View source for Wars of Scottish Independence

{{Short description|War of national liberation between Scotland and England}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=l|date=May 2024}}
{{History of Scotland}}
The '''Wars of Scottish Independence''' were a series of military campaigns in the late 13th and 14th centuries in order to protect the independence and sovereignty of the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] which had been threatened by the [[Kingdom of England]].<ref>{{cite web |title=BBC - Scotland's History - The Wars of Independence |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/history/articles/the_wars_of_independence/ |website=www.bbc.co.uk |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> The wars were part of a great crisis for Scotland, and the period became one of the most defining times in its history. At the end of both extended wars, Scotland retained its status as an independent, sovereign country. 

The [[First War of Scottish Independence|First War]] (1296–1328) began with the English invasion of Scotland and ended with the signing of the [[Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton]]. The [[Second War of Scottish Independence|Second War]] (1332–1357) began with the English-supported invasion by [[Edward Balliol]] and the "Disinherited"  and ended with the signing of the [[Treaty of Berwick (1357)|Treaty of Berwick]]. Notable figures during the Wars of Scottish Independence included several of the [[Monarch of Scotland|Kings of Scotland]] such as [[Alexander III of Scotland]], [[John Balliol]], [[Robert the Bruce]] and [[David II of Scotland]], with other prominent figures such as [[William Wallace]] who served as [[Guardian of Scotland]] from 1297–1298. Key figures on the English side include monarchs [[Edward I of England|Edward I]], [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] and [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], as well as the contested King of Scotland, [[Edward Balliol]]. 

The wars were important for other reasons, such as the emergence of the [[English longbow|longbow]] as a key weapon in [[medieval warfare]].

==The First War of Independence: 1296–1328==
{{Main|First War of Scottish Independence}}
{{Campaignbox First War of Scottish Independence}}

===Background===
[[File:Edward I & II Prince of Wales.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Edward I]] and his son, [[Edward II|Edward, Prince of Wales]]]]

King [[Alexander III of Scotland]] died in 1286, leaving his three-year-old granddaughter [[Margaret, Maid of Norway]], as his heir.<ref>{{cite web |title=Margaret Maid of Norway {{!}} Scottish monarchy {{!}} Visit Heritage |url=https://www.visitheritage.co.uk/discover/royal-history/scottish-monarchy/margaret-the-maid-of-norway |website=www.visitheritage.co.uk |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> In 1290, the [[Guardians of Scotland]] signed the [[Treaty of Birgham]] agreeing to the marriage of the Maid of Norway and [[Edward of Caernarvon]], the son of [[Edward I]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Margaret, Maid of Norway |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zf9gpg8 |website=BBC Bitesize |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> This marriage would not create a union between Scotland and England because the Scots insisted that the Treaty declare that Scotland was separate and divided from England and that its rights, laws, liberties and customs were wholly and inviolably preserved for all time.

However, Margaret, travelling to her new kingdom, died shortly after landing in the [[Orkney Islands]] around 26 September 1290.<ref>{{cite web |last1=International |first1=Hektoen |title=The mysterious death of Margaret, child queen of Scotland - Hektoen International |url=https://hekint.org/2023/09/05/the-mysterious-death-of-margaret-child-queen-of-scotland/ |website=hekint.org |access-date=29 August 2025 |date=5 September 2023}}</ref> After her death, there were 13 rivals for succession. The two leading [[competitors for the Scottish crown]] were [[Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale]] (grandfather of the future King [[Robert the Bruce]]) and [[John Balliol|John Balliol, Lord of Galloway]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Competitors - Succession problem - National 5 History Revision |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zrxcwmn/revision/5 |website=BBC Bitesize |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Fearing civil war between the Bruce and Balliol families and supporters, the Guardians of Scotland wrote to Edward I of England, asking him to come north and arbitrate between the claimants in order to avoid civil war.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Staff |first1=HistoryNet |title=King Edward I: England's Warrior King |url=https://www.historynet.com/king-edward-i-englands-warrior-king/ |website=HistoryNet |access-date=29 August 2025 |date=12 June 2006}}</ref>

Edward agreed to meet the guardians at [[Norham]] in 1291.<ref>{{cite web |title=Norham {{!}} Friends of Berwick and District Museum and Archives |url=https://www.berwickfriends.org.uk/history/norham/ |website=www.berwickfriends.org.uk |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Before the process got underway Edward insisted that he be recognised as Lord Paramount of Scotland. When they refused, he gave the claimants three weeks to agree to his terms, knowing that by then his armies would have arrived and the Scots would have no choice. Edward's ploy worked, and the claimants to the crown were forced to acknowledge Edward as their Lord Paramount and accept his arbitration. Their decision was influenced in part by the fact that most of the claimants had large estates in England and, therefore, would have lost them if they had defied the English king. However, many involved were churchmen such as Bishop Wishart for whom such mitigation cannot be claimed.<ref name="scott">Scott, Ronald McNair (1989). ''Robert the Bruce, King of Scots''. pp. 25–27</ref>

On 11 June, acting as the Lord Paramount of Scotland, Edward I ordered that every Scottish royal castle be placed temporarily under his control and every Scottish official resign his office and be re-appointed by him.<ref>{{cite web |title=The subjugation of Scotland - Balliol and Edward I - National 5 History Revision |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zc64jxs/revision/4 |website=BBC Bitesize |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Two days later, in Upsettlington, the Guardians of the Realm and the leading Scottish nobles gathered to swear allegiance to King Edward I as Lord Paramount. All Scots were also required to pay homage to Edward I, either in person or at one of the designated centres by 27 July 1291.

There were 13 meetings from May to August 1291 at [[Berwick-upon-Tweed|Berwick]], where the claimants to the crown pleaded their cases before Edward, in what came to be known as the "[[Great Cause]]".<ref>{{cite web |title=The Great Cause (Part 1) |url=https://historynavigator.org/2020/04/20/the-great-cause-part-1/ |website=Travel Through Time |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en |date=20 April 2020}}</ref> The claims of most of the competitors were rejected, leaving only the men who could prove direct descent from [[David I of Scotland|David I]]: Balliol; Bruce; [[Floris V, Count of Holland]]; and John de Hastings of Abergavenny, 2nd Baron Hastings.

On 3 August, Edward asked Balliol and Bruce to choose 40 arbiters each, while he chose 24, to decide the case. On 12 August, he signed a writ that required the collection of all documents that might concern the competitors' rights or his own title to the superiority of Scotland, which was accordingly executed.{{refn|The writ required the collection of "all the charters instruments rolls and writs whatsoever that might concern the rights of the competitors, or his own pretended title to the superiority of Scotland, to be carried off and placed where he should appoint; and these to be put into the hands of five persons, two Scots and three English; and these last to act by themselves, if the two first happened to be hindered".<ref>Innes, ''Essays'', p. 305. Quoted in: {{Cite thesis |last=Wyckoff |first=Charles Truman |title=Feudal Relations Between the Kings of England and Scotland Under the Early Plantagenets |date=1897 |chapter=Introduction |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=457wzD8qMY4C&pg=PR8 |publisher=University of Chicago |publication-date=1897 |location=Chicago |type=PhD |page=viii}}</ref>|group=note}} Balliol was named king by a majority on 17 November 1292 and on 30 November he was crowned [[King of Scots]] at [[Scone Abbey]]. On 26 December, at [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], King John swore homage to Edward I for the Kingdom of Scotland. Edward soon made it clear that he regarded the country as a vassal state.<ref>{{cite web |title=BBC - Scotland's History - Edward I, King of England. |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/history/articles/edward_i/ |website=www.bbc.co.uk |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Balliol, undermined by members of the Bruce faction, struggled to resist, and the Scots resented Edward's demands. In 1294, Edward summoned John Balliol to appear before him, and then ordered that he had until 1 September 1294 to provide Scottish troops and funds for his invasion of France.<ref>{{cite web |title=BBC - History - Scottish History |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/independence/intro_independence2.shtml |website=www.bbc.co.uk |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref>

On his return to Scotland, John held a meeting with his council and after a few days of heated debate, plans were made to defy the orders of Edward I. A few weeks later a Scottish parliament was hastily convened and 12 members of a war council (four [[earl]]s, [[baron]]s, and [[bishop]]s, respectively) were selected to advise King John.<ref>{{cite web |title=Edward I - Wars, Scotland, Wales {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-I-king-of-England/Wars |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en |date=3 July 2025}}</ref>

Emissaries were immediately dispatched to inform King [[Philip IV of France]] of the intentions of the English. They also negotiated a treaty by which the Scots would invade England if the English invaded France, and in return the French would support the Scots. The treaty would be sealed by the arranged marriage of John's son [[Edward Balliol|Edward]] and Philip's niece [[Joan of Valois, Countess of Beaumont|Joan]]. Another treaty with King [[Eric II of Norway]] was hammered out, in which for the sum of 50,000 [[Groat (coin)|groats]] he would supply 100 ships for four months of the year, so long as hostilities between France and England continued. Although Norway never acted, the Franco-Scottish alliance, later known as the [[Auld Alliance]], was renewed frequently until 1560.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wilkes |first1=Jonny |title=What Was The Auld Alliance Between Scotland And France? {{!}} HistoryExtra |url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/medieval/auld-alliance-scotland-france-history-how-old/ |website=www.historyextra.com |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

It was not until 1295 that Edward I became aware of the secret Franco-Scottish negotiations. In early October, he began to strengthen his northern defences against a possible invasion. It was at this point that Robert Bruce, 6th Lord of Annandale (father of the future King [[Robert the Bruce]]) was appointed by Edward as the governor of [[Carlisle Castle]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Carlisle Castle |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/carlisle-castle/history/ |website=English Heritage |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Edward also ordered John Balliol to relinquish control of the castles and burghs of [[Berwick-upon-Tweed|Berwick]], [[Jedburgh]] and [[Roxburgh]]. In December, more than 200 of Edward's tenants in Newcastle were summoned to form a militia by March 1296 and in February, a fleet sailed north to meet his land forces in Newcastle.<ref>{{cite web |title=Scottish Wars of Independence |url=https://www.berkhamstedcastle.org.uk/histories/scottish-wars-of-independence/ |website=Berkhamsted Castle |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref>

The movement of English forces along the Anglo-Scottish border did not go unnoticed. In response, King John Balliol summoned all able-bodied Scotsmen to bear arms and gather at [[Caddonlee]] by 11 March.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Watson |first1=Fiona |title=Under the Hammer: Edward I and Scotland, 1286-1307 |date=2013 |publisher=Birlinn |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1-904607-81-6}}</ref> Several Scottish nobles chose to ignore the summons, including [[Robert the Bruce|Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick]], whose Carrick estates had been seized by John Balliol and reassigned to [[John Comyn III of Badenoch|John 'The Red' Comyn]]. Robert Bruce had become Earl of Carrick at the resignation of his father earlier that year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Robert Bruce, 6th Lord of Annandale: Biography on Undiscovered Scotland |url=https://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/b/robertbruce.html |website=www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref>

===Beginning of the war: 1296–1306===
[[File:John Balliol.jpg|thumb|upright|The dethroned King John, whom a Scottish chronicler dubbed 'toom tabard' ('empty coat')]]
The First War of Scottish Independence can be loosely divided into four phases: the initial English invasion and success in 1296; the campaigns led by [[William Wallace]], [[Andrew de Moray]] and various Scottish Guardians from 1297 until [[John Comyn III of Badenoch|John Comyn]] (the "Red Comyn") negotiated for the general Scottish submission in February 1304; the renewed campaigns led by [[Robert the Bruce]] following his killing of the Red Comyn in [[Dumfries]] in 1306 to his and the Scottish victory at [[Battle of Bannockburn|Bannockburn]] in 1314; and a final phase of Scottish diplomatic initiatives and military campaigns in Scotland, Ireland and Northern England from 1314 until the [[Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton]] in 1328.

The war began in earnest with Edward I's brutal [[Capture of Berwick (1296)|sacking of Berwick]] in March 1296, followed by the Scottish defeat at the [[Battle of Dunbar (1296)|Battle of Dunbar]] and the abdication of John Balliol in July.<ref>Scott, Ronald McNair, Robert the Bruce, King of the Scots, p. 35</ref> The English invasion campaign had subdued most of the country by August and, after removing the [[Stone of Scone|Stone of Destiny]] from Scone Abbey and transporting it to [[Westminster Abbey]], Edward convened a parliament at Berwick, where the Scottish nobles paid homage to him as King of England.<ref>{{cite web |title=Records of the Parliaments of Scotland |url=https://www.rps.ac.uk/search.php?a=fcf&fn=edwardi_trans&id=121&t=trans |website=www.rps.ac.uk |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> 

The revolts which broke out in early 1297, led by [[William Wallace]], [[Andrew de Moray]] and other Scottish nobles, forced Edward to send more forces to deal with the Scots, and although they managed to force the nobles to capitulate at [[Irvine, North Ayrshire|Irvine]], Wallace and de Moray's continuing campaigns eventually led to the first key Scottish victory, at [[Battle of Stirling Bridge|Stirling Bridge]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Battle of Stirling Bridge, 1297 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/z7qjrj6 |website=BBC Bitesize |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Moray was fatally wounded in the fighting at Stirling, and died soon after the battle.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Battle of Stirling Bridge |url=https://www.nationalwallacemonument.com/the-battle-of-stirling-bridge/ |website=National Wallace Monument |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en}}</ref> This was followed by Scottish raids into northern England and the appointment of Wallace as [[Guardian of Scotland]] in March 1298.<ref>{{cite web |title=William Wallace’s Invasion of Northern England in 1297 » De Re Militari |url=https://deremilitari.org/2014/05/william-wallaces-invasion-of-northern-england-in-1297/ |website=deremilitari.org |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> But in July, Edward invaded again, intending to crush Wallace and his followers, and defeated the Scots at [[Battle of Falkirk|Falkirk]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Battle of Falkirk, 1298 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zjwdbdm |website=BBC Bitesize |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Edward failed to subdue Scotland completely before returning to England.<ref>{{cite web |title=Battle of Falkirk {{!}} Facts, History, & William Wallace {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/battle-of-Falkirk |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en |date=15 July 2025}}</ref>

[[File:War of Independence figures by Wm Hole.JPG|thumb|left|210px|Notable figures from the first War of Independence as depicted by the Victorian artist [[William Hole (artist)|William Hole]]]]

There have been several stories regarding Wallace and what he did after the Battle of Falkirk. It is said by some sources that Wallace travelled to France and fought for the French King against the English during their own ongoing war while Bishop Lamberton of St Andrews, who gave much support to the Scottish cause, went and spoke to the pope.<ref>{{cite web |title=Continuing Scottish resistance after Falkirk - William Wallace and Scottish resistance - National 5 History Revision |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z4t9q6f/revision/7 |website=BBC Bitesize |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Wallace was succeeded by Robert Bruce and John Comyn as joint guardians, with [[William de Lamberton]], Bishop of St Andrews, being appointed in 1299 as a third, neutral Guardian to try to maintain order between them.<ref>{{cite web |title=Robert I (r. 1306-1329) |url=https://www.royal.uk/robert-i-r-1306-1329 |website=www.royal.uk |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

Further campaigns by Edward in 1300 and 1301 led to a truce between the Scots and the English in 1302.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Wars of Independence |url=https://scottishhistorysociety.com/the-wars-of-independence/ |website=scottishhistorysociety.com |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> After another campaign in 1303/1304, [[Stirling Castle]], the last major Scottish-held stronghold, fell to the English, and in February 1304, negotiations led to most of the remaining nobles paying homage to Edward and to the Scots all but surrendering.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Siege of Stirling Castle - Hidden Scotland |url=https://hiddenscotland.com/journal/the-siege-of-stirling-castle |website=hiddenscotland.com |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> At this point, Robert Bruce and William Lamberton may have made a secret bond of alliance, aiming to place Bruce on the Scottish throne and continue the struggle. However, Lamberton came from a family associated with the Balliol-Comyn faction and his ultimate allegiances are unknown.

After the capture and execution of Wallace in 1305, Scotland seemed to have been finally conquered and the revolt calmed for a period.

===King Robert the Bruce: 1306–1328===
[[File:Bannockburn Monument plaque - geograph.org.uk - 1538086.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Battle of Bannockburn|Bannockburn Monument]] plaque]]

On 10 February 1306, during a meeting between Bruce and Comyn, the two surviving claimants for the Scottish throne, Bruce quarrelled with and killed John Comyn at Greyfriars Kirk in [[Dumfries]].   At this moment the rebellion was sparked again.<ref>{{cite book |title=King Robert the Bruce |first=A. F. |last=Murison |edition=reprint 2005 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |date=1899 |isbn=978-1417914944 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iMEMc45g9s8C}}</ref>

Comyn, it seems, had broken an agreement between the two, and informed King Edward of Bruce's plans to be king.<ref>{{cite web |title=What You Don't Hear About Scottish Kind: Robert the Bruce |url=https://www.scotlandswild.com/experience-scotlands-wild-blog-posts/robert-the-bruce |website=Scotland's Wild Tours: Book your 2025 Scotland Travel and Tours |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> The agreement was that one of the two claimants would renounce his claim on the throne of Scotland, but receive lands from the other and support his claim. Comyn appears to have thought to get both the lands and the throne by betraying Bruce to the English. A messenger carrying documents from Comyn to Edward was captured by Bruce and his party, plainly implicating Comyn. Bruce then rallied the Scottish [[prelate]]s and nobles behind him and had himself crowned King of Scots at [[Scone, Scotland|Scone]] less than five weeks after the killing in Dumfries.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thomson |first1=Graeme |title=The Bruce Family and coronations through the ages (Part One): An enthronement at Scone |url=https://broomhallhouse.com/2023/05/the-bruce-family-and-coronations-through-the-ages-part-one-an-enthronement-at-scone/ |website=Broomhall House |access-date=29 August 2025 |date=5 May 2023}}</ref> He then began a new campaign to free his kingdom. After being defeated in the Battle of Methven, he was driven from the Scottish mainland as an outlaw as Edward I declared that his supporters would be given no quarter, and his wife Queen Elizabeth, daughter Marjorie and younger sisters Christina and Mary were captured by the English.<ref>{{cite web |title=BBC - Scotland's History - Bruce is defeated at Methven |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/history/wars_of_independence/bruce_is_defeated_at_methven/ |website=www.bbc.co.uk |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Bruce returned to the mainland in 1307. King Robert's forces continued to grow in strength, encouraged in part by the death of Edward I in July 1307. The [[Battle of Loudoun Hill]], the [[Battle of the Pass of Brander]], and the captures of Roxburgh Castle and Edinburgh Castle saw the English continually lose ground in their control of the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=Battle of Loudoun Hill |url=https://portal.historicenvironment.scot/apex/f?p=1505:300:::::VIEWTYPE,VIEWREF:designation,BTL36 |website=Historic Environment Scotland |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> The [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in 1314 was a pivotal event in the course of the war, after which the family members of Bruce captive in England were returned. In 1318, the Scots completed the expulsion of the English by retaking the then Scottish city of Berwick-Upon-Tweed in April 1318.

In 1320, the [[Declaration of Arbroath]] was sent by a group of Scottish nobles to the [[Pope]] affirming Scottish independence from England.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Declaration of Arbroath - National Records of Scotland (NRS) |url=https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/learning-and-events/the-declaration-of-arbroath/ |website=www.nrscotland.gov.uk |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Two similar declarations were also sent by the nobles, clergy and Robert I. In 1324, [[Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray|Thomas Randolph]], Earl of Moray was sent to meet the Pope in person at his court in Avignon. Randolph successfully persuaded Pope John to recognise Robert as King of Scots, a major diplomatic coup.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Declaration of Arbroath |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/past-exhibitions/the-declaration-of-arbroath |website=National Museums Scotland |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en |date=3 June 2023}}</ref> In 1327, [[Edward II of England]] was deposed and killed and his son [[Edward III of England]] assumed the throne. Repeated invasions of the north of England by Robert or his war leaders, culminating in the [[Battle of Stanhope Park]], in which the English king was nearly captured, forced Edward III to sign the [[Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton]] on 1 May 1328. This recognised the independence of Scotland and Robert the Bruce as King. To further seal the peace, Robert's son and heir [[David II of Scotland|David]] married the sister of Edward III.<ref>{{cite web |title=David II {{!}} House of Bruce, Scottish Wars & Succession Crisis {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-II |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

==The Second War of Independence: 1332–1357==
{{Main|Second War of Scottish Independence}}
{{Campaignbox Second War of Scottish Independence}}
After [[Robert the Bruce]]'s death, [[David II of Scotland|King David II]] was too young to rule, so the guardianship was assumed by [[Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray|Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Rule of David II {{!}} History Timeline {{!}} History of Scotland |url=https://www.scotland.org.uk/history/david2 |website=www.scotland.org.uk |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> But Edward III, despite having given his name to the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton, was determined to avenge the humiliation by the Scots and he could count on the assistance of [[Edward Balliol]], the son of John Balliol and a claimant to the Scottish throne.

Edward III also had the support of a group of Scottish nobles, led by Balliol and Henry Beaumont, known as the 'Disinherited'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Edward III of England: Biography on Undiscovered Scotland |url=https://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/e/edwardiiiengland.html |website=www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> This group of nobles had supported the English in the First War and, after Bannockburn, Robert the Bruce had given them a year to return to his peace. When they refused, he deprived them of their titles and lands, granting them to his allies. When peace was concluded, they received no [[war reparations]]. These 'Disinherited' were hungry for their old lands and would prove to be the undoing of the peace.<ref>{{cite web |title=Letter from Robert the Bruce to Edward II reveals power struggle in the build-up to Bannockburn |url=https://www.gla.ac.uk/news/archiveofnews/2013/june/headline_279405_en.html |website=www.gla.ac.uk |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

The Earl of Moray died on 20 July 1332.<ref>{{cite web |title=Thomas Randolph, 1st earl of Moray {{!}} Scottish statesman, regent, diplomat {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Randolph-1st-Earl-of-Moray |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en |date=16 July 2025}}</ref> The Scots nobility gathered at [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] where they elected [[Domhnall II, Earl of Mar]] as the new Guardian.<ref>{{cite web |title=Battle, Betrayal, and Balliol: The Struggle for Scotland and the Battle of Annan |url=https://www.medievalists.net/2024/12/battle-betrayal-balliol-scotland/ |website=Medievalists.net |access-date=29 August 2025 |date=29 December 2024}}</ref> Meanwhile, a small band led by Balliol had set sail from the [[Humber]]. Consisting of the disinherited noblemen and mercenaries, they were probably no more than a few thousand strong.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maxwell |first1=Sir Herbert |title=The Chronicle of Lanercost |date=1913 |publisher=Macmillan and Co. |page=268}}</ref>

Edward III was still formally at peace with David II and his dealings with Balliol were therefore deliberately obscured. He of course knew what was happening and Balliol probably did homage in secret before leaving, but Balliol's desperate scheme must have seemed doomed to failure. Edward therefore refused to allow Balliol to invade Scotland from across the [[River Tweed]]. This would have been too open a breach of the treaty. He agreed to [[turn a blind eye]] to an invasion by sea, but made it clear that he would disavow them and confiscate all their English lands should Balliol and his friends fail.

The 'Disinherited' landed at [[Kinghorn]] in [[Fife]] on 6 August.<ref name="The Balliol Dynasty">{{cite web |title=The Balliol Dynasty |url=https://scottishhistorysociety.com/the-balliol-dynasty/ |website=scottishhistorysociety.com |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> The news of their advance had preceded them, and, as they marched towards Perth, they found their route barred by a large Scottish army, mostly of infantry, under the new Guardian.<ref name="The Balliol Dynasty"/>

At the [[Battle of Dupplin Moor]], Balliol's army, commanded by Henry Beaumont, defeated the larger Scottish force.<ref name="The Battlefields Hub → Medieval → The Battle of Battle of Dupplin Moor">{{cite web |title=The Battlefields Hub → Medieval → The Battle of Battle of Dupplin Moor |url=https://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/battleview.asp?BattleFieldId=73 |website=www.battlefieldstrust.com |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Beaumont made use of the same tactics that the English would make famous during the [[Hundred Years' War]], with dismounted knights in the centre and archers on the flanks.<ref name="The Battlefields Hub → Medieval → The Battle of Battle of Dupplin Moor"/> Caught in the murderous rain of arrows, most of the Scots did not reach the enemy's line. When the slaughter was finally over, the Earl of Mar, Sir Robert Bruce (an illegitimate son of Robert the Bruce), many nobles and around 2,000 Scots had been slain.<ref name="The Battlefields Hub → Medieval → The Battle of Battle of Dupplin Moor"/> Edward Balliol then had himself crowned King of Scots, first at Perth, and then again in September at Scone Abbey. Balliol's success surprised Edward III, and fearing that Balliol's invasion would eventually fail leading to a Scots invasion of England, he moved north with his army.<ref name="The Battlefields Hub → Medieval → The Battle of Battle of Dupplin Moor"/>

In October, [[Archibald Douglas (died 1333)|Sir Archibald Douglas]], now Guardian of Scotland, made a truce with Balliol, supposedly to let the [[Parliament of Scotland|Scottish Parliament]] assemble and decide who their true king was.<ref name="History of the Stewarts {{!}} Battles and Historic Events {{!}} The Battle of Annan">{{cite web |title=History of the Stewarts {{!}} Battles and Historic Events {{!}} The Battle of Annan |url=https://www.stewartsociety.org/history-of-the-stewarts.cfm?section=battles-and-historical-events&subcatid=1&histid=5624 |website=www.stewartsociety.org |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Emboldened by the truce, Balliol dismissed most of his English troops and moved to [[Annan, Dumfries and Galloway|Annan]], on the north shore of the [[Solway Firth]].<ref name="History of the Stewarts {{!}} Battles and Historic Events {{!}} The Battle of Annan"/> He issued two public letters, saying that with the help of England he had reclaimed his kingdom, and acknowledged that Scotland had always been a [[Fiefdom|fief]] of England. He also promised land for Edward III on the border, including [[Berwick-on-Tweed]], and that he would serve Edward for the rest of his life. But in December, Douglas attacked Balliol at Annan in the early hours of the morning. Most of Balliol's men were killed, though he himself managed to escape through a hole in the wall, and fled, naked and on horse, to Carlisle.<ref name="History of the Stewarts {{!}} Battles and Historic Events {{!}} The Battle of Annan"/>

[[File:Battle of Stanhope Park.jpg|thumb|left|[[Edward III]] invades Scotland, from an edition of Froissart's Chronicles]]

In April 1333, Edward III and Balliol, with a large English army, [[Capture of Berwick (1333)|laid siege to Berwick]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Battle of Halidon Hill, 1333 |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/The-Battle-of-Halidon-Hill/ |website=Historic UK |access-date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Archibald Douglas attempted to relieve the town in July, but was defeated and killed at the [[Battle of Halidon Hill]]. David II and his Queen were moved to the safety of [[Dumbarton Castle]], while Berwick surrendered and was annexed by Edward. By now, much of Scotland was under English occupation, with eight of the [[Scottish Lowlands|Scottish lowland]] counties being ceded to England by Edward Balliol.

At the beginning of 1334, [[Philip VI of France]] offered to bring David II and his court to France for asylum, and in May they arrived in France, setting up a court-in-exile at [[Château Gaillard]] in [[Normandy]].<ref>{{cite web |title=France - Philip VI, Monarchy, Revolution {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/France/Philip-VI |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=29 August 2025 |language=en |date=29 August 2025}}</ref> Philip also decided to derail the Anglo-French peace negotiations then taking place (at the time England and France were engaged in disputes that would lead to the [[Hundred Years' War]]), declaring to Edward III that any treaty between France and England must include the exiled King of Scots.

In David's absence, a series of Guardians kept up the struggle. In November, Edward III invaded again, but he accomplished little and retreated in February 1335 due primarily to his failure to bring the Scots to battle. He and Edward Balliol returned again in July with an army of 13,000, and advanced through Scotland, first to [[Glasgow]] and then to Perth, where Edward III installed himself while his army looted and destroyed the surrounding countryside. At this time, the Scots followed a plan of avoiding pitched battles, depending instead on minor actions of heavy cavalry – the normal practice of the day. Some Scottish leaders, including the [[David III Strathbogie|Earl of Atholl]], who had returned to Scotland with Edward Balliol in 1332 and 1333, defected to the Bruce party.

Following Edward's return to England, the remaining leaders of the Scots resistance chose Sir Andrew Murray as Guardian. He soon negotiated a truce with Edward until April 1336, during which various French and Papal emissaries attempted to negotiate a peace between the two countries. In January, the Scots drew up a draft treaty agreeing to recognise the elderly and childless Edward Balliol as King, so long as David II would be his heir and David would leave France to live in England. However, David II rejected the peace proposal and any further truces. In May, an English army under [[Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster|Henry of Lancaster]] invaded, followed in July by another army under King Edward. Together, they ravaged much of the north-east and sacked [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]] and [[Aberdeen]], while a third army ravaged the south-west and the [[River Clyde|Clyde]] valley. Prompted by this invasion, [[Philip VI of France]] announced that he intended to aid the Scots by every means in his power, and that he had a large fleet and army preparing to invade both England and Scotland. Edward soon returned to England, while the Scots, under Murray, captured and destroyed English strongholds and ravaged the countryside, making it uninhabitable for the English.

Although Edward III invaded again, he was becoming more anxious over the possible French invasion, and by late 1336, the Scots had regained control over virtually all of Scotland and by 1338 the tide had turned. While [[Agnes Dunbar|"Black Agnes", Countess-consort Dunbar and March]], continued to resist the English laying siege to Dunbar Castle, hurling defiance and abuse from the walls, Scotland received some breathing space when Edward III claimed the French throne and took his army to Flanders, beginning the [[Hundred Years' War]] with France.

In the late autumn of 1335, Strathbogie, dispossessed Earl of Atholl, and Edward III set out to destroy Scottish resistance by dispossessing and killing the Scottish freeholders. Following this, Strathbogie moved to lay siege to Kildrummy Castle, held by Lady Christian Bruce, sister of the late King Robert and wife of the Guardian, Andrew de Moray.  Her husband moved his small army quickly to her relief although outnumbered by some five to one.  However, many of Strathbogie's men had been impressed and had no loyalty to the English or the usurper, Balliol.  Pinned by a flank attack while making a downhill charge, Strathbogie's army broke and Strathbogie refused to surrender and was killed.  The [[Battle of Culblean]] was the effective end of Balliol's attempt to overthrow the King of Scots.

So, in just nine years, the kingdom so hard won by Robert the Bruce had been shattered and had recovered. Many of her experienced nobles were dead and the economy which had barely begun to recover from the earlier wars was once again in tatters. It was to an impoverished country in need of peace and good government that David II was finally able to return in June 1341.

[[File:BNMsFr2643FroissartFol97vBatNevilleCross.jpg|thumb|left| [[David II of Scotland|David II]] (lower left) captured at Neville's Cross, from an edition of Froissart's Chronicles]]

When David returned, he was determined to live up to the memory of his illustrious father. He ignored truces with England and was determined to stand by his ally Philip VI during the early years of the Hundred Years' War. In 1341 he led a raid into England, forcing Edward III to lead an army north to reinforce the border. In 1346, after more Scottish raids, Philip VI appealed for a counter-invasion of England in order to relieve the English stranglehold on Calais. David gladly accepted and personally led a Scots army southwards with intention of capturing [[Durham, England|Durham]]. In reply, an English army moved northwards from [[Yorkshire]] to confront the Scots. On 14 October, at the [[Battle of Neville's Cross]], the Scots were defeated. They suffered heavy casualties and David was wounded in the face by two arrows before being captured. He was sufficiently strong however to knock out two teeth from the mouth of his captor. After a period of convalescence, he was imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]], where he was held prisoner for eleven years, during which time Scotland was ruled by his nephew, [[Robert II of Scotland|Robert Stewart, 7th High Steward]]. Edward Balliol returned to Scotland soon afterwards with a small force, in a final attempt to recover Scotland. He only succeeded in gaining control of some of [[Galloway]], with his power diminishing there until 1355. He finally resigned his claim to the Scottish throne in January 1356 and died childless in 1364.

[[File:David Bruce, king of Scotland, acknowledges Edward III as his feudal lord.jpg|thumb|David II pays homage to Edward III]]

Finally, on 3 October 1357, David was released under the Treaty of Berwick, under which the Scots agreed to pay an enormous ransom of 100,000 [[merk (coin)|merk]]s for him (1 merk was {{frac|2|3}} of an English pound) payable in 10 years. Heavy taxation was needed to provide funds for the ransom, which was to be paid in instalments, and David alienated his subjects by using the money for his own purposes. The country was in a sorry state then; she had been ravaged by war and also the [[Black Death]]. The first instalment of the ransom was paid punctually. The second was late and after that, no more could be paid.

In 1363, David went to London and agreed that should he die childless, the crown would pass to Edward (his brother-in-law) or one of his sons, with the Stone of Destiny being returned for their coronation as King of Scots. However, this seems to have been no more than a rather dishonest attempt to re-negotiate the ransom since David knew perfectly well that Parliament would reject such an arrangement out of hand. The Scots did reject this arrangement, and offered to continue paying the ransom (now increased to 100,000 pounds). A 25-year truce was agreed and in 1369, the treaty of 1365 was cancelled and a new one set up to the Scots' benefit, due to the influence of the war with France. The new terms saw the 44,000 merks already paid deducted from the original 100,000 with the balance due in instalments of 4,000 for the next 14 years.

When Edward died in 1377, there were still 24,000 merks owed, which were never paid. [[David II of Scotland|David]] himself had lost his popularity and the respect of his nobles when he married the widow of a minor [[laird]] after the death of his English wife. He himself died in February 1371.

By the end of the campaign, Scotland was independent. It remained thus, until king [[James VI and I|James VI]] of Scotland succeeded to the English throne in the 1603 [[Union of the Crowns]], and disputed efforts at political unification culminated in the [[Treaty of Union]] of 1707 which created the single [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].

==Major battles and events==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}{{small|
*[[Capture of Berwick (1296)|Capture of Berwick]], 1296
*[[Battle of Dunbar (1296)|Battle of Dunbar]], 1296
*[[Battle of Stirling Bridge]], 1297
*[[Battle of Falkirk (1298)|Battle of Falkirk]], 1298
*[[Battle of Roslin]], 1303
*[[Battle of Happrew (1304)|Battle of Happrew]], 1304
*[[Fall of Stirling Castle]], 1304
*[[Battle of Methven]], 1306
*[[Battle of Dalry]], 1306
*[[Capture of Douglas Castle|The Douglas Larder]], 1307
* [[Battle of Turnberry]], 1307
*[[Battle of Glen Trool]], 1307
*[[Battle of Loudoun Hill]], 1307
*[[Battle of Slioch]], 1307
*[[Battle of Inverurie (1308)|Battle of Inverurie]], 1308
*[[Battle of Pass of Brander]], 1308
*[[Battle of Bannockburn]], 1314
*[[Battle of Connor]], 1315
*[[Battle of Skaithmuir]], 1316
*[[Battle of Skerries]], 1316
*[[Battle of Faughart]], 1318
*[[Capture of Berwick (1318)|Capture of Berwick]], 1318
*[[Battle of Myton]], 1319
*[[Declaration of Arbroath]], 1320
*[[Battle of Boroughbridge]], 1322
*[[Battle of Old Byland]], 1322
*[[Treaty of Corbeil (1326)|Treaty of Corbeil]], 1326
*[[Battle of Stanhope Park]], 1327
*[[Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton]], 1328
*[[Battle of Dupplin Moor]], 1332
*[[Battle of Halidon Hill]], 1333
*[[Battle of Dornock]], 1333
*[[Battle of Boroughmuir]], 1335
*[[Battle of Culblean]], 1335
*[[Battle of Neville's Cross]], 1346
*[[Treaty of Berwick (1357)|Treaty of Berwick]], 1357
}}{{div col end}}

==Important figures==

===Scotland===
{{Refbegin|2}}
*[[Alexander III of Scotland|King Alexander III]]
*[[John Balliol|King John Balliol]]
*[[Robert the Bruce|King Robert I the Bruce]]
*[[David II of Scotland|King David II]]
*[[Robert II of Scotland|Robert Stewart, 7th High Steward]] – Lieutenant (1346–1357)
*[[Robert Wishart]] – Bishop of Glasgow (1272–1317)
*[[John II Comyn]] and [[John III Comyn]] – Guardians (1298–1301, 1304)
*[[Andrew de Moray]]
*[[William Wallace]]
*[[John de Graeme]]
*[[John de Soules (Guardian of Scotland)|John de Soulis]] – Guardian (1301–1304)
*[[Domhnall I, Earl of Mar]] (1276–1301)
*[[Gartnait, Earl of Mar]] (1301–1305)
*[[Edward Bruce]]
*[[Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray]] – Guardian (1329–1332)
*[[James Douglas, Lord of Douglas]], "the Black" or "the Guid"
*[[Maol Choluim II, Earl of Lennox]] (1303–1333)
*[[Domhnall II, Earl of Mar]] (1305–1332) Guardian (1332)
*[[Uilleam II, Earl of Ross]] (1274–1323)
*[[Donnchadh IV, Earl of Fife]], (1288–1353)
*[[William Lamberton]] – Bishop of St Andrews (1298–1328)
*[[Bernard of Arbroath]] – Chancellor (1308–1328)
*[[Andrew Murray (soldier)|Andrew Murray]] – Guardian (1332, 1335–1338)
*[[Archibald Douglas (died 1333)|Archibald Douglas]] – Guardian, k. [[Battle of Halidon Hill]] 1333
*[[Agnes Dunbar]], Countess-consort of Dunbar/March
*[[Aodh, Earl of Ross]] (1323–1333)
*[[Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward]]
*[[Maol Íosa III, Earl of Strathearn]] (1271–1317)
*[[Maol Íosa IV, Earl of Strathearn]] (1317–1329)
*[[Maol Íosa V, Earl of Strathearn]], 1330–1334, [[Earl of Orkney|Earl of Caithness & Orkney]], 1331–1350
{{Refend}}

===England===
{{Refbegin|2}}
*[[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]
*[[Edward II of England|King Edward II]]
*[[Edward III of England|King Edward III]]
*[[Edward Balliol]]
*[[Henry Beaumont, '4th Earl of Buchan']]
*[[Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford]]
*[[John de Bretagne, 1st Earl of Richmond]]
*[[Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster]]
*[[David I Strathbogie, Earl of Atholl]]
*[[David II Strathbogie, Earl of Atholl]]
*[[Gilbert de Umfraville, Earl of Angus]]
*[[Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke]]
*[[John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey]]
{{Refend}}

===Other important figures===
{{Refbegin|2}}
*[[Philip IV of France]]
*[[Philip VI of France]]
*[[Pope John XXII]]
{{Refend}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Scotland|History}}

=== Scotland ===
*[[Anglo-Scottish Wars]]
*[[Outline of the Wars of Scottish Independence]]
*[[Scottish independence]]

=== Other ===
* [[List of Irish uprisings]]
** [[Irish War of Independence]]
* [[United Ireland]]
* [[Welsh rebellions against English rule]]
** [[Glyndŵr rebellion]]
* [[Welsh independence]]

==Notes==
<references group=note/>
==References== 
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/independence/features_independence_arbroath.shtml BBC.com: The Wars of Scottish Independence]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930180531/http://www.historynet.com/historical_conflicts/3036606.html Historynet.com: Wars of Scottish Independence: Battle of Bannockburn]
*[http://skyelander.orgfree.com/menu5.html Syelander.org: Battles of Dupplin Moor, Halidon Hill, & Neville's Cross]
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070207095020/http://kingcrest.com/sinclair/timeline.html-ssi Kingcrest.com: Timeline]}}

{{Medieval Scotland}}
{{Kingdom of Scotland}}
{{Scotland topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Wars of Scottish Independence| ]]
[[Category:13th century in Scotland]]
[[Category:14th century in Scotland]]
[[Category:13th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:14th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Military history of Scotland]]
[[Category:Warfare in medieval Scotland]]
[[Category:Wars involving Scotland|Independence]]
[[Category:Wars involving England|Scottish Independence]]
[[Category:Wars of independence|Scottish]]
[[Category:Invasions by England]]
[[Category:Invasions of Scotland]]
[[Category:Medieval rebellions in Europe|Scottish Independence]]
[[Category:Military history of England]]
[[Category:Wars of the Middle Ages]]
[[Category:England–Scotland relations]]