Malapane, [[Upper Silesia]] (now [[Ozimek]], [[Poland]]) could be ignited and extinguished, but were unable to burn pieces of paper or wood shavings. Similarly, the ignis fatuus in another forest in Poland coated pieces of paper and wood shavings with an oily viscous fluid instead of burning them. Blesson also accidentally created ignis fatuus in the marshes of [[Porta Westfalica]], Germany, while launching fireworks.<ref name="tomlinson" /><ref name="blesson" />

====20th century====
A description of 'The Will-o'-the Wisp appeared in a 1936 UK publication of ''The Scout's Book of Gadgets and Dodges'',<ref name="Braham 1936 p54">{{Cite book |last=Braham |first=Sam F. |title=The Scout's Book of Gadgets and Dodges |publisher=The Scout |year=1936 |location=London |page=54 |language=English}}</ref> where the author (Sam F. Braham), describes it as follows:

<blockquote><nowiki/>'This is an uncertain light which may sometimes be seen dancing over churchyards and marshy places. No one really know how it is produced, and chemists are continually experimenting to discover its nature. It is thought that it is formed by the mixing of marsh gas, which is giving off decaying vegetable matter, with phosphoretted hydrogen, a gas which ignites instantly. But this theory has not been definitely proved.'<nowiki/><ref name="Braham 1936 p54" /></blockquote>
[[File:Glow worm lampyris noctiluca.jpg|thumb|Glowing firefly (''[[Lampyris noctiluca]]'')]]

One attempt to replicate ignis fatuus under laboratory conditions was in 1980 by British geologist Alan A. Mills of [[Leicester University]]. Though he did succeed in creating a cool glowing cloud by mixing crude phosphine and natural gas, the color of the light was green and it produced copious amounts of acrid smoke. This was contrary to most eyewitness accounts of ignis fatuus.<ref name="mills">{{cite journal|author=A. A. Mills|year=2000|title=Will-o'-the-wisp revisited|journal=Weather|volume=55|issue=7|pages=20–26|doi=10.1002/j.1477-8696.2000.tb04067.x|bibcode=2000Wthr...55..239M |s2cid=121340285 }}</ref><ref name="paleo" /> As an alternative, Mills proposed in 2000 that ignis fatuus may instead be [[Cool flame|cold flame]]s.<ref name="mills" /><ref name="garl" /> These are luminescent pre-combustion halos that occur when various compounds are heated to just below [[ignition point]]. Cold flames are indeed typically bluish in color and as their name suggests, they generate very little heat. Cold flames occur in a wide variety of compounds, including [[hydrocarbons]] (including methane), [[alcohols]], [[aldehydes]], [[oils]], [[acids]], and even [[waxes]]. However it is unknown if cold flames occur naturally, though a lot of compounds which exhibit cold flames are the natural byproducts of organic decay.<ref name="mills" /><ref name="nasa">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwKdl5NHALUC&pg=PA142|title=Cool Flames and Autoignition: Thermal-Ingnition Theory of Combustion Experimentally Validated in Microgravity|last=Pearlman|first=Howard|author2=Chapek, Richard M.|year=1999|publisher=[[NASA]]|page=142|isbn=978-1428918238}}, [http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/6000/6711wu.html Web version at NASA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501223626/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/6000/6711wu.html |date=2010-05-01 }}</ref>
[[File:PanellusStipticusAug12 2009.jpg|thumb|''[[Panellus stipticus]]'', [[Mount Vernon, Wisconsin|Mt. Vernon, Wisconsin]] (long exposure)]]
A related hypothesis involves the natural [[chemiluminescence]] of phosphine. In 2008 the Italian chemists Luigi Garlaschelli and Paolo Boschetti attempted to recreate Mills' experiments. They successfully created a faint cool light by mixing phosphine with air and nitrogen. Though the glow was still greenish in colour, Garlaschelli and Boschetti noted that under low-light conditions, the human eye cannot easily distinguish between colours. Furthermore, by adjusting the concentrations of the gases and the environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.), it was possible to eliminate the smoke and smell, or at least render it to undetectable levels. Garlaschelli and Boschetti also agreed with Mills that cold flames may also be a plausible explanation for other instances of ignis fatuus.<ref name="garl">{{cite book|author=Luigi Garlaschelli & Paolo Boschetti|title=On the track of the will-o'-the-wisp|publisher=Dipartimento di Chimica Organica, Università di Pavia|url=https://44cc653b-a-62cb3a1a-s-sites.googlegroups.com/site/luigigarlaschelli/WILLOWISexperiments.pdf?attachauth=ANoY7cpHRffGlOiCwYxPlrtxd2lTvwsEAMQGgBpRGfI7Y-FSRb5um5lKbRMP0MRniEcJQNazW1rv21_sSUv0z7rcprszClTsadRbFE9Xxy71H_KwKf664KGyQh4qSTmVURo7yIbcG-UcqktElznNxbFHiFZam7ecLQ5N84AxbnmVOkSFpPCDVt4dGztZ6nrMoge0hmnLMmTcRKu7R2IjvyKV2bpVc41_YKLiXIUHE12qr2wabmq33J8%3D&attredirects=0}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 1993 professors Derr and Persinger proposed that some ignis fatuus may be geologic in origin, [[piezoelectric]]ally generated under [[tectonics|tectonic]] strain. The strains that move faults would also heat up the rocks, vaporizing the water in them. Rock or soil containing something piezoelectric, like [[quartz]], [[silicon]], or [[arsenic]], may also produce [[electricity]], channelled up to the surface through the soil via a column of vaporized water, there somehow appearing as earth lights. This would explain why the lights appear electrical, erratic, or even intelligent in their behaviour.<ref>{{cite book|last=Persinger|first=Michael A.|author-link=Michael Persinger|title=Perceptual and Motor Skills|series=Geophysical variables and behavior: LXXIV. Man-made fluid injections into the crust and reports of luminous phenomena (UFO Reports)&nbsp;– Is the strain field an aseismically propagating hydrological pulse?|year=1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Derr|first=J.S.|author-link=J.S. Derr|title=Perceptual and Motor Skills|series=Seasonal hydrological load and regional luminous phenomena (UFO reports) within river systems: the Mississippi Valley test.|year=1993}}{{page needed|date=December 2022}}</ref>

The will-o'-the-wisp phenomena may occur due to the [[bioluminescence]] of various forest dwelling micro-organisms and insects.  The eerie glow emitted from certain fungal species, such as the [[honey fungus]], during chemical reactions to form white rot could be mistaken for the mysterious will-o'-the-wisp or [[foxfire]] lights.  There are many other bioluminescent organisms that could create the illusions of fairy lights, such as [[fireflies]].  Light reflecting off larger forest dwelling creatures could explain the phenomenon of will-o'-the-wisp moving and reacting to other lights.  The white plumage of [[Western barn owl|barn owl]]s may reflect enough light from the Moon to appear as a will-o'-the-wisp; hence the possibility of the lights moving, reacting to other lights, etc.<ref>[http://www.owlpages.com/articles.php?section=Studies+and+Papers&title=Min+Min A Review of accounts of luminosity in Barn Owls ''Tyto alba''].</ref>

Ignis fatuus sightings are rarely reported today. The decline is believed to be the result of the draining and reclamation of swamplands in recent centuries, such as the formerly vast [[The Fens|Fenlands]] of eastern England which have now been converted to farmlands.<ref name="paleo">{{cite journal|first=Jan|last=Zalasiewicz|year=2007|editor=Richard Twitchett|title=The spirit of biodiversity|journal=The Palaeontology Newsletter|issue=64|pages=20–26|url=http://newsletter.palass-pubs.org/pdf/News64.pdf|archive-date=July 27, 2011|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727184243/http://newsletter.palass-pubs.org/pdf/News64.pdf}}</ref>

==Global terms==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}

===Americas===
;Canada
* [[Fireship of Baie des Chaleurs]] in [[New Brunswick]]

;United States
* [[Arbyrd]]/[[Senath]] Light of [[Missouri]]
* Bragg Road ghost light ([[Light of Saratoga]]) of [[Texas]]
* [[Brown Mountain Lights]] of [[North Carolina]]
*Devil’s Torchlight or Devil’s Lantern in the [[Southern United States]] and [[Deep South]]
* [[Gurdon light]] of [[Arkansas]]
* Hornet ghost light ([[The Spooklight]]) of [[Missouri]]-[[Oklahoma]] state line
* [[Maco light]] of [[North Carolina]]
* [[Marfa lights]] of [[Texas]]
* [[Paulding Light]] of [[Michigan]]'s [[Upper Peninsula]]
* [[Cohoke Light]] of eastern [[Virginia]]'s Cohoke Swamp wetlands
* [[Light of Saratoga]]

;Argentina and Uruguay
* Luz Mala
{{col-break}}

===Asia===
* [[Chir batti]] in Gujarat
* [[Naga fireball]]s on the [[Mekong]] in [[Thailand]]
* Aleya in [[Bengal]]
* Dhon guloi in [[Assam]]

===Europe===
* [[Hessdalen light]], Norway
* [[Martebo lights]], Sweden
* [[Paasselkä devil]], Finland
* [[Lidércfény]], Hungary
* Ballybar, near [[Carlow]], Ireland
* [[Ferbane]], [[County Offaly]], Ireland
* Dwaallichtjes in the Netherlands and Belgium
* Sheeries, Ireland
* Liam na lasóige, Ireland
* Fuego fatuo, Spain
* Fuoco fatuo, Italy 
* Irrlicht, Germany

===Oceania===
* [[Min Min light]] of the [[Outback|Outback Australia]]
{{col-end}}

==See also==<!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER -->
{{Portal|Wetlands}}
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Chir Batti]]
* [[Corpse road]]
* [[Feuermann (ghost)]]
* [[Foo fighter]]
* [[Hessdalen Lights]]
* [[Kitsunebi]]
* [[Lantern man]]
* [[Lidérc]]
* [[Mãe-do-Ouro]]
* [[Omphalotus olearius]]
* [[Santelmo]]
* [[Shiranui (optical phenomenon)|Shiranui]]
* [[Simonside Dwarfs]]
* [[St. Elmo's fire]]
* [[Yan-gant-y-tan]]
* ‘’[[Willo the Wisp]]’’, a British television show from 1981 and remake in 2005
{{div col end}}

==Explanatory notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
<ref name="allies1846">{{cite book|last=Allies |first=Jabez |author-link=Jabez Allies|chapter=Hob |title=On the Ignis Fatuus: Or, Will-o'-the-wisp, and the Fairies|location=London |publisher=Simpkin, Marshall, and Company |year=1846 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rKQUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3 |page=3|isbn=978-0-608-32391-6 }}</ref>

<ref name="HdA-Olbrich-irrlicht">Olbrich, Karl (1932). "{{URL|1= https://books.google.com/books?id=UQdSKGeFoaIC&pg=PA786|2=Irrlicht}}". ''HdA'' '''4'''<!-- Band 4 Hieb- und stichfest-Knistern-->: 785<!--779–786--></ref>

<ref name="odonnell1955">{{cite book|last=O'Donnell |first=Elliott |author-link=Elliott O'Donnell |title=Haunted People |location=London |publisher=Rider |year=1955 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SmKittGBhz0C&q=wisp++%22ghost+candle%22 |pages=75}}</ref>

<ref name="rochholz1862">{{cite book|last=Rochholz |first=Ernst Ludvig  |author-link=:de:Ernst Ludvig Rochholz |chapter=8.3) Irrlich unter Dach |title=Naturmythen: neue Schweizersagen |location=Leipzig  |publisher=B. G. Teubner |year=1862 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OD8PAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA178 |page=178}}</ref>

<ref name="wright1914">{{cite book|last=Rochholz |first=Elizabeth Mary Wright |author-link=Elizabeth Mary Wright |title=Rustic Speech and Folk-lore |edition=2 |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1914 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ckzAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA200 |pages=200–201}}</ref>

<ref name="zerrenner1783">{{cite book|last=Zerrenner |first=Heinrich Gottlieb |author-link=:de:Heinrich Gottlieb Zerrenner |title=Natur- und Akkerpredigten, oder: Natur- und Akkerbau als eine Anleitung zur Gottseligkeit, ganz für Landleute |location=Magdeburg |publisher=Scheidhauer |year=1783 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eOtWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247 |pages=247–248}}</ref>
}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* [[William Corliss|Corliss, William]] (2001) ''Remarkable Luminous Phenomena in Nature''
* {{cite book|last=Denham |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Aislabie Denham |editor-last=Hardy |editor-first=James |editor-link=James Hardy (naturalist)|title=The Denham Tracts: A Collection of Folklore : Reprinted from the Original Tracts and Pamphlets Printed by Mr. Denhman Between 1846 and 1859 |volume=2 |location=London |publisher=David Nutt for the Folklore Society |year=1895|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Th4rwskBN1EC&pg=PA78 |pages=}}
* [[Willem Elsschot|Elsschot, Willem]]  ''Het dwaallicht'' 
*{{cite journal|last=Kittredge |first=George Lyman  |author-link=George Lyman Kittredge |title=The Friar's Lantern and Friar Rush |journal=Publications of the Modern Language Association |volume=15 |date=1900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NRQwEVJqU8C&pg=PA415 |pages=415–441}}
* [[Peter Tremayne|Tremayne, Peter]] ''The Haunted Abbot''
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090725120148/http://jeff.lindell.home.comcast.net/~jeff.lindell/Ignis%20Erraticus.html ''The Ignis Erraticus'' – A Bibliographic Survey of the names of the Will-'o-the-wisp]

{{Scandinavian folklore}}
{{German folklore}}
{{Fairies}}

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[[Category:Atmospheric ghost lights]]
[[Category:European folklore]]
[[Category:European ghosts]]
[[Category:Wetlands in folklore]]
[[Category:Methane]]
[[Category:Pixies]]
[[Category:Supernatural legends]]
[[Category:Swamp monsters]]
[[Category:Swamps in fiction]]
[[Category:Wetlands]]