View source for Washo language

{{short description|Indigenous language isolate spoken in the Western United States}}
{{use mdy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Washo
| nativename       = {{lang|was|wá꞉šiw ʔítlu}}
| map              = Washo lang.png
| mapcaption       = Pre-contact distribution of the Washo language
| states           = [[United States]]
| region           = [[California]]–[[Nevada]] border
| ethnicity        = [[Washoe people]]
| speakers         = 20
| date             = 2011
| ref              = <ref name=Golla>Victor Golla (2011) ''California Indian Languages''</ref>
| familycolor      = hokan
| family           = [[Hokan]]? or [[language isolate]]
| iso2             = was
| iso3             = was
| glotto           = wash1253
| glottorefname    = Washo
| altname          = Washoe
|revived=1994
}}
{{Infobox ethnonym|person= [[Washoe people|Wá:šiw]]|people= [[Washoe people|Waší:šiw]]|language= Wá:šiw ʔítlu|country=Waší:šiw Ɂítdeh}}
'''Washo''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|w|ɒ|ʃ|oʊ}}<ref>Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student's Handbook'', Edinburgh</ref> (or Washoe; endonym {{lang|was|wá꞉šiw ʔítlu}})<ref>{{cite web |title=The Washo Project: wá꞉šiw ʔítlu |url=http://washo.uchicago.edu/dictionary/results.php?AttestationID=4312&SearchBy=SearchGloss&SearchKey=washo |work=The Washo Project |publisher=[[University of Chicago]] |access-date=9 September 2011 }}</ref> is an [[endangered language|endangered]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[language isolate]] spoken by the [[Washo people|Washo]] on the [[California]]–[[Nevada]] border in the drainages of the [[Truckee River|Truckee]] and [[Carson River|Carson]] Rivers, especially around [[Lake Tahoe]]. While there were only 20 elderly native speakers of Washo as of 2011,<ref name=Golla>Victor Golla (2011) ''California Indian Languages''</ref> since 1994 there had been a small immersion school that has produced a number of moderately fluent younger speakers. The immersion school has since closed its doors and the language program now operates through the Cultural Resource Department for the Washoe Tribe. The language is still very much endangered; however, there has been a renaissance in the language revitalization movement as many of the students who attended the original immersion school have become teachers.

Ethnographic Washo speakers belonged to the [[Great Basin]] culture area and they were the only non-[[Numic languages|Numic]] group of that area.<ref>d'Azevedo 1986</ref> The language has borrowed from the neighboring [[Uto-Aztecan]], [[Maiduan]] and [[Miwokan]] languages and is connected to both the [[Linguistic areas of the Americas#Great Basin|Great Basin]] and [[Linguistic areas of the Americas#Northern California|Northern California]] [[sprachbund]]s.

== History ==
In 2012, Lakeview Commons Park in [[South Lake Tahoe]] was renamed in the Washo language. "The [[Washoe people|Washoe Tribe]] has presented the name {{lang|was|Tahnu Leweh}} (pronounced approx. {{IPA|[tanu lewe]}}) which, in native language, means "all the people's place." It is a name the Tribe would like to gift to El Dorado County and South Lake Tahoe as a symbol of peace, prosperity and goodness."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jeff Munson |date=2012-04-16 |title=Washoe offers sacred name 'Tahnu Leweh' for Lakeview Commons in South Lake Tahoe |url=http://www.carsonnow.org/story/04/16/2012/washoe-offers-sacred-name-tahnu-leweh-lakeview-commons-south-lake-tahoe |access-date=2012-08-05 |work=Carson City Nevada News - Carson Now}}</ref>

==Classification==

Washo is usually considered a [[language isolate]].<ref>Lyle Campbell. ''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America''. (1997, Oxford, pg. 125).<br />[[Marianne Mithun]]. ''The Languages of Native North America'' (1999, Cambridge, pg. 557)</ref> That is, it shares no demonstrated link with any other language, including its three direct neighboring languages, [[Northern Paiute]] (a [[Numic]] language of [[Uto-Aztecan]]), [[Maidu language|Maidu]] ([[Maiduan]]), and [[Miwok languages|Sierra Miwok]] ([[Utian]]). It is sometimes classified as a [[Hokan languages|Hokan]] language, but this language family is not universally accepted among specialists, nor is Washo's connection to it.<ref name="washoetribe.us">[https://web.archive.org/web/20230512124140/https://washoetribe.us/images/washoe_tribe_history_v2.pdf WA SHE SHU: "The Washoe People", Past and Present]. The Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California</ref>

The language was first described in ''A Grammar of the Washo Language'' by William H. Jacobsen, Jr., in a [[University of California, Berkeley]], PhD dissertation and this remains the sole complete description of the language. There is no significant dialect variation. (Jacobsen's lifelong work with Washo is described at the University of Nevada Oral History Program.)<ref>{{Cite web |title=William Jacobson Jr. |url=http://oralhistory.unr.edu/research_jacobsen.asp |access-date=2013-01-26 |work=University of Nevada Oral History Program}}</ref>

==Dialects==

Washo shows very little geographic variation. Jacobsen (1986:108) wrote, "When there are two variants of a feature, generally one is found in a more northerly area and the other in a more southerly one, but the lines separating the two areas for the different features do not always coincide."

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
There are six distinct vowel qualities found in the Washo language, each of which occurs long and short. The sound quality of a vowel is dependent upon their length and the consonant they precede, as well as the stress put on the vowel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vowels |url=http://washo.uchicago.edu/vowels.php |website=The Washo Project}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Washo vowels<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jacobsen |first=William H. Jr. |url=http://home.uchicago.edu/~aclyu/papers/BeginningWasho.pdf |title=Beginning Washo |date=December 1996 |publisher=Nevada State Museum |editor-last=Tuohy |editor-first=Donald R. |series=Nevada State Museum Occasional Papers |volume=5 |location=Carson City, NV |pages=1–6}}</ref>
! Orthography !! IPA !! Example
|-
| '''á''' or '''a'''<br />'''á꞉''' or '''a꞉'''
| {{IPAslink|a}}<br />{{IPA|/aː/}}
| {{lang|was|lakꞌ'''a'''ʔ}} 'one'<br />{{lang|was|d'''á꞉'''bal}} 'sagebrush'
|-
| '''é''' or '''e'''<br />'''é꞉''' or '''e꞉'''
| {{IPAslink|e}}<br />{{IPA|/eː/}}
| {{lang|was|d'''e'''m'''é'''m'''e'''w}} 'his rib'<br />{{lang|was|m'''é꞉'''hu}} 'boy'
|-
| '''í''' or '''i'''<br />'''í꞉''' or '''i꞉'''
| {{IPAslink|i}}<br />{{IPA|/iː/}}
| {{lang|was|d'''i'''púlul}} 'my car'<br />{{lang|was|s'''í꞉'''su}} 'bird'
|-
| '''ó''' or '''o'''<br />'''ó꞉''' or '''o꞉'''
| {{IPAslink|o}}<br />{{IPA|/oː/}}
| {{lang|was|nanh'''ó'''lwa}} 'golden currant'<br />{{lang|was|ćid'''ó꞉'''dokhu}} 'robin'
|-
| '''ú''' or '''u'''<br />'''ú꞉''' or '''u꞉'''
| {{IPAslink|u}}<br />{{IPA|/uː/}}
| {{lang|was|g'''u'''kú꞉}} 'owl'<br />{{lang|was|š'''ú꞉'''gil}} 'sunflower'
|-
| '''ɨ'''<br />'''ɨ:'''
| {{IPAslink|ɨ}}<br />{{IPA|/ɨː/}}
| {{lang|was|ć'''ɨ'''k'''ɨ'''}} (''spider'')
|-
| '''ay'''
|
| {{lang|was|m'''áy'''ŋa}} (''fawn'')
|-
| '''ey'''
|
| {{lang|was|b'''éy'''u}} (''to pay''; ''younger brother'' [used in context])
|}

Vowels marked with the [[acute accent]] ( ´ ) are pronounced with stress, such as in the Washo {{lang|was|ćigábut}} (summer).

In Washo, vowels can have either long or short length qualities; the longer quality is noted by appending a [[Colon (letter)|colon]] {{angle bracket|꞉}} to the vowel, as in the above example {{lang|was|'''míši milí꞉giyi'''}}. Vowels with such a mark are usually pronounced for twice the normal length. This can be seen in the difference between the words {{lang|was|móko}} (shoes) {{lang|was|mó꞉ko}} (knee). However, vowels pronounced this way may not always be followed by a colon.

Jacobsen described in detail various vowel alternations that distinguished the Washo speech communities.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Jacobsen |first=William H. Jr. |year=1978 |editor-last=Tuohy |editor-first=Donald R. |title=Washo Internal Diversity and External Relations |series=Ballena Press Publications in Archaeology, Ethnology and History |location=Socorro, NM |volume=11 |pages=115–147 |book-title=Selected Papers from the 14th Great Basin Anthropological Conference}}</ref>

===Consonants===
Sequences not represented by a single letter in Washo almost always tend to occur in borrowed English words, such as the ''nd'' in {{lang|was|'''kꞌindí'''}} (''candy'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Washo Project |url=https://washo.uchicago.edu/consonants.php |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=washo.uchicago.edu}}</ref><ref>[https://www.washoetribe.us/contents/culture/washoe-language/washoe-language-lessons Washoe Language Lessons]</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Washo consonants
! Orthography !! IPA !! Example
|-
| '''p'''
| {{IPAslink|p}}
| {{lang|was|'''p'''aćil}} 'pus'; {{lang|was|la'''p'''ɨš}} 'my body'; {{lang|was|dawmaʔgá꞉'''p'''}} 'wet place'
|-
| '''t'''
| {{IPAslink|t}}
| {{lang|was|'''t'''aniw}} 'miwak';{{what|date=February 2019}} {{lang|was| da'''t'''a꞉gil}} 'his knife'; {{lang|was|tꞌá꞉tꞌa'''t'''}} 'magpie'
|-
| '''k'''
| {{IPAslink|k}}
| {{lang|was|'''k'''aŋa}} 'cave'; {{lang|was|ma'''k'''u}} 'decayed tooth'; {{lang|was|bá꞉ću'''k'''}} 'ammunition'
|-
| '''ʔ'''
| {{IPAslink|ʔ}}
| {{lang|was|da'''ʔ'''aw}} 'lake'; {{lang|was|dá꞉da'''ʔ'''}}
|-
| '''pꞌ''' or '''pʼ'''
| {{IPAslink|pʼ}}
| {{lang|was|'''pꞌ'''á꞉wa}} 'in the valley'; {{lang|was|dá꞉'''pꞌ'''á꞉pɨš}} 'his lungs'
|-
| '''tꞌ''' or '''tʼ'''
| {{IPAslink|tʼ}}
| {{lang|was|'''tꞌ'''á꞉gim}} 'pinenut'; {{lang|was|tꞌá꞉'''tꞌ'''at}} 'magpie'
|-
| '''ć''' or '''cʼ'''
| {{IPAslink|t͡sʼ}}
| {{lang|was|'''ć'''ámduʔ}} 'chokecherry'; {{lang|was|di'''ć'''á'''ć'''aʔ}} 'my chin'
|-
| '''kꞌ''' or '''kʼ'''
| {{IPAslink|kʼ}}
| {{lang|was|'''kꞌ'''á꞉ŋi}} 'it's roaring'; {{lang|was|kꞌá꞉'''kꞌ'''aʔ}} 'heron'
|-
| '''b'''
| {{IPAslink|b}}
| {{lang|was|'''b'''á꞉ćuk}} 'ammunition'; {{lang|was|dá꞉'''b'''al}} 'sagebrush'
|-
| '''d'''
| {{IPAslink|d}}
| {{lang|was|'''d'''a꞉bal}} 'sagebrush'; {{lang|was|dá꞉'''d'''aʔ}} 'bed'
|-
| '''z'''
| {{IPAslink|d͡z}}
| {{lang|was|gá꞉'''z'''aga'''z'''a}} 'a type of bird'
|-
| '''g'''
| {{IPAslink|ɡ}}
| {{lang|was|'''g'''á꞉zagaza}} 'a type of bird'; {{lang|was|tꞌá꞉'''g'''im}} 'pinenut'
|-
| '''s'''
| {{IPAslink|s}}
| {{lang|was|'''s'''úkuʔ}} 'dog'; {{lang|was|ya꞉'''s'''aʔ}} 'again'; {{lang|was|ʔayɨ'''s'''}} 'antelope'
|-
| '''š'''
| {{IPAslink|ʃ}}
| {{lang|was|'''š'''áwaʔ}} 'white fir'; {{lang|was|di'''š'''á'''š'''aʔ}} 'my mother's sister'; {{lang|was|wá꞉la'''š'''}} 'bread'
|-
| '''h'''
| {{IPAslink|h}}
| {{lang|was|'''h'''élmeʔ}} 'three'; {{lang|was|ʔa꞉'''h'''uyi}} 'they are standing'
|-
| '''m'''
| {{IPAslink|m}}
| {{lang|was|'''m'''á꞉mayʔ}} 'conical burden basket, used for pine nuts'; {{lang|was|bá꞉'''m'''uš}} 'muskrat'; {{lang|was|tꞌá꞉gi'''m'''}} 'pinenut'
|-
| '''n'''
| {{IPAslink|n}}
| {{lang|was|'''n'''anholwa}} 'golden currant'; {{lang|was|á꞉'''n'''i}} 'ant'
|-
| '''ŋ'''
| {{IPAslink|ŋ}}
| {{lang|was|'''ŋ'''áw'''ŋ'''a'''ŋ'''}} 'child'
|-
| '''l'''
| {{IPAslink|l}}
| {{lang|was|'''l'''akꞌaʔ}} 'one'; {{lang|was|wá꞉'''l'''aš}} 'bread'; {{lang|was|paći'''l'''}} 'pus'
|-
| '''w'''
| {{IPAslink|w}}
| {{lang|was|'''w'''á꞉laš}} 'bread'; {{lang|was|pꞌa꞉'''w'''a}} 'in the valley'; {{lang|was|daʔa'''w'''}} 'lake'
|-
| '''y'''
| {{IPAslink|j}}
| {{lang|was|'''y'''a꞉saʔ}} 'again'; {{lang|was|da'''y'''áʔ}} 'leaf'
|-
| '''M'''
| {{IPAslink|m̥}}
| {{lang|was|'''M'''ášdɨmmi}} 'he's hiding'
|-
| '''Ŋ'''
| {{IPAslink|ŋ̊}}
| {{lang|was|dew'''Ŋ'''étiʔ}} 'hillside sloping down'
|-
| '''L'''
| {{IPAslink|l̥}}
| {{lang|was|madukwáw'''L'''u}} 'sunflower'
|-
| '''W'''
| {{IPAslink|ʍ}}
| {{lang|was|'''W'''áʔi}} 'he's the one who's doing it'
|-
| '''Y'''
| {{IPAslink|j̊}}
| {{lang|was|tꞌá꞉'''Y'''aŋi}} 'he's hunting'
|}

In the area around Woodfords, California, the local Washo dialect substituted {{IPA|[θ]}} for {{IPA|/s/}}, thus, {{lang|was|sí꞉su}} 'bird' was pronounced ''thithu''.<ref>Caitlin Keliiaa. 2012. "Washiw Wagayay Maŋal: Reweaving the Washoe Language," University of California, Los Angeles MA thesis.</ref>

==Morphology==

Washo has a complex tense system.

Washo uses partial or total [[reduplication]] of verbs or nouns to indicate repetitive [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] or plural [[grammatical number|number]]. Washo uses both [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixation]] and [[suffixation]] on [[noun]]s and [[verb]]s.

===Verbs===

Verbal [[inflection]] is rich with a large number of [[grammatical tense|tenses]]. Tense is usually carried by a suffix that attaches to the verb. The tense suffix may signal recent past, intermediate past, the long-ago-but-remembered past, the distant past, the intermediate future, or the distant future. For example, the suffix {{lang|was|-leg}} indicates that the verb describes an event that took place in the recent past, usually earlier the previous day as seen in the Washo sentence, {{lang|was|dabóʔo lew búʔ'''leg'''i}} ('the white man fed us').{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width="80%"
|+Vowel Suffixes
! width="15%" | Suffix Letter !! width="15%" | Meaning !! width="35%" | Used !! width="35%" | Example
|-
| {{lang|was|'''-ayʔ'''}}
| intermediate past
| earlier than the current day, but not the distant past
| {{lang|was|di hulúy'''ay'''}} ('I fell over')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''-gul'''}}
| long ago, remembered past
| within the lifetime of the speaker
| {{lang|was|gedí yeyemi ʔúš'''gul'''aygi}} ('They used to call him that')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''-lul'''}}
| distant past
| before the lifetime of the speaker
| {{lang|was|ga móŋil ha'''lúl'''iya}} ('They planted it here long ago')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''-a'''}}
| recent past
| action just finished
| {{lang|was|lépꞌam'''a'''ʔ}} ('I got there')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''-i'''}}
| present
| actions currently in progress
| {{lang|was|míši milí꞉giy'''i'''}} ('I see you')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''-aša'''}}
| [[near future (grammar)|near future]]
| soon
| {{lang|was|dimú sek hay'''áša'''ʔi}} ('I will choke him')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''-tiʔ'''}}
| intermediate future
| within the day
| {{lang|was|ʔilćáćimiʔ e'''ti'''ʔi}} ('It's getting green.' It will be green)
|-
| {{lang|was|'''-gab'''}}
| distant future
| the following day or later
| {{lang|was|milí꞉gi '''gab'''igi}} ('I will see you.' 'See you later')
|}

===Nouns===
{{Expand section|date=May 2008}}
Possession in Washo is shown by prefixes added to the object. There are two sets of prefixes added: the first set if the object begins with a vowel and the second set if the object begins with a consonant.{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width="80%"
|+Noun Prefixes
! width="15%" | Vowel-initial Prefix !! width="15%" | Usage !! width="35%" | Example
|-
| {{lang|was|'''l-'''}}
| first-person possessive
| {{lang|was|'''l'''áŋal}} ('my/our house')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''m-'''}}
| second-person possessive
| {{lang|was|'''m'''áŋal}} ('your house')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''tꞌ-'''}}
| third-person possessive
| {{lang|was|'''tꞌ'''áŋal}} ('his/her/its/their house')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''d-'''}}
| unidentified possessive
| {{lang|was|'''d'''áŋal}} ('somebody's house')
|-
! width="15%" | Consonant-initial Prefix!! width="15%" | Usage!! width="35%" | Example
|-
| {{lang|was|'''di-'''}}
| first-person possessive
| {{lang|was|'''di'''háŋa}} ('my/our mouth')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''ʔum-'''}}
| second-person possessive
| {{lang|was|'''ʔum'''háŋa}} ('your mouth')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''da-'''}}
| third-person possessive
(when first vowel of the object is '''a''' or '''o''')
| {{lang|was|'''da'''háŋa}} ('his/her/its/their mouth')<br /> {{lang|was|'''da'''kꞌómol}} ('his/her/its/their ball')
|-
| {{lang|was|'''de-'''}}
| third person possessive
(when first vowel of the object is '''e''', '''i''', '''ɨ''', or '''u'''')
| {{lang|was|'''de'''Mélɨw}} ('his/her/its/their belt')<br>{{lang|was|'''de'''dí꞉geš}} ('his/her/its/their net')<br>{{lang|was|'''de'''bɨkꞌɨ}} ('his/her/its/their grandmother's sister')<br>{{lang|was|'''de'''gúšuʔ}} ('his/her/its/their pet')
|-
|
| unidentified possessive
| {{lang|was|háŋa}} ('somebody's mouth')
|}

==See also==
* [[Washoe (tribe)|Washoe tribe]]
* [[Native American languages]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=North American Indian Languages |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |last=Bright |first=William O. |author-link=William Bright |pages=762–767}}
* {{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |author-link=Lyle Campbell |title=American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-19-509427-1 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=d'Azevedo |first=Warren L. |title=Handbook of North American Indians |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |year=1986 |isbn=0-16-004578-9 |editor-last=d'Azevedo |editor-first=Warren L. |volume=11: Great Basin |location=Washington, DC |pages=466–498 |chapter=Washoe}}
* {{Cite book |title=Handbook of North American Indians |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |year=1996 |isbn=0-16-048774-9 |editor-last=Goddard |editor-first=Ives |editor-link=Ives Goddard |volume=17: Languages |location=Washington, DC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Greenberg |first=Joseph H. |author-link=Joseph Greenberg |title=Language in the Americas |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1987 |location=Stanford}}
*{{Cite book |last=Jacobsen |first=William Jr. |url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/52c6q7hg |title=A Grammar of the Washo Language |date=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |access-date=2016-09-27}}
* {{cite book |last=Jacobsen |first=William H. |year=1986 |chapter=Washoe Language |volume=11: Great Basin |editor-first=Warren L. |editor-last=d'Azevedo |pages=107–112 |title=Handbook of North American Indians |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |isbn=0-16-004578-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Jacobsen |first=William H. |year=1996 |title=Beginning Washo |series=Occasional Papers |volume=5 |publisher=Nevada State Museum |url=https://home.uchicago.edu/~aclyu/papers/BeginningWasho.pdf}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Terrence Kaufman |last=Kaufman |first=Terrence |year=1988 |chapter=A Research Program for Reconstructing Proto-Hokan: First Gropings |editor-first=Scott |editor-last=DeLancey |title=Papers from the 1988 Hokan–Penutian Languages Workshop |pages=50–168 |location=Eugene, Oregon |publisher=Department of Linguistics, University of Oregon |series=Publications of the Center for Amerindian Linguistics and Ethnography |volume=1}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Marianne Mithun |last=Mithun |first=Marianne |year=1999 |title=The languages of Native North America |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-23228-7}}
* {{cite web |url=http://washo.uchicago.edu |title=The Washo Project |website=The University of Chicago |year=2008 |access-date=2011-05-04}}
* {{cite journal |last=Yu |first=Alan C. L. |title=Quantity, stress and reduplication in Washo |journal=Phonology |volume=22 |issue=3 |year=2006 |page=437|doi=10.1017/S0952675705000679 }}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal |last=Dangberg |first=Grace |year=1927 |title=Washo texts |url=http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/anthpubs/ucb/text/ucp022-004.pdf |journal=University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=391–443 |editor-first1=A. L. |editor-last1=Kroeber |editor-first2=Robert H. |editor-last2=Lowie}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kroeber |first=Alfred L. |author-link=Alfred L. Kroeber |year=1907 |editor-last=Putnam |editor-first=Frederic Ward |title=The Washo language of east central California and Nevada |url=http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/anthpubs/ucb/text/ucp004-006.pdf |journal=University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=251–317}}

==External links==
{{incubator|was}}
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has a word list at '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Washo word list|Appendix:Washo word list]]'''''}}
* [http://washo.uchicago.edu University of Chicago Washo Revitalization Project]
** [https://washo.uchicago.edu/mobile/ Washo Online Lexicon]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20050414204049/http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co12292001/CO_12292001_Washoe_Language.htm Reno Linguist Foremost Expert on Washoe Language]}}
* [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\wsh\wsh&limit=-1 Washo basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database]
* [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/languages/washo.php Washo language] overview at the [[Survey of California and Other Indian Languages]]
* [http://www.language-archives.org/language/was OLAC resources in and about the Washo language]

{{Languages of California}}
{{Hokan languages}}
{{Language families}}
{{Languages of Nevada}}
{{North American languages}}

[[Category:Language isolates of North America]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Nevada]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of California]]
[[Category:Endangered languages of the United States]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Great Basin]]
[[Category:Hokan languages]]
[[Category:Endangered Indigenous languages of the Americas]]
[[Category:Washoe]]
[[Category:Endangered language isolates]]
[[Category:Native American language revitalization]]