View source for Western Zhou

{{Short description|Dynastic era in China (c. 1046 – 771 BC)}}
{{For|the state during the Warring States period|Western Zhou (state)}}
{{History of China|BC=1}}
The '''Western Zhou''' ({{lang-zh|c=西周|p=Xīzhōu}}; {{circa|1046}}{{sfnp|Li|2013|p=6}}{{snd}}771&nbsp;BC) was a period of [[Chinese history]] corresponding roughly to the first half of the [[Zhou dynasty]]. It began when [[King Wu of Zhou]] overthrew the [[Shang dynasty]] at the [[Battle of Muye]] and ended in 771&nbsp;BC when [[Quanrong]] pastoralists sacked the Zhou capital at [[Haojing]] and killed [[King You of Zhou]]. The "Western" label for the period refers to the location of the Zhou royal capitals, which were clustered in the [[Wei River]] valley near present-day [[Xi'an]].

The early Zhou state{{efn|"...these early states are best known from archaeology and history to have been ruled by the dynastic houses such as that of Shang (1554–1046&nbsp;BC) and of Western Zhou (1045–771&nbsp;BC). Therefore, they can be called the early 'royal states'."{{sfnp|Li|2013|p=6}}}} was ascendant for about 75 years; thereafter, it gradually lost power. The former lands of the Shang were divided into [[Ancient Chinese states|hereditary fiefs]] that became increasingly independent of the Zhou king over time. The Zhou court was driven out of the Wei River valley in 771&nbsp;BC: this marked the beginning of the [[Eastern Zhou]] period, wherein political power was wielded in actuality by the king's nominal vassals.

== Sources ==
The Western Zhou are known from archaeological finds, including substantial inscriptions, mostly on bronze ritual vessels.
In contrast to earlier periods, this direct evidence can be usefully compared with texts transmitted through the manuscript tradition.
These include some [[Confucian classics]], the oldest parts of which are thought to date from this period.
Texts from the [[Warring States period]] and [[Han dynasty]] provide fuller accounts, though further removed from the original events.{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=87–88}}

=== Archaeology ===
{{see also|Chinese ritual bronzes}}
[[File:Baoji Bronze Museum (9925090904).jpg|thumb|right|alt=a cave with many bronze vessels|Reconstruction of a hoard found in Shaanxi]]
Zhou ritual bronzes have been collected since the [[Song dynasty]] and are now scattered in collections around the world.
Scientific excavations began in the core [[Wei River]] valley and the [[Luoyang]] areas in the 1930s and expanded to a broader area from the 1980s.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=88}}
Bronze vessels are a key marker of Western Zhou sites, including buildings, workshops, city walls and burials.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=352}}
Elite burials usually contain sets of vessels, which can be dated using known variations in styles, as well as the paleography and content of inscriptions.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=358–360}}
Hundreds of hoards of bronzes have been found in [[Shaanxi]], dating from the fall of the western capital in 771 BC.
A hoard typically contains treasured vessels accumulated by a family over three centuries, carefully buried to hide them from the invaders.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=371, 373}}

=== Inscriptions ===
{{main|Chinese bronze inscriptions}}
[[File:Shi Qiang pan.jpg|thumb|right|alt=a broad bronze pan with two handles and a lengthy inscription on the flat area inside|The [[Shi Qiang pan|Shi Qiang ''pan'']], from the reign of King Gong, bears an inscription with a brief account from King Wen to the time of the vessel.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=1–4}}]]
[[File:Shi Qiang pan inscription.jpg|thumb|right|alt=ancient style characters arranged in columns|Rubbing of the inscription on the [[Shi Qiang pan|Shi Qiang ''pan'']]]]
The Zhou produced thousands of inscriptions, mostly on bronze ritual vessels and often considerably longer than those of the Late Shang.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=364}}
Early inscriptions are quite short. The length of texts gradually increased until the middle of the Western Zhou period and remained fairly consistent thereafter.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=121}}
The character forms and language of these inscriptions are obscure, and their interpretation rests heavily on transmitted texts.{{sfnp|Bagley|1980|p=196}}{{sfnp|Vogelsang|2002|p=189}}

A vessel was typically cast for some member of the Zhou elite, recording a relevant event or an honour bestowed on the owner by the king.
In the latter case, the inscription might include a narrative of the ceremony and report the speech of participants.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=366}}
These give a rich insight into Zhou governance and the upper levels of Zhou society.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=89}}

Many inscriptions contain details that may be compared with later histories.
More than a hundred of them commemorate a royal appointment to some government position.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=89}}
More than 50 of them describe military campaigns.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=176–177}}
Naturally the picture is incomplete, as very few inscriptions touch on military defeats or failures of government.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=176}}
As the ''[[Book of Rites]]'' says of these inscriptions, "The intention of the inscriber is to extol the beautiful and not to extol the ugly."{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=176}}

Inscriptions usually contain some dating information, but usually not the name of the current king.
Scholars have devised a range of criteria to narrow down the reign of an inscription, including the style of the vessel, the form of the characters and details within the text.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=364–365}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=106–155}}

=== Classics ===
{{further|Chinese classics}}
The earliest received texts, including parts of the ''[[Classic of Poetry|Book of Odes]]'' and the ''[[Book of Documents]]'', are believed to date from the Western Zhou period.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=89}}

The ''Book of Odes'' is a collection of songs, traditionally divided into 160 State Airs, 105 Court Songs (Major and Minor) and 40 Hymns (Zhou, Lu and Song), set to melodies that have since been lost.{{sfnp|Nylan|2001|pp=72–73, 78}}
Most specialists agree that the Zhou Hymns date to the Western Zhou, followed by the Court Songs and the Airs of the States.{{sfnp|Nylan|2001|p=87}}
The Airs are said to have been collected from throughout the Western Zhou domains, but have a consistency and elegance that suggests that they were polished by the literati of the Zhou court.{{sfnp|Nylan|2001|pp=82–83}}

The ''Book of Documents'' is a collection of formal speeches presented as spanning two millennia from the legendary [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors]] to the [[Spring and Autumn period]].{{sfnp|Nylan|2001|p=121}}
Most scholars agree that the "Old Script" chapters are post-Han forgeries, and that many of the remaining "Modern Script" chapters were written long after the periods they purport to represent.{{sfnp|Nylan|2001|pp=132–135}}
The five "announcement" (or "proclamation") chapters use the most archaic language, similar to that of bronze inscriptions, and are thought to have been recorded close to the events of the early Western Zhou reigns they describe.{{sfnp|Nylan|2001|pp=133, 138–139}}
However, they feature significant differences in vocabulary, grammar and outlook from bronze inscriptions dated to that period, and may date from the middle or late Western Zhou.{{sfnp|Vogelsang|2002|pp=189–196}}{{sfnp|Kern|2009|p=146}}
Four more chapters, "Catalpa Timbers", "Many Officers", "Take No Ease" and "Many Regions", are set in the same period, but their language suggests that they were written late in the Western Zhou period.{{sfnp|Nylan|2001|p=133}}
The prefaces written for each chapter, tying the ''Documents'' together as a continuous account, are thought to have been written in the Western Han period.{{sfnp|Nylan|2001|pp=158–159}}

=== Early histories ===
{{further|Sima Qian}}
Texts transmitted from the [[Warring States period]] relate traditions from the Western Zhou period.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=296}}
The "Discourses of Zhou" chapter of the ''[[Guoyu (book)|Guoyu]]'' includes speeches claimed to be from the time of King Mu onward.
The ''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'' is primarily concerned with the [[Spring and Autumn period]], but contains many references to events in the preceding Western Zhou period.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=89}}

The ''[[Bamboo Annals]]'' provides a wealth of attractive detail, often varying from other sources, but its transmission history presents many problems.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=296}}
The original text was a chronicle of the [[Wei (state)|state of Wei]] buried in a royal tomb in the early 3rd century BC and recovered in the late 3rd century AD, but lost before the [[Song dynasty]].
Two versions exist today: an "ancient text" assembled from quotations in other works and a fuller "current text" that [[Qian Daxin]] pronounced a forgery but some scholars believe contains authentic material.{{sfnp|Wilkinson|2013|p=614}}

The standard account is found in the "Basic Annals of Zhou", chapter 4 of the ''[[Shiji|Historical Records]]'' compiled by the [[Han dynasty]] historian [[Sima Qian]].{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=296}}
This account is a synthesis of earlier sources, relying most heavily on the ''Book of Documents'' for the early kings and the ''Guoyu'' for early ancestors and the middle and late Western Zhou period.{{sfnp|Khayutina|2020|pp=366, 368, 379}}
Sima Qian's depiction of the entire Zhou dynasty as eight centuries of decline from its idealized founders has shaped views of the dynasty from his time until the present day.{{sfnp|Khayutina|2020|p=390}}

== Wei River valley ==
{{see also|Predynastic Zhou}}
[[File:Wei River basin and environs.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|alt=physical map showing the Wei valley surrounded by highlands|The Wei River valley and surrounding areas]]
The valley of the [[Wei River]] was the homeland of the Zhou before their conquest of the Shang, and remained the political centre and directly-ruled royal domain throughout the Western Zhou period.
It also contains the vast majority of archaeological finds from the period.{{sfnp|Li|2006|p=30}}
 
The valley is a [[graben]] formed in the [[Cenozoic]] era as part of the [[Fen–Wei Rift System]].
It is bounded on the south by the [[Qinling Mountains]] and on the west by the [[Liupan Mountains]].
To the north lies the [[Loess Plateau]], into which the northern tributaries of the Wei have carved deep valleys.{{sfnp|Li|2006|p=31}}
The valley is broad, with fertile soil, abundant rainfall and ground water from the Loess Plateau and Qinling Mountains.
The areas to the west and north are much drier and less suited to agriculture.{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=30–32}}
 
[[File:Pre-Zhou li types.jpg|thumb|right|alt=two pots, one with separated gourd-shaped feet and a high neck, and the other with a much smoother outline|Two distinct forms of tripod cooking pot (''[[Li (vessel)|li]]'') found in the pre-Zhou Wei valley{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=379–381}}]]
The valley was known historically as the [[Guanzhong]], or 'land within the passes'.{{sfnp|Li|2006|p=32}}
To the east, the route through the [[Hangu Pass]] in the narrow valley of the Yellow River leads to the [[North China Plain]].{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=60–61}}
The route to the interior follows the [[Jing River]] to Xiao Pass on an eastern spur of the Liupan range and thence down the valley of the Qingshui River to the upper reaches of the Yellow River.
This route would later be part of the [[Silk Road]], and was used by armies throughout history.{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=37, 39}}

The origins of the Zhou are obscure.
The archaeology of pre-conquest Wei valley is varied and complex, but no material culture comparable to the dynastic Zhou has been found.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=375–376}}
Archaeologists searching for the predynastic Zhou have focused on the Zhouyuan ('plain of Zhou') south of Qishan ('Mount Qi'), which is mentioned in early texts and was a key ritual centre of the Western Zhou.
Two different pottery types are found in this area, and archaeologists differ on whether the people who produced one or the other, or both, were the ancestors of the Zhou.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=376–381}}
It is likely that several groups from across Shaanxi banded together to conquer the Shang.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=382}}

== History ==
[[File:Western Zhou Bronze Pan with Inscription (9925099503).jpg|thumb|right|alt=a broad bronze pan, with a lengthy inscription on the flat area inside|The Lai (or Qiu) ''pan'', from the reign of King Xuan, bears an inscription listing all the kings from King Wen to King Li.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=94}}{{sfnp|Falkenhausen|2006b|pp=278–279}}]]
[[File:Lai pan inscription.jpg|thumb|right|alt=text in 21 columns, each of about 17 archaic characters|Rubbing of the Lai (or Qiu) ''pan'' inscription{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=94}}]]
The sequence of Western Zhou kings given by the Han historian [[Sima Qian]] is matched (except for a few minor character variants) by the list inscribed on the excavated Lai ''pan''.
Inscriptions and received texts hint at some irregularities in the succession, but these had apparently been smoothed out in the official narrative by the time of the Lai ''pan''.{{sfnp|Falkenhausen|2006b|pp=268–270}}
Most scholars divide the Western Zhou into early, middle and late periods, which also correspond roughly to stylistic changes in bronze vessels.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=85}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=26}}

Sima Qian felt unable to extend his chronological table beyond 841 BC, the first year of the [[Gonghe Regency]], and there is still no accepted chronology of Chinese history before that point.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999a|p=21}}{{sfnp|Lee|2002|pp=16–17}}
The ''[[Cambridge History of Ancient China]]'' used dates determined by [[Edward L. Shaughnessy]] from the "current text" ''Bamboo Annals'' and bronze inscriptions.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=xix, 217–287}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999a|pp=22–23}}
In 2000, the [[Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project]] produced a schedule of dates based on received texts, bronze inscriptions, radiocarbon dating and astronomical events.{{sfnp|Lee|2002|pp=17–18}}
However, several bronze inscriptions discovered since then are inconsistent with the project's dates.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|2023|pp=354–369}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Western Zhou kings
|-
! rowspan="2" | Period
! colspan="2" | Ruler name
! colspan="2" | Reign (all dates BC)
|-
! Posthumous
! Personal
! Shaughnessy{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999a|p=25}}
! XSZ Project{{sfnp|XSZCP Group|2000|p=88}}{{sfnp|Lee|2002|p=18}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | Pre-conquest
| [[King Wen of Zhou|King Wen]] || Chang ({{lang|zh|昌}}) || 1056–1050{{efn|name=conquest|Shaughnessy dates the Zhou conquest of the Shang to 1045 BC. Earlier dates represent the pre-dynastic Zhou.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999a|p=23}}}} ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[King Wu of Zhou|King Wu]]
| rowspan="2" | Fa ({{lang|zh|發}})
| rowspan="2" | 1049–1043{{efn|name=conquest}}
| rowspan="2" | 1046–1043
|-
| rowspan="4" | Early
|-
| [[King Cheng of Zhou|King Cheng]] || Song ({{lang|zh|誦}}) || 1042–1006 || 1042–1021
|-
| [[King Kang of Zhou|King Kang]] || Zhao ({{lang|zh|釗}}) || 1005–978 || 1020–996
|-
| [[King Zhao of Zhou|King Zhao]]{{KIA}} || Xia ({{lang|zh|瑕}}) || 977–957 || 995–977
|-
| rowspan="5" | Middle
| [[King Mu of Zhou|King Mu]] || Man ({{lang|zh|滿}}) || 956–918 || 976–922
|-
| [[King Gong of Zhou|King Gong]] || Yihu ({{lang|zh|繄扈}}) || 917–900 || 922–900
|-
| [[King Yih of Zhou|King Yih]] || Jian ({{lang|zh|囏}}) || 899–873 || 899–892
|-
| [[King Xiao of Zhou|King Xiao]] || Pifang ({{lang|zh|辟方}}) || 872?–866 || 891–886
|-
| [[King Yi of Zhou (Xie)|King Yi]] || Xie ({{lang|zh|燮}}) || 865–858 || 885–878
|-
| rowspan="4" | Late
| [[King Li of Zhou|King Li]] || Hu ({{lang|zh|胡}}) || 857–842 || 877–841
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | [[Gonghe Regency]] || 841–828 || 841–828
|-
| [[King Xuan of Zhou|King Xuan]] || Jing ({{lang|zh|靜}}) || 827–782 || 827–782
|-
| [[King You of Zhou|King You]]{{KIA}} || Gongnie ({{lang|zh|宮涅}}) || 782–771 || 781–771
|}

=== Conquest of the Shang ===
The conquest is reflected in the material record by the sudden appearance throughout the Wei River basin of burials in the Shang style and sophisticated bronze vessels of all the types produced by the Shang, from whom the Zhou had evidently acquired skilled craftsmen, scribes and abundant resources.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=385}}{{sfnp|Bagley|2018|p=74}}
They also expanded the Late Shang practice of inscribing bronze vessels to create lengthy texts recording the accomplishments of their owners and honours bestowed on them by the king. The inscriptions also show that the Zhou had adopted Shang ancestor rituals. This adoption of Shang practices suggests an effort to legitimate Zhou rule.{{sfnp|Bagley|2018|p=74}}{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=387}}
However, the Zhou did not adopt human sacrifice, which was so extensive in the Late Shang, or even mention it in any of their texts.{{sfnp|Bagley|2018|pp=75–76}}

The [[Shi Qiang pan|Shi Qiang ''pan'']], part of a family cache found in western Shaanxi, was cast in the reign of King Gong by the latest in a family of scribes descended from a scribe brought to Shaanxi after the conquest.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=1}}
The lengthy inscription, summarizing the history of the Zhou and that of the Wei ({{wikt-lang|zh-Hant|微}}) family, begins:{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=3}}
<blockquote>
Accordant with antiquity was King Wen! (He) first brought harmony to government. The Lord on High sent down fine virtue and great security. Extending to the high and low, he joined the ten thousand states.

Capturing and controlling was King Wu! (He) proceeded and campaigned through the four quarters, piercing Yin [= Shang] and governing its people. Eternally unfearful of the Di (Distant Ones), oh, he attacked the Yi minions.
</blockquote>
[[File:Early Western Zhou Bronze Gui 01.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Li gui (vessel)|Li ''gui'']], cast shortly after the conquest, bears an inscription describing the event.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=87}}]]
Longer accounts are found in later sources.
Both the ''Historical Records'' and the ''Bamboo Annals'' describe campaigns by [[King Wen of Zhou|King Wen]] in southern Shanxi.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=307}}
They state that King Wen moved the Zhou capital from Qiyi to [[Fenghao|Feng]], and his son, [[King Wu of Zhou|King Wu]], made a further move to Hao across the Feng River.{{sfnp|Li|2013|pp=120, 123}}
King Wu is said to have expanded his father's campaigns to the Shang, defeating them in the decisive [[Battle of Muye]], which is also described in the "Great brightness" song of the ''Classic of Poetry''.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=309}}

The 33-character inscription on the [[Li gui (vessel)|Li ''gui'']] gives a brief contemporaneous account of the conquest, confirming the [[sexagenary cycle|sexagenary date]] given by received sources:{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=87–105}}{{sfnp|Cook|Goldin|2016|pp=10–12}}
<blockquote>
When King Wu rectified [= conquered] Shang, it was ''jiazi'' (day 1) morning. ...{{efn|This 7-character passage is obscure, with many interpretations.{{sfn|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=91–95}}}} On ''xinwei'' (day 8), the king was at Jian encampment and gave officer Li metal, used to cast for my honoured ancestor Zhan this precious ritual vessel.
</blockquote>
According to the ''[[Yi Zhou Shu]]'', the Zhou army spent two months in the area mopping up resistance before returning to the Wei valley.
The received texts relate that King Wen left two or three of his brothers (depending on the source) to oversee the former Shang domains, nominally ruled by [[Wu Geng]], the son of the last Shang king.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=310}}

=== Civil war and expansion ===
{{see also|Rebellion of the Three Guards}}
[[File:Western Zhou geography.svg|thumb|center|upright=3|alt=Relief map of the north China plain, with scattered sites and dashed outline around the lower Wei valley and eastern settlement of Luoyi|Western Zhou royal domain (dashed outline), capitals and colonies (black squares) and archaeological sites{{sfnp|Li|2013|loc=Map 6.2|p=122}}{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=42, 59, 302, 320, 333}}]]
King Wu died two or three years after the conquest, triggering a crisis of the young state.
According to the traditional histories, one of King Wu's brothers, the [[Duke of Zhou]] declared himself regent for King Wu's son, the future [[King Cheng of Zhou|King Cheng]].{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=311}}{{efn|'Duke' is the conventional translation of the word ''[[Gong (title)|gong]]'', but this is anachronistic for the Western Zhou, when it signified a respected patriarch rather than a noble rank.{{sfnp|Khayutina|2020|p=405}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=91|at=n. 33}}}}
Later Confucian scholars, who glorified the Duke of Zhou, described the young king as a babe in his mother's arms, but other evidence indicates that he was a young man at the time.{{sfnp|Li|2018|pp=91–92}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=311|loc=n. 44}}
Some authors suggest that the Duke appointed himself king, and in the "Announcement to Kang" chapter of the ''Book of Documents'' he seems to speak as a king.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=91}}{{sfnp|Falkenhausen|2006a|p=269}}

Wu Geng and the brothers of King Wu tasked with supervising him rebelled against the new regime.
The Duke of Zhou and his half-brother, the [[Duke of Shao]], organized another eastern campaign.
After three years they had regained the lost areas and expanded their domain over an area stretching into Shandong.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=311}}

The victorious triumvirate of the Duke of Zhou, Duke of Shao and King Cheng then consolidated their control over this expanded territory.
They built an eastern capital at Chengzhou (modern day [[Luoyang]]) and began founding colonies or states at strategic points in their domain.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=311–313}}
The most important were placed under members of the ruling family.
These colonies are listed in the ''[[Zuozhuan]]'', and some have been confirmed by archaeological finds.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=92}}
The inscription on the Mai ''zun'' narrates the ceremony in which King Cheng appointed a son of the Duke of Zhou to rule [[Xing (state)|Xing]].{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=320, 322}}

Kings Cheng and [[King Kang of Zhou|Kang]] mounted numerous military campaigns to expand their domains.
The Xiao Yu ''ding'' relates a victory over the Guifang, presumably in the Ordos region, late in the reign of King Kang.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=320, 322}}
This phase of expansion came to an end in a disastrous southern campaign in the [[Han River (Hubei and Shaanxi)|Han River]] region, in which [[King Zhao of Zhou|King Zhao]] lost his armies and his own life.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=322–323}}

=== Middle period ===
[[File:Western Zhou Bronze Gui (9925599543).jpg|thumb|right|alt=Bronze vessel decorated with bird motifs|The Dong ''gui'', whose inscription records a victory over the Dongyi in the reign of King Mu]]
During the reign of [[King Mu of Zhou|King Mu]], the Zhou state shifted to the defensive, particularly in the east.
The ''Bamboo Annals'' records a campaign against the [[Xu (state)|Xu Rong]], who had to be driven back from the eastern capital.
The inscription on the Dong ''gui'' celebrates a defeat inflicted by the Zhou on the [[Dongyi]] near Ying, a colony set up by one of King Cheng's brothers to guard the southern approaches to the capital.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=323–325}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=177, 179–181}}

With the passing of generations, the family relationships between the king and the rulers of the colonies had also become more distant.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=323}}
Instead, the Zhou state developed a bureaucracy and formalized relations between the elites.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=93}}
There were reforms of the military, official titles and the distribution of land.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=325–328}}
A drastic shift in the style and types of bronze ritual vessels, formerly based on Late Shang models, also suggests a change in ritual practice at this time.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=93}}{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=414}}

Very little historical information is available for the reigns of the next four kings, Gong, Yih, Xiao and Yi.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=328}}
Western Zhou kings were customarily succeeded by their oldest sons.
However, Sima Qian states, without explanation, that King Yih was succeeded by his uncle, who became King Xiao, and that on Xiao's death "the many lords restored" King Yih's son, King Yi.
Bronze inscriptions of the time use two different royal calendars, and the ''Bamboo Annals'' mentions King Yih moving out of the capital.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=329}}{{sfnp|Li|2006|p=99}}
Some authors suggest that King Yih was forced out by his uncle, and the two were rivals for a time, but whatever happened is now obscure.
The succession was already presented as a linear sequence of kings in the Lai ''pan'', cast in the reign of King Yi's grandson.{{sfnp|Falkenhausen|2006b|p=269}}{{efn|Falkenhausen notes that the Lai ''pan'' omits another irregularity, the [[Gonghe Regency]], which would have occurred in living memory.{{sfnp|Falkenhausen|2006b|p=269}}}}

Both Sima Qian and the ''Bamboo Annals'' state that King Yi boiled the Duke of [[Qi (state)|Qi]] (in eastern Shandong) in a cauldron.
A bronze inscription confirms a Zhou attack on Qi at this time.
This incident, in a state originally founded by one of King Wu's generals, indicates the waning authority of the Zhou king.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=329–330}}{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=97–99}}
Soon afterwards, the Zhou were attacked by [[Chu (state)|Chu]], who reached as far as the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]] before being driven off in a counterattack described in the Yu ''ding'' and Yu ''gui''.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=331}}

=== Late period ===
[[File:Western Zhou Bronze Gui (9925461455).jpg|thumb|right|alt=bronze vessel with flamboyant handles but having its body decorated only with a vertical stripe pattern|The Hu ''gui'', cast in the 12th year of King Li{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=343}}]]
[[King Li of Zhou|King Li]] embarked on defensive campaigns in the east and northwest.
The received texts all present him in a negative light, and record that he was driven out of the capital into exile in the [[Fen River]] valley.
Sources disagree on whether this was a revolt of the peasantry or the nobility, but agree that the king's infant son was barely saved from a mob.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=342–343}}
The ''Bamboo Annals'', confirmed by bronze inscriptions, relate that control of the state passed to Lord He, instituting the [[Gonghe Regency]].
Sima Qian's belief that it was a co-regency was based on a misinterpretation of the name.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=344–345}}

When King Li died in exile, his son became [[King Xuan of Zhou|King Xuan]].
Both received texts and bronze inscriptions suggest that King Xuan acted quickly to secure the state.
In his 5th year, he ordered a campaign against the [[Xianyun]] in the west, and then appointed the successful general to command the eastern territories.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=345–346}}
According to the ''Bamboo Annals'', in the following year he ordered a campaign against the Huaiyi in the southeast.
Bronze inscriptions record victories in this campaign and others against the Xianyun.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=347}}
He reinforced the south by relocating settlements from the Wei valley to the Nanyang basin and sought to improve relations with distant Zhou states in the northeast and east.{{sfnp|Li|2018|p=95}}
At the same time, the king also had to contend with succession struggles in some of the old Zhou states.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=347}}

According to received texts, [[King You of Zhou|King You]]'s reign began with ominous portents.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=348–349}}
The texts, as well as some of the Minor Court Songs, hint at factional struggles within the Zhou court.{{sfnp|Li|2006|p=231}}
In his 11th year, the [[Quanrong]] attacked from the west, killing the king and causing the Zhou elite to flee from the Wei valley to the eastern capital, bringing the Western Zhou era to a close.
Although Zhou royal power had been declining for over a century, this dramatic event presents a convenient milestone for historians.
The Zhou would continue to occupy the eastern capital for another five centuries, but their sway over the states they had established became increasingly nominal.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=350–351}}

== Society ==

The Zhou introduced clan names ({{tlit|zh|xìng}} {{lang|zh|姓}}) identifying broad kinship groups by their maternal origins.{{sfnp|Li|2013|pp=139–141}}
Some scholars suggest that clan names were introduced to regulate marriages between the different ethnic groups of the Wei valley that formed the pre-dynastic Zhou.{{sfnp|Li|2013|p=140}}
About a dozen intermarrying clans are mentioned repeatedly in bronze inscriptions.
The most prominent was the {{tlit|zh|Jī}} ({{lang|zh|姬}}) clan of the Zhou kings, the rulers of most of the eastern colonies and much of the Wei valley aristocracy.
More than half of the primary wives of Western Zhou kings belonged to the {{tlit|zh|Jiāng}} ({{lang|zh|姜}}) clan.{{sfnp|Li|2013|p=140}}

The primary unit of the social, political and economic organization of the Western Zhou elite was the lineage, a smaller group within a clan, typically controlling several villages and their fields.{{sfnp|Li|2013|p=140}}
In addition to personal names ({{tlit|zh|míng}} {{lang|zh|名}}), elite males were referred to by their lineage names ({{tlit|zh|shì}} {{lang|zh|氏}}), while elite women were referred to by their clan names.{{sfnp|Li|2013|p=140}}
Commoners had neither clan nor lineage names.{{sfnp|Wilkinson|2013|p=113}}

Lineage leadership passed from father to the eldest son of his primary wife, with other sons forming families within the lineage.{{sfnp|Li|2013|pp=140–141}}
As lineages grew, branches might form minor lineages, which were expected to obey their primary lineage.
This chain of obedience also governed the offshoot lineages set up by the royal family to rule the colonies they founded.{{sfnp|Li|2013|p=141}}
Warring States texts describe a rule by which new lineages were formed every five generations, but there is no evidence of this in Western Zhou inscriptions.{{sfnp|Li|2013|p=141}}

By the middle Western Zhou, land originally bestowed by the king was treated as the property of a lineage, apportioned by the lineage head to the families of the lineage.{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=125–126}}{{sfnp|Li|2013|p=190}}
Inscriptions record the transfer of parcels of land between individuals, including to settle lawsuits.{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=125–126}}
The ''[[Mencius (book)|Mencius]]'' and ''[[Rites of Zhou]]'' describe a [[well-field system]] regulating the allocation of fields and taxation during the Western Zhou, but such a rigid system is incompatible with the inscriptional evidence.{{sfnp|Li|2013|p=189}}

== Government ==
{{Expand French|section=yes|date=June 2024|topic=hist}}

== Religion ==
{{main|Religion of the Predynastic and Western Zhou}}

Western Zhou inscriptions introduce a deity, {{tlit|zh|Tiān}} ({{lang|zh|天}} 'heaven'), who does not appear in Late Shang inscriptions.{{sfnp|Eno|2009|p=99}}
There are occasional mentions of mentions of the Late Shange deity {{tlit|zh|Dì}} ({{lang|zh|帝}}).
Scholars are divided on the relationship between the two, with some maintaining that the names referred to the same deity, while others believe that they had distinct roles.{{sfnp|Eno|2009|p=99}}{{sfnp|Li|2013|pp=143–144}}
Other powers do not appear in these texts.{{sfnp|Eno|2009|p=99}}

=== Burial practices ===

[[File:Western Zhou Jade Funeral Face Covering.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Fifty small pieces, including some carved in the shapes of individual features of a face|Jade pieces used to cover the face of the deceased in a late Western Zhou tomb]]
Elite tombs in the early Western Zhou have a similar structure to those of the eastern plains. Burials took place in rectangular pits, with a north–south alignment.
A ramp excavated to the south allowed the coffin and burial offerings to be brought to a wooden structure ({{tlit|zh|guǒ}} {{lang|zh|槨}}) constructed at the bottom of the pit.
In high-status burials, a second ramp was excavated to the north, shorter and a little higher than the south ramp, and with steps, possibly for a select audience for the funeral.
The coffin was typically placed north–south, with deceased placed in a [[supine position]] with the head usually to the north.
A pit under the coffin ({{tlit|zh|yāokēng}} {{lang|zh|腰坑}} 'waist pit') held a sacrificed deer or dog.
The area around the sides of the {{tlit|zh|guǒ}} was filled with rammed earth to form a ledge ({{tlit|zh|èrcéngtái}} {{lang|zh|二層台}} on which ritual vessels and further sacrifices, especially of horses, were placed.
The grave was then sealed by filling the pit and ramps with rammed earth.{{sfnp|Thote|2009|pp=117–120}}{{sfnp|Cook|2020|pp=445–446}}

However, there were differences from Late Shang practices. The practice of burying attendants with their lord continued, but on a reduced scale, and the additional human sacrifices seen in Shang burials are absent from those of the Western Zhou.{{sfnp|Thote|2009|p=120}}
Vessels for grain offerings were added to the burial assemblage from the start of the Western Zhou period.{{sfnp|Thote|2009|p=121}}
Towards the end of the middle period, there was a dramatic change in the ritual vessels found in elite burials.
Several new types were introduced.
Vessels became larger, and were produced in matching sets, often with identical inscriptions.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=433–435}}
Shang-style goblets and pourers for alcohol were finally abandoned, replaced by pairs of ''[[Hu (vessel)|hu]]'' alcohol storage vessels over {{cvt|50|cm}} tall.{{sfnp|Cook|Sun|2016|pp=xxix}}
Matching sets of bells, based on southern models, were added.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=436, 438}}
The addition of decorative objects in semi-precious stone grew steadily throughout the Western Zhou period.{{sfnp|Thote|2009|p=121}}
The practice of covering the faces of the dead with appropriately shaped jade pieces appeared in the late period.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=433}}

Western Zhou burials, from the Wei valley heartland to Yan in the northeast and Shandong in the east, are remarkably uniform in proportion and furnishings, following standards apparently imposed across the Western Zhou domain.{{sfnp|Thote|2009|pp=117, 123}}
This uniformity would break down during the following Springs and Autumns period, as local lords displayed their power and also incorporated elements from neighbouring peoples.{{sfnp|Thote|2009|pp=125–126}}

=== Ancestral sacrifice ===
[[File:Dinastia zhou occidentale, coppia di fiasche per il vino (hu), 810-790 ac ca.jpg|thumb|right| pair of matching ''[[Hu (vessel)|hu]]'' vessels from the late period]]
Sacrifices to ancestors were the central religious ceremonies of the Zhou elite.
Many received texts discuss these rituals, but most of these texts date from the [[Warring States period]], and reflect an idealization of the centuries-earlier Western Zhou. The primary sources are ritual vessels and their inscriptions, as well as the earliest parts of the ''Odes'' and ''Documents'', though these texts may also be affected by idealizing tendencies.{{sfnp|Kern|2009|pp=143–145}}
[[Jessica Rawson]] has suggested that the mid-Western Zhou changes to the vessel assemblages in elite tombs reflect a major change in ritual practice, including a shift from a small family setting to a larger event involving more of the lineage group.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=438}}{{sfnp|Kern|2009|pp=155–156}}

The received texts describe these rituals as taking place in lineage temples, which is confirmed by the late-period Nangong Yousi {{tlit|zh|dǐng}}:{{sfnp|Kern|2009|p=157}}{{efn|Text: {{lang|zh-Hant|南公有司作尊鼎。其萬年。子子孙孙永寶用享于宗廟。}}}}
<blockquote>
Officer Nangong made [this] precious cauldron. 
May it last ten thousand years.
[May] sons of sons, grandsons of grandsons forever treasure and use [it] in the lineage temple.
</blockquote>
The most detailed early description of an ancestor ritual is found in one of the Minor Court Hymns of the ''Odes'', "Thorny caltrop" ({{tlit|zh|Chǔcí}} {{lang|zh|楚茨}}).{{sfnp|Kern|2009|p=173}}
This hymn appears to be the primary source for the more elaborate accounts found in the [[Three Ritual Classics]] from the Warring States period.{{sfnp|Falkenhausen|1993b|p=148|loc=n. 18}}
The ritual is described as a communal feast during which the spirits of deceased ancestors were invited to descend from heaven to the ancestral temple to communicate with the living.{{sfnp|Falkenhausen|1993b|p=148}}
Three roles are identified:{{sfnp|Falkenhausen|1993b|pp=148–149}}{{sfnp|Kern|2009|pp=154, 173–176}}
* the "pious descendent" ({{tlit|zh|xiào sūn}} {{lang|zh|孝孫}}), who was the head of the lineage,
* the "august impersonator" ({{tlit|zh|huáng shī}} {{lang|zh|皇尸}}), a adolescent member of the family representing the deceased ancestors, and
* the "officiating invoker ({{tlit|zh|gōng zhù}} {{lang|zh|工祝}}), a ritual specialist mediating between the two.
The Ode opens with the lineage members preparing offerings of millet, meat and ale. As the feast proceeds with presentations and toasts, the invoker announces to the pious descendent:{{sfnp|Legge|1871|pp=371–372}}
{{poem quote
|text=Fragrant has been your filial sacrifice,
And the Spirits have enjoyed your spirits and viands.
They confer upon you a hundred blessings;
Each as it is desired, each as sure as law.
You have been exact and expeditious;
You have been correct and careful:
They will ever confer on you the choicest favours,
In myriads and tens of myriads.
}}
Drums and bells sound to mark the conclusion of the rites and to escort the impersonator from the temple, marking the return of the spirits to heaven.{{sfnp|Kern|2009|pp=174–176}}{{sfnp|Falkenhausen|1993b|pp=149–150}}

The inscriptions contain many references to temples dedicated to royal ancestors, as the site of ceremonies in which the king conferred honours or appointments. These temples are often described as being part of the palace, further emphasizing their dual religious and adminstrative functions.{{sfnp|Kern|2009|pp=158–160, 162}}

== Arts ==
Western Zhou arts initially followed Late Shang models, but later incorporated external forms, especially from the south, and developed new styles.
Several concurrent changes at the beginning of the late Western Zhou have been interpreted as reflecting a revolution in ritual practice.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=360}}

=== Bronze vessels ===
{{see also|Chinese ritual bronzes}}
The most common vessels throughout the period were the [[gui (vessel)|{{tlit|zh|guǐ}}]] basin and [[ding (vessel)|{{tlit|zh|dǐng}}]] cauldron.
They were also the vessels most likely to carry long inscriptions.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=129}}

Vessels of the early Western Zhou were elaborations of Late Shang designs, featuring high-relief decor, often with pronounced flanges, and made extensive use of the ''[[taotie]]'' motif.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=126}}{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=360}}
Wine vessels such as goblets and pouring vessels continued to be produced, but would largely disappear in later periods.
{{tlit|zh|Yǒu}} and {{tlit|zh|zūn}} were usually cast in matching sets.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=128}}
The earliest {{tlit|zh|guǐ}} were elevated on a base.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=129–130}}
Over time, vessels became less flamboyant.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=360}}

By the mid-10th century&nbsp;BC (middle Western Zhou), the ''taotie'' had been replaced by pairs of long-tailed birds facing each other.
Vessels shrank, and their profile became simpler.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=126}}{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=360}}
New types were the {{tlit|zh|hú}} vase and {{tlit|zh|xǔ}} vessel.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=128}}
{{tlit|zh|Guǐ}} vessels of this period tend to have covers.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|p=130}}

New types of vessel began to be introduced during the early 9th century&nbsp;BC, initially in western Shaanxi, then quickly spreading throughout the Wei valley.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=360}}
These new types, which were grouped in large sets, possibly reflect a change in Zhou ritual practice.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=360}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|p=331}}
Animal decorations were replaced by geometric forms such as ribbing and bands of lozenge shapes.
Conversely, legs and handles became larger and more elaborate, and were often topped with animal heads.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=126–127}}

{{gallery
| style = packed
| title = Western Zhou {{tlit|zh|dǐng}} cauldrons
|File:Bronze Ding, Early Western Zhou 01 (cropped).jpg|Xianhou {{tlit|zh|dǐng}}, early Western Zhou{{sfnp|Sun|2020|p=452}}
|File:Da Yu ding.jpg|[[Da Yu ding|Da Yu {{tlit|zh|dǐng}}]], early Western Zhou{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999b|pp=320–322}}
|File:Da Ke ding.jpg|[[Da Ke ding|Da Ke {{tlit|zh|dǐng}}]], middle Western Zhou{{sfnp|Sun|2020|p=459}}
|File:Ding cauldron of Duke Mao.jpg|[[Mao Gong ding|Mao Gong {{tlit|zh|dǐng}}]], late Western Zhou
}}

=== Bronze bells ===

[[File:Western Zhou Bronze Zhong Bell with Inscription (9925819093).jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Bell with three rows of three knobs on each side, swirling decorative patterns and an inscription|Western Zhou bronze bell]]
Bronze bells were developed in southern China from Guangxi to Jiangxi, with the greatest concentration in Hunan. The decoration changed from a pair of knobs derived from the eyes of the taotie motif to three rows of knobs on each side. Bells became longer and were given loops on their shanks, from they could be suspended.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=427–428}}
Bells of this type were imported to Shaanxi during the middle period.{{sfnp|Falkenhausen|1993a|p=157}}
At first they were copied using moulds made from imported objects.
Later local designs appeared as Zhou craftsmen mastered the techniques needed to produce tuned sets of instruments.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=428–430}}
Sets of three matching bells feature prominently in elite tombs, reflecting the role they had taken on in Zhou ceremonies honouring their ancestors.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=429–430}}

=== Jade ===

Jade items were much rarer in early Western Zhou tombs than those of the Late Shang, and the fish- or bird-shaped amulets found may have been taken from the Shang.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|pp=430–431}}
During the middle period, sophisticated jade working techniques were imported from the south, and combined with bead necklaces from the west.
Popular motifs included birds and composite figures of human heads and dragons.{{sfnp|Rawson|1999|p=431}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation
  | surname = Cook | given = Scott
  | chapter = Bells and music in the Zhou | pages = 471–492
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  | title = The Oxford Handbook of Early China
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{{Kings of Zhou}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zhou}}
[[Category:Zhou dynasty]]