View source for Vowel reduction in Russian

{{Use mdy dates|date = February 2019}}
{{Short description|Sound change of vowels in Russian phonology}}
{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
{{IPA notice}}
In the [[Russian pronunciation|pronunciation]] of the [[Russian language]], several ways of [[vowel reduction]] (and its absence) are distinguished between the [[standard language]] and [[dialects]]. [[Russian orthography]] most often does not reflect vowel reduction, which can confuse [[Foreign language|foreign-language learners]], but some [[vowel reduction in Russian#Spelling|spelling reforms have changed some words]].

There are five vowel [[phonemes]] in Standard Russian. Vowels tend to merge when they are [[stress (linguistics)|unstressed]]. The vowels {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} have the same unstressed [[allophones]] for a number of dialects and reduce to an unclear [[schwa]] {{IPA|/ə/}}. Unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} may become more central and merge with {{IPA|/i/}}. Under some circumstances, {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} may all merge. The fifth vowel, {{IPA|/u/}}, may also be centralized but does not typically merge with any of the other vowels.

Other types of reduction are [[phonetic]], such as that of the [[high vowel|high vowels]] ({{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}), which become [[near-close vowel|near-close]]. Thus, {{lang|ru|'''и'''гра́ть}} ('to play') is pronounced {{Audio-IPA|Ru-играть.ogg|['''ɪ'''ˈɡratʲ]|help=no}} {{IPA|}}, and {{lang|ru|'''у'''зна́ть}} ('to recognize') is pronounced {{Audio-IPA|Ru-узнать.ogg|['''ʊ'''zˈnatʲ]}}.

== General description ==
The five Russian vowels {{IPA|/u, i, e, a, o/}} in unstressed position show two levels of reduction:<ref name="Timberlake43-46">{{Harvcoltxt|Timberlake|2004|pp=43–46}}</ref>
# The first-degree reduction in the first pretonic position (immediately before the stress).
# The second-degree reduction in positions other than the first pretonic position.

The [[allophonic]] result of the reduction is also heavily dependent on the quality or the nonexistence of the preceding consonant. Thus, the reduction is further grouped into three types according to the environment:<ref name="Timberlake43-46" />
# After the hard (non-[[palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]] or [[velarized]]) consonants (including always hard {{IPA|/ts/}}).
# After the hard [[retroflex]] sibilants {{IPA|/ʂ/}} and {{IPA|/ʐ/}}.
# After the soft ([[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]]) consonants (including the soft {{IPA|/tɕ/}} and {{IPA|/ɕː/}}) and semi-vowel {{IPA|/j/}}.

The unstressed vowels also may be grouped in series that reflect similar patterns of reduction:<ref name="Timberlake43-46" />
# High {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} (never reduced).
# Non-high {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} (always reduced).
# Back {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} (both exhibit ''akanye'').
# Front {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} (both exhibit ''ikanye'').
# Back high {{IPA|/u/}} (never reduced).

==High vowels==
Two high vowels {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} are usually thought to undergo no reduction.<ref name="Timberlake43-46" /> However, on the phonetic level, they show allophonic [[central vowel|centralization]], particularly under the influence of preceding or following consonants.

The unstressed high back vowel {{IPA|/u/}} is either {{IPAblink|ʊ}} (after hard consonants, written {{angle brackets|у}}) or {{IPAblink|ʊ̈}} (after soft consonants, written {{angle brackets|ю}}, except {{angle brackets|чу}}, {{angle brackets|щу}}).

The unstressed high front vowel {{IPA|/i/}} is either {{IPAblink|i}} or {{IPAblink|ɪ}} (after soft consonants, written {{angle brackets|и}}) or {{IPAblink|ɨ}} or {{IPAblink|ɪ̈}} (after hard consonants, written {{angle brackets|ы}}, except {{angle brackets|ши}}, {{angle brackets|жи}}). Nevertheless, in rapid colloquial speech they both may be reduced to schwa {{IPAblink|ə}},<ref name="Timberlake43-46" /> for example, {{lang|ru|до́брым}} {{IPA|[ˈdobrɨ̆m]}} ('kind', [[instrumental case]], singular masculine neuter) versus {{lang|ru|до́бром}} {{IPA|[ˈdobrəm]}} ('kind', [[prepositional case]], singular masculine neuter). The case ending //-im// in the former case may surface as {{IPA|[-əm]}} like the case ending //-om//, which thus leads to the merger of {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}, or as {{lang|ru|де́лают}} {{IPA|[ˈdʲeləjʊ̈t]}} ('they do') versus {{lang|ru|де́лает}} {{IPA|[ˈdʲeləjɪt]}} ('he/it does'). Both may surface as {{IPA|[ˈdʲeləɪt]}} or {{IPA|[ˈdʲeləːt]}}.

==Back vowels==
{{see|Akanye}}
Other than in [[Northern Russian dialects]],<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Crosswhite|2000|p=109}}</ref> Russian-speakers have a strong tendency to merge unstressed {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}. The phenomenon is called ''akanye'' ({{lang|ru|аканье}}), and some scholars postulate an early tendency towards it in the earliest known textual evidence of confusion between written "a" and "o" in a manuscript that was copied in Moscow in 1339.<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1                = Ivanov
 | first1               = Valeriĭ Vasilʹevich
 | author-link1         = :ru:Иванов, Валерий Васильевич
 | title                = Историческая грамматика русского языка: Допущено в качестве учебника для филологичесих факультетов государственных университетов и педагогических институтов
 | year = 1964
 | script-title         = 
 | trans-title          = Historical grammar of the Russian language
 | url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=sZs0AQAAIAAJ
 | language             = Russian
 | location             = Moscow
 | publisher            = Просвещение
 | publication-date     = 1964
 | page                 = 30
 | access-date          = 9 September 2021
}}
</ref>
''Akanye'' contrasts with ''okanye'' ({{lang|ru|оканье}}) pronunciations in Standard Russian as follows:
* After hard (non-[[palatalization (phonetics)| palatalised]]) consonants, the standard phonological rules prescribe a two-level reduction. The stressed vowel is normally the longest and the only place (with certain exceptions) that permits the {{IPA|[o]}}. In the syllable immediately before the stress<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Padgett|Tabain|2005|p=16}}</ref> and in absolute word-initial position,<ref name="Jones&Ward">{{Harvcoltxt|Jones|Ward|1969|p=51}}</ref> both reduce to {{IPA|[ɐ]}} (sometimes also transcribed as {{IPA|[ʌ]}}). In all other locations, {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} are reduced further to a short {{IPA|[ə]}}. For example, {{lang|ru|потоло́к}} {{IPA|[pətɐˈɫok]}} ('ceiling'), {{lang|ru|паро́м}} {{IPA|[pɐˈrom]}} ('ferry'), {{lang|ru|о́блако}} {{IPA|[ˈobləkə]}} ('cloud'), {{lang|ru|трава́}} {{IPA|[trɐˈva]}} ('grass'). In practice, the second reduction has a gradient character: if the vowel in question is pronounced for enough time (such as by hyperarticulation), it may be pronounced as {{IPA|[ɐ]}}. Shorter durations have the effect of gradually transforming {{IPA|[ɐ]}} into schwa. Recently, it has been argued that the change of sound quality during the second-degree reduction is merely an artifact of duration-dependent "phonetic undershoot",<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Barnes|2007|p=14}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Iosad|2012}}</ref> when the speaker intends to pronounce {{IPA|[ɐ]}}, but the limited time reduces the likelihood of the tongue being able to arrive at the intended vowel target.
* In fast speech, reduction ultimately may result in the vowel being dropped altogether, with the preceding consonant slightly lengthened or turned into a [[syllabic consonant]]: {{lang|ru|сапоги́}} {{IPA|[sːpɐˈɡʲi]}}, vs. {{IPA|[səpɐˈɡʲi]}} ('boots'), {{lang|ru|потоло́к}} {{IPA|[pːtɐˈlok]}} ('ceiling'), {{lang|ru|де́сять}} {{IPA|[ˈdʲesʲtʲ]}} ('ten').
* When {{angle bracket|{{lang|ru|аа}}}}, {{angle bracket|{{lang|ru|ао}}}}, {{angle bracket|{{lang|ru|оа}}}}, or {{angle bracket|{{lang|ru|оо}}}} is written in a word, it indicates {{IPA|[ɐ.ɐ]}} so {{lang|ru|сообража́ть}} ('to realise') is pronounced {{IPA|[sɐ.ɐ.brɐˈʐatʲ]}}.<ref name="Jones&Ward" />
* With prepositions, the processes occur even across word boundaries, as in {{lang|ru|под мо́рем}} {{IPA|[pɐˈd‿morʲɪm]}} ('under the sea'), {{lang|ru|на оборо́те}} {{IPA|[nɐ.ɐbɐˈrotʲɪ]}} ('on the reverse side', 'overleaf'). That does not occur with other parts of speech.
* Unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/a/}} merge with {{IPA|/e/}} (and usually also with {{IPA|/i/}}, see below ''yekanye'' and ''ikanye'') after {{IPA|/j/}} and palatalised consonants ({{IPA|/o/}} is written as {{angle bracket|{{lang|ru|е}}}} in those positions).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jones|Ward|1969|p=194}}</ref> For examples: {{lang|ru|ёж}} {{IPA|[jɵʂ]}} ('hedgehog') vs. {{lang|ru|ежи́}} {{IPA|[jɪˈʐɨ]}} ('hedgehogs'), {{lang|ru|осётр}}  {{IPA|[ɐˈsʲɵtr]}} ('sturgeon') vs. {{lang|ru|осетры́}} {{IPA|[ɐsʲɪˈtrɨ]}} ('sturgeons'), {{lang|ru|ядро́}} {{IPA|[jɪˈdro]}} ('kernel, core, nucleus, etc.') vs. {{lang|ru|я́дра}} {{IPA| [ˈjadrə]}} ('kernels, cores, nuclei, etc.'), {{lang|ru|ря́д}} {{IPA|[rʲat]}} ('row') vs. {{lang|ru|ряды́}} {{IPA|[rʲɪˈdɨ]}} ('rows'). Likewise, unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} (written as {{IPA|/e/}}) also merge into {{IPA|/i/}} after [[Postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]]s: for examples, {{lang|ru|жена́}} {{IPA|[ʐɨˈna]}} 'wife' vs. {{lang|ru|жёны}} {{IPA|[ˈʐonɨ]}} 'wives', {{lang|ru|чёлн}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕɵɫn]}} ('dugout boat') vs. {{lang|ru|челны́}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕɪɫˈnɨ]}} ('dugout boats'), {{lang|ru|шёлк}} {{IPA|[ʂoɫk]}} ('silk') vs. {{lang|ru|шелка́}} {{IPA|[ʂɨɫˈka]}} ('silks'), {{lang|ru|щека́}} {{IPA|[ɕːɪˈka]}} ('cheek, jowl, jaw') vs. {{lang|ru|щёки}} {{IPA|[ˈɕːɵkʲɪ]}} ('cheeks, jowls, jaws'), etc.

There are a number of exceptions to the above comments regarding the ''akanye'':
* Unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} is not always reduced in borrowing from foreign languages:<ref name="Harvcoltxt|Halle|1959" /> {{lang|ru|ра́дио}} {{IPA|[ˈradʲɪ.o]}} ('radio'). The common pattern for that exception is the final unstressed {{lang|ru|о}} being preceded by another vowel ({{lang|ru|Анто́нио}}, {{lang|ru|кака́о}}, {{lang|ru|сте́рео}}). Compare with {{lang|ru|мо́но}}, {{lang|ru|фо́то}} whose final unstressed {{lang|ru|о}} is reduced to {{IPA|[ə]}}.{{citation needed|date=September 2008}}
* Speakers with old [[Moscow dialect]] reflexes pronounce unstressed {{IPA|/a/}} as {{IPA|/ɨ/}} after retroflex consonants {{IPA|/ʐ/}} and {{IPA|/ʂ/}} and thereby imitate the reduction of {{IPA|/o/}}. For other speakers, that pronunciation generally applies only to {{lang|ru|жале́ть}} {{IPA|[ʐɨˈlʲetʲ]}} ('to regret'), {{lang|ru|к сожале́нию}} {{IPA|[ksəʐɨˈlʲenʲɪju]}} ('unfortunately') and to oblique cases of {{lang|ru|ло́шадь}} {{IPA|[ˈloʂətʲ]}} ('horse'), such as {{lang|ru|лошаде́й}} {{IPA|[lə.ʂɨˈdʲej]}}.
* {{IPA|/ɨ/}} replaces {{IPA|/a/}} after {{IPA|/t͡s/}} in the oblique cases of some [[numeral (linguistics) |numerals]]: {{lang|ru|два́дцать}} {{IPA|[ˈdvat͡sɨtʲ]}} ('twenty').
* Across certain word-final suffixes, the reductions do not completely apply:<ref name="Harvcoltxt|Halle|1959">{{Harvcoltxt|Halle|1959}}</ref> 
** In certain suffixes, after palatalised consonants and {{IPA|/j/}}, {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} (which is written as {{angle bracket|{{lang|ru|е}}}}) can be distinguished from {{IPA|/i/}} and from each other: {{lang|ru|по́ле}} {{IPA|[ˈpolʲɪ]}} ('field' nominative singular neuter) is different from {{lang|ru|по́ля}} {{IPA|[ˈpolʲə]}} ('field' singular genitive), and the final sounds differ from the realisation of {{IPA|/i/}} in that position.{{citation needed|date=November 2007}}. In Moscow pronunciation of the first half of the 20th century, {{lang|ru|по́ле}} (nominative) and {{lang|ru|по́ля}} (genitive) were both pronounced {{IPA|[ˈpolʲə]}}, but the prepositional case ({{lang|ru|в по́ле}} 'in the field') was pronounced {{IPA|[ˈf‿polʲɪ]}}; this can be explained by different underlying phonemes in the ending ({{IPA|/o/}} in the nominative bit {{IPA|/e/}} in the prepositional).<ref>See [[Ushakov Dictionary]], vol. 1 (1935), column XXXII.</ref> Nowadays, {{lang|ru|по́ле}} is usually pronounced identically in the nominative and prepositional cases under the influence of spelling.
** Unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} in suffix {{IPA|-це}} does not merge with {{IPA|/i/}} and is reduced to {{IPA|[ə]}} instead of {{IPA|[ɨ]}}:{{cn|date=January 2025}} e.g. {{lang|ru|се́рдце}} {{IPA|[ˈsʲert͡sə]}} ('heart'); {{lang|ru|де́ревце}} {{IPA|[ˈdʲerʲɪft͡sə]}} ('sapling, small tree') vs. its synonym {{lang|ru|деревцо́}} {{IPA|[dʲɪrʲɪfˈt͡so]}} (with stressed {{IPA|/o/}} [[Russian spelling rules|written]] as {{angbr|o}}), etc.

==Front vowels==
The main feature of [[front vowel]] reduction is ''ikanye'' ({{lang|ru|иканье}}), the merger of unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} with {{IPA|/i/}}. Because {{IPA|/i/}} has several allophones (depending on both stress and proximity to [[palatalization (phonetics)|palatalised]] consonants), unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} is pronounced as one of those allophones, rather than the [[close front unrounded vowel]]. For examples, {{lang|ru|с'''е́'''мя}} {{IPA|[ˈsʲemʲə]}} ('seed') vs. {{lang|ru|с'''е'''мена́}} {{IPA|[sʲ'''ɪ'''mʲɪˈna]}} ('seeds'), ч'''е́'''реп {{IPA|[ˈt͡ɕ'''e'''rʲɪp]}} ('skull') vs. ч'''е'''репа́ {{IPA|[t͡ɕ'''ɪ'''rʲɪˈpa]}} ('skulls'), {{lang|ru|ц'''е'''на́}} {{IPA|[t͡s'''ɨ'''ˈna]}} ('price') vs {{lang|ru|ц'''е́'''ны}} {{IPA|[ˈt͡s'''ɛ'''nɨ]}} ('prices'), etc.

In registers without the merger (''yekanye'' or {{lang|ru|еканье}}), unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} is more [[retraction (phonetics)|retracted]]. Even then, however, the distinction between unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} and unstressed {{IPA|/i/}} is most clearly heard in the syllable immediately before the stress. Thus, {{lang|ru|прида́ть}} ('to add to') contrasts with {{lang|ru|преда́ть}} ('to betray'); they are pronounced {{IPA|[prʲɪˈdatʲ]}} and {{IPA|[prʲe̠ˈdatʲ]}} respectively. In registers with ''ikanye'', they are pronounced identically. The ''yekanye'' pronunciation is coupled with a stronger tendency for both unstressed {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}, which are pronounced the same as {{IPA|/e/}} after {{IPA|/j/}} and palatalised consonants. In registers with ''ikanye'', unstressed {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, and {{IPA|/i/}} after {{IPA|/j/}} and palatalised consonants are merged into a single sound.

Speakers may switch between both pronunciations because of various factors, the most important factor likely being the speed of pronunciation.

==Yakanye==
''Yakanye'' ({{lang|ru|яканье}}) is the pronunciation of unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/a/}} after [[palatalization (phonetics)|palatalised]] consonants preceding a stressed syllable as {{IPA|/a/}}, rather than {{IPA|/i/}} ({{lang|ru|несли́}} is pronounced {{IPA|[nʲasˈlʲi]}}, not {{IPA|[nʲɪsˈlʲi]}}).

This pronunciation is observed in [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and in most [[Southern Russian dialects]], as is expressed in a [[quip (wit)|quip]] (with liberal ''yakanye''):
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Orthography
!Standard pronunciation
!Yakanye pronunciation
!Translation
|-
|{{lang|ru|А у нас в Ряза́ни}}
|{{IPA|[ə‿ʊ‿ˈnas v‿rʲɪˈzanʲɪ]}}
|{{IPA|[a w nəs wrʲaˈzanʲə]}}
|And we have in [[Ryazan]]
|-
|{{lang|ru|пироги́ с глаза́ми.}}
|{{IPA|[pʲɪrɐˈɡʲɪ z‿ɡlɐˈzamʲɪ]}}
|{{IPA|[pʲɪˈraɣʲɪ z ɣlaˈzamʲə]}}
|Pies with eyes:
|-
|{{lang|ru|Их едя́т,}}
|{{IPA|[ɪx jɪˈdʲat]}}
|{{IPA|[ɪxʲ jaˈdʲætʲ]}}
|They are being eaten,
|-
|{{lang|ru|а они́ глядя́т.}}
|{{IPA|[ɐ‿ɐˈnʲi ɡlʲɪˈdʲat]}}
|{{IPA|[ə aˈnʲi ɣlʲaˈdʲætʲ]}}
|and they look.
|}

That example also demonstrates other features of Southern dialects: palatalised final {{IPA|/tʲ/}} in the third-person forms of verbs, {{IPA|[ɣ]}} for {{IPA|[ɡ]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} for {{IPA|[u]}} (in some places) and {{IPA|[v]}}, clear unstressed {{IPA|[a]}} for {{IPA|[ɐ]}} or {{IPA|[ə]}}.

==Spelling==
Generally, vowel reduction is not reflected in the Russian spelling. However, in some words, the spelling has been changed based on vowel reduction and so some words are spelled despite their [[etymology]]:

* {{wikt-lang|ru|паро́м}} (instead of {{lang|ru|поро́м}}, meaning 'ferry'),
* {{wikt-lang|ru|карава́й}} (instead of {{lang|ru|корова́й}}, meaning a special type of bread).

Spelling those words with {{angbr|а}} was already common in the 18th century, but it co-existed with the spelling with {{angbr|о}}, conforming to etymology of those words. Dictionaries often gave both spellings. In the second half of the 19th century, [[Yakov Grot]] recommended spelling those words with {{angbr|о}} (conforming to their etymology), but his recommendations were not followed by all editors. The [[Ushakov Dictionary]] (1935–1940) gives {{lang|ru|паро́м}}, {{lang|ru|корова́й}} and {{lang|ru|карава́й}}. Finally the spelling of those words with {{angbr|а}} was set by the [[Russian spelling reforms|1956 orthographic codification]] (orthographic rules and spelling dictionary). That is, in cases of doubt, codifiers of 1956 based their choice not on etymological conformity but on the spread of usage.

* {{wikt-lang|ru|свидетель|свиде́тель}} (instead of {{lang|ru|сведе́тель}}, meaning 'witness').

That spelling has a long history and is based on a [[folk etymology]] basing the word on {{lang|ru|ви́деть}} (to see,) instead of {{lang|ru|ве́дать}} (to know).

In the closely related Belarusian, the original {{IPA|/o/}} has merged with {{IPA|/a/}}, like in Standard Russian, but the reduced pronunciation is reflected in the spelling.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Russia|Languages}}
* [[Russian phonology]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{citation
|last=Barnes
|first=Jonathan
|title=Phonetics and Phonology in Russian Unstressed Vowel Reduction: A Study in Hyperarticulation
|year=2007
|location=Boston, MA
|url=http://www.bu.edu/linguistics/UG/barnes/Barnes%20VR%20final%20draft.pdf
}}
* {{citation
|last=Crosswhite
|first=Katherine Margaret
|year=2000
|title=Vowel Reduction in Russian: A Unified Account of Standard, Dialectal, and 'Dissimilative' Patterns
|journal=University of Rochester Working Papers in the Language Sciences
|volume=1
|issue=1
|pages=107–172
|url=http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/583-0203/583-0203-CROSSWHITE-0-0.PDF
}}
* {{citation
|last=Halle
|first=Morris
|year=1959
|title=Sound Pattern of Russian
|publisher=MIT Press
}}
* {{citation
|last=Iosad
|first=Pavel
|year=2012
|title=Vowel reduction in Russian: no phonetics in phonology
|journal=Journal of Linguistics
|volume=48
|issue=3
|pages=521–527
|url=https://pure.ulster.ac.uk/files/11364842/vowel.reduction.jl.pdf
|doi=10.1017/S0022226712000102
|s2cid=55885707
}}
* {{citation
|last1=Jones
|first1=Daniel
|last2=Ward
|first2=Dennis
|year=1969
|title=The Phonetics of Russian
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
}}
* {{citation
|last1=Padgett
|first1=Jaye
|last2=Tabain
|first2=Marija
|year=2005
|title=Adaptive Dispersion Theory and Phonological Vowel Reduction in Russian
|journal=Phonetica
|volume=62
|issue=1
|pages=14–54
|doi=10.1159/000087223
|pmid=16116302
|s2cid=2551922
|url=https://jayepadgett.sites.ucsc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/300/2015/10/adaptive_dispersion_theory.pdf
}}
* {{citation
|last=Timberlake
|first=Alan
|year=2004
|title=A Reference Grammar of Russian
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BAhi1dIOp5oC&pg=PA42
|isbn=9781139449342
}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation |title=Introduction to Russian Phonology and Word Structure|author=Hamilton, William S.|year=1980|publisher=Slavica Publishers|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Sussex|first=Roland|year=1992|chapter=Russian|editor=W. Bright |title=International Encyclopedia of Linguistics|edition=1st|publisher=Oxford University Press|place=New York|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Barnes|first=Jonathan |chapter=Vowel Reduction in Russian: The Categorical and the Gradient
|title=LSA Annual Meeting|date=January 11, 2004|location=Boston, MA|url=http://www.bu.edu/linguistics/UG/barnes/LSA%202004%20-%20Russian%20VR.pdf|ref=none}}

==External links==
* [http://www.gramota.ru/book/village/index.html The Language of the Russian Village] (A dialect atlas for use in Russian junior high school. Maps 12 and 13 shows the extent of vowel reduction in Russian dialects.) {{in lang|ru}}

{{Russian language |state=autocollapse}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vowel Reduction In Russian}}

[[Category:Russian language]]
[[Category:Vowels]]
[[Category:Slavic phonological features]]