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{{short description|One of the six orthodox traditions of Hindu philosophy}}
{{Other uses|Vedanta (disambiguation)}}
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'''''Vedanta''''' ({{IPAc-en|v|eɪ|ˈ|d|ɑː|n|t|ə}}; {{langx|sa|वेदान्त}}, {{IAST3|Vedānta}} {{IPA|sa|ʋeːdɑ́ːntɐ|}}), also known as '''''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''''', is one of the six orthodox ([[Āstika and nāstika|''āstika'']]) traditions of [[Hindu philosophy]] and textual [[exegesis]]. The word ''Vedanta'' means 'conclusion of the [[Vedas]],' and encompasses the ideas that emerged from, or aligned and reinterpreted, the speculations and enumerations contained in the [[Upanishad]]s, focusing, with varying emphasis, on devotion, knowledge, and liberation. Vedanta developed into many traditions, all of which give their specific interpretations of a common group of texts called the ''[[Prasthanatrayi|Prasthānatrayī]]'', translated as 'the three sources': the ''[[Upanishads]]'', the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'', and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=239}}

All Vedanta traditions place great emphasis on textual exegesis and contain extensive discussions on [[ontology]], [[soteriology]], and [[epistemology]], even as there is much disagreement among the various traditions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=133, 239}} Independently considered, they may seem completely disparate due to the pronounced differences in thoughts and reasoning.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=133}}

The main traditions of Vedanta are: ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' (difference and non-difference); [[Advaita Vedanta|''Advaita'']] ([[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dualism]]); and the Vaishnavite traditions of [[Nimbarka Sampradaya|Dvaitadvaita]] (dualistic non-dualism), ''[[Vishishtadvaita]]'' (qualified non-dualism), ''[[Tattvavada]] ([[Dvaita]])'' (dualism), ''[[Suddhadvaita]]'' (pure non-dualism), and [[Achintya-Bheda-Abheda]] (inconceivable difference and non-difference).{{sfn|Dandekar|1987}} Modern developments in Vedanta include [[Neo-Vedanta]],{{sfn|King|1999|p=135}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}}{{sfn|King|2002|p=93}} and the philosophy of the [[Swaminarayan Sampradaya]].{{sfn|Williams|2018|pp=82-91}}

Most major Vedanta schools, except Advaita Vedanta and Neo-Vedanta, are related to [[Vaishnavism]] and emphasize devotion ([[Bhakti]]) to [[God]], understood as [[Vishnu]] or a related [[Avatar|manifestation]].{{sfn|Sharma|2008|p=2–10}}{{sfn|Cornille|2019}} Advaita Vedanta, on the other hand, emphasizes [[Jñana]] (knowledge) and [[Jnana Yoga|Jñana Yoga]] over [[Theism|theistic]] devotion. While the [[monism]] of Advaita has attracted considerable attention in the West due to the influence of the 14th century Advaitin [[Vidyaranya]] and modern [[Hindus]] like [[Swami Vivekananda]] and [[Ramana Maharshi]], most Vedanta traditions focus on Vaishnava [[theology]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=238, 246}}{{TOC limit|limit=3}}

==Etymology and nomenclature==
The word ''Vedanta'' is made of two words :
* [[Vedas|Veda]] (वेद) — refers to the four sacred Vedic texts.
* Anta (अन्त) — meaning "end."

The word ''Vedanta'' literally means the ''end of the Vedas'' and originally referred to the ''[[Upanishads]]''.{{sfn|Chatterjee|Dutta|2007|pp=317–318}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=231–232, 238}} Vedanta is concerned with the {{IAST|''jñānakāṇḍa''}} or knowledge section of the vedas which is called the ''Upanishads''.{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=19, 21–25, 150–152}}<ref>{{harvnb|Koller|2013|pp=100–106}}; {{harvnb|Sharma|1994|p=211}}</ref> The meaning of Vedanta expanded later to encompass the different philosophical traditions that interpret and explain the [[Prasthanatrayi|''Prasthānatrayī'']] in the light of their respective views on the relation between humans and the Divine or Absolute reality.{{sfn|Chatterjee|Dutta|2007|pp=317–318}}<ref>{{harvnb|Raju|1992|pp=176–177}}; {{harvnb|Isaeva|1992|p=35 with footnote 30}}</ref>

The ''[[Upanishads]]'' may be regarded as the end of ''Vedas'' in different senses:{{sfn|Raju|1992|pp=176–177}}
# They were the last literary products of the Vedic period.
# They represent the pinnacle of Vedic philosophy.
# They were taught and debated last, in the ''[[Brahmacharya]]'' (student) stage.{{sfn|Chatterjee|Dutta|2007|pp=317–318}}{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=58–59, 115–120, 282–283}}

Vedanta is one of the six [[Āstika and nāstika|orthodox (''āstika'')]] traditions of textual exegesis and [[Indian philosophy]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=231–232, 238}} It is also called ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', which means the "latter enquiry" or "higher enquiry"; and is often contrasted with ''[[Mimamsa|Pūrva Mīmāṃsā]]'', the "former enquiry" or "primary enquiry". ''Pūrva Mīmāṃsā'' deals with the ''karmakāṇḍa'' or ritualistic section (the ''[[Samhita]]'' and ''[[Brahmana]]s'') in the ''Vedas'' while ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'' concerns itself with the deeper questions of the relation between humans and Divine or Absolute reality.{{Sfn|Clooney|2000|pp=147–158}}{{Sfn|Jaimini |1999|p=16, Sutra 30}}{{efn|Historically, Vedanta has been called by various names. The early names were the Upanishadic ones (''Aupanisada''), the doctrine of the end of the ''Vedas'' (''Vedanta-vada''), the doctrine of ''[[Brahman]]'' (''Brahma-vada''), and the doctrine that ''Brahma'' is the cause (''Brahma-karana-vada'').{{Sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}}}}

== Vedanta philosophy ==

===Common features===
Despite their differences, all traditions of Vedanta share some common features:
* Vedanta is the investigation of ''[[Brahman]]'' and ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|2002|pp=34, 66}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=238–239}}</ref>
* The various traditions give their own, specific exegesis of the ''[[Upanishads|Upaniṣads]]'', the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavadgītā]]'', and the ''[[Brahma Sutras|Brahma Sūtras]]'' (known as [[Prasthānatrayī|the three canonical sources]]).{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=34, 66}}
* Scripture ([[Sruti]] [[Śabda]]) is the main reliable source of knowledge (''[[pramana]]'').{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=34, 66}}
* ''[[Brahman]]'' - ''[[Īśvara]]'' (God), exists as the unchanging material cause and instrumental cause of the world. The exception is that Dvaita Vedanta does not hold Brahman to be the material cause, but only the efficient cause.<ref>{{harvnb|Das|1952}};  {{harvnb|Doniger|Stefon|2015}}; {{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2000|p=122}}; {{harvnb|Sheridan|1991|p=136}}</ref>
* The self (''Ātman'' or ''[[Jiva|Jīva]]'') is the agent of its own acts (''[[karma]]'') and the recipient of the consequences of these actions.{{sfn|Doniger|Stefon|2015}}
* Belief in rebirth (''[[Saṃsāra|samsara]]'') and the desirability of release from the cycle of rebirths ''([[moksha]])''.{{sfn|Doniger|Stefon|2015}}
* Rejection of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] and conclusions of the other [[Āstika and nāstika|Vedic schools]] ([[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], and, to some extent, the [[Purva Mimamsa]]).{{sfn|Doniger|Stefon|2015}}

=== Scripture ===
The main ''[[Upanishads]]'', the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavadgītā]]'' and the ''[[Brahma Sutras|Brahma Sūtras]]'' are the foundational scriptures in Vedanta. All traditions of Vedanta give a specific exegesis of these texts, collectively called the ''[[Prasthanatrayi|Prasthānatrayī]]'', literally, ''three sources''.{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=19, 21–25, 150–152}}<ref>{{harvnb|Ranganathan}}; {{harvnb|Grimes|1990|pp=6–7}}</ref>

# The ''Upanishads'',{{efn|The ''Upanishads'' were many in number and developed in the different schools at different times and places, some in the Vedic period and others in the medieval or modern era (the names of up to 112 ''Upanishads'' have been recorded).{{sfn|Dasgupta|2012|pp=28}} All major commentators have considered twelve to thirteen oldest of these texts as the Principal ''Upanishads'' and as the foundation of Vedanta.}} or ''Śruti prasthāna''; considered the ''[[Sruti]]'', the "heard" (and repeated) foundation of Vedanta.
# The ''Brahma Sūtras'', or ''Nyaya prasthana'' / ''Yukti prasthana''; considered the reason-based foundation of Vedanta.
# The ''Bhagavadgītā'', or ''Smriti prasthāna''; considered the ''[[Smriti]]'' (remembered tradition) foundation of Vedanta.

All prominent Vedantic teachers, including [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhaskara]], [[Rāmānuja|Ramanuja]], [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]], [[Nimbarka]], and [[Vallabha Acharya|Vallabha]] wrote commentaries on these three sources. The ''Brahma Sūtras'' of ''[[Badarayana]]'' serve as a [[bhedabheda]]-based synthesis of the teachings found in the diverse ''Upanishads'', and while there may have been other similar syntheses in the past, only the Brahma Sūtras have survived to the present day.{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=19, 21–25, 150–152}} The ''Bhagavadgītā'', with its syncretism of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], and Upanishadic thought, has also been a significant influence on Vedantic thought.{{sfn|Pasricha|2008|p=95}}

All Vedāntins agree that scripture (śruti) is the only means of knowing (pramāṇa) regarding spiritual matters (which are beyond perception and inference).<ref name=":0">Bartley, Christopher (2015). ''An Introduction to Indian Philosophy'' ''Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources'', p. 176. Bloomsbury Academic.</ref> This is explained by [[Ramanuja|Rāmānuja]] as follows:<blockquote>A theory that rests exclusively on human concepts may at some other time or place be refuted by arguments devised by cleverer people.... The conclusion is that with regard to supernatural matters, Scripture alone is the epistemic authority and that reasoning is to be used only in support of Scripture’ [Śrī Bhāṣya 2.1.12].<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>

For specific sub-traditions of Vedanta, other texts may be equally important. For example, for Advaita Vedanta, the works of [[Adi Shankara]] are nominally central, though other teachers were equally, or even more, influential. For the theistic [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] schools of Vedanta, the ''[[Bhagavata Purana|Bhāgavata Purāṇa]]'' is particularly important. The ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa'' is one of the most widely commented upon works in Vedanta.<ref>Bryant, Edwin Francis (2007). ''Krishna: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press US'', p. 112. {{ISBN|978-0-19-514891-6}}.</ref> This text is so central to the Krishna-centered Vedanta schools that the Vedantin theologian [[Vallabha]] added the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as a fourth text to the ''[[Prasthanatrayi|Prasthānatrayī]]'' (three classic scriptures of Vedanta).<ref>Bryant, Edwin. ''Krishna the Beautiful Legend of God'' (Srimad Bhagavata Purana Book X) (Penguin Classics), Introduction (pp. ix - lxxix).</ref>

===Metaphysics===
Vedanta philosophies discuss three fundamental metaphysical categories and the relations between the three.{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=19, 21–25, 150–152}}<ref>{{harvnb|Raju|1992|pp=176–177, 505–506}}; {{harvnb|Fowler|2002|pp=49–59, 254, 269, 294–295, 345}}</ref>
# ''[[Brahman]]'' or ''[[Īśvara]]'': the ultimate reality<ref>{{harvnb|Das|1952}}; {{harvnb|Puligandla|1997|p=222}}</ref>
# ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]'' or ''[[Jiva|Jivātman]]'': the individual soul, self<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Johnson|2009|p='see entry for Atman(self)'}}</ref>
# ''[[Prakṛti|Prakriti]]'' ''or Jagat'': the empirical world, ever-changing physical universe, body and matter<ref>{{harvnb|Lipner|1986|pp=40–41, 51–56, 144}}; {{harvnb|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=23, 78, 158–162}}</ref>

==== Brahman / Īśvara – Conceptions of the Supreme Reality ====
Shankara, in formulating Advaita, talks of two conceptions of ''Brahman'':
* ''Parā'' or Higher ''Brahman'':  The undifferentiated, absolute, infinite, transcendental, supra-relational Brahman beyond all thought and speech is defined as ''parā'' ''Brahman'', ''nirviśeṣa'' Brahman, or ''nirguṇa'' Brahman and is the Absolute of metaphysics.
* ''Aparā'' or Lower ''Brahman'': The ''[[Brahman]]'' with qualities defined as ''aparā'' ''Brahman'' or ''saguṇa'' ''Brahman''. The ''saguṇa'' ''Brahman'' is endowed with attributes and represents the personal God of religion.

Ramanuja, in formulating Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, rejects ''[[Nirguna|Nirguṇa]]'' – that the undifferentiated Absolute is inconceivable – and adopts a theistic interpretation of the ''Upanishads'', accepting ''Brahman'' as ''Īśvara'', the personal God who is the seat of all auspicious attributes, as the One reality. The God of Vishishtadvaita is accessible to the devotee, yet remains the Absolute, with differentiated attributes.<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|2002|p=317}}; {{harvnb|Chari|1988|pp=2, 383}}</ref>

Madhva, in expounding Dvaita philosophy, maintains that ''[[Vishnu]]'' is the supreme God, thus identifying the ''Brahman'', or absolute reality, of the ''Upanishads'' with a personal god, as Ramanuja had done before him.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Britannica |title=Dvaita |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dvaita |access-date=31 August 2016}}</ref>{{sfn|Stoker|2011}} Nimbarka, in his Dvaitadvata philosophy, accepted the ''Brahman'' both as ''nirguṇa'' and as ''saguṇa''. Vallabha, in his Shuddhadvaita philosophy, not only accepts the triple ontological essence of the ''Brahman'', but also His manifestation as personal God (''Īśvara''), as matter, and as individual souls.{{sfn|Vitsaxis|2009|pp=100–101}}

==== Relation between Brahman and Jīva / Atman ====
The schools of Vedanta differ in their conception of the relation they see between ''Ātman'' / ''Jīvātman'' and ''Brahman'' / ''Īśvara'':{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}
* According to Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), ''Ātman'' is identical with ''Brahman'' and there is no difference.<ref>{{harvnb|Raju|1992|p=177}}; {{harvnb|Stoker|2011}}</ref>
* According to Viśiṣṭādvaita  (qualified non-dualism), ''Jīvātman'' is different from ''Īśvara'', though eternally connected with Him as His mode.{{sfn|Ādidevānanda|2014|pp=9-10}} The oneness of the Supreme Reality is understood in the sense of an organic unity (''vishistaikya''). ''Brahman''/''Īśvara'' alone, as organically related to all ''Jīvātman'' and the material universe is the one Ultimate Reality.<ref>{{harvnb|Betty|2010|pp=215–224}}; {{harvnb|Stoker|2011}}; {{harvnb|Chari|1988|pp=2, 383}}</ref>
* According to Dvaita (dualism), the ''Jīvātman'' is totally and always different from ''Brahman'' / ''Īśvara''.<ref>{{harvnb|Craig|2000|pp=517–18}}; {{harvnb|Stoker|2011}}; {{harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=361–363}}</ref>
* According to Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism), the ''Jīvātman'' and ''Brahman'' are identical; both, along with the changing empirically observed universe being [[Krishna]].{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=479–481}}

[[File:3 Pramana Epistemology Dualistic Dvaita Vishishtadvaita Hindu schools.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|Epistemology in Dvaita and Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. Advaita and some other Vedanta schools recognize six epistemic means.]]

===Epistemology===
{{main|Pramana}}

==== Pramana ====
''Pramāṇa'' ([[Sanskrit]]: प्रमाण) literally means "proof", "that which is the means of valid knowledge".<ref>{{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2000|pp=520–521}}; {{harvnb|Chari|1988|pp=73–76}}</ref> It refers to [[epistemology]] in Indian philosophies, and encompasses the study of reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2000|pp=520–521}} The focus of [[Pramana]] is the manner in which correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows or does not know, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.<ref>{{harvnb|Potter|2002|pp=25–26}}; {{harvnb|Bhawuk|2011|p=172}}</ref> Ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six{{efn|A few Indian scholars such as Vedvyasa discuss ten; Krtakoti discusses eight; six is most widely accepted: see {{harvtxt|Nicholson|2010|pp=149–150}} }} ''pramanas'' as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths:<ref>{{harvnb|Bhawuk|2011|p=172}}; {{harvnb|Chari|1988|pp=73–76}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=225}}</ref>
# ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception)
# ''Anumāṇa'' (inference)
# ''[[Upamāṇa]]'' (comparison and analogy)
# ''Arthāpatti'' (postulation, derivation from circumstances)
# ''Anupalabdi'' (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof)
# ''[[Śabda]]'' (scriptural testimony/ verbal testimony of past or present reliable experts).
The different schools of Vedanta have historically disagreed as to which of the six are epistemologically valid. For example, while Advaita Vedanta accepts all six ''pramanas'',<ref>{{harvnb|Grimes|2006|p=238}}; {{harvnb|Puligandla|1997|p=228}}; {{harvnb|Clayton|2006|pp=53–54}}</ref> Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita accept only three ''pramanas'' (perception, inference and testimony).{{sfn|Grimes|2006|p=238}}

Advaita considers ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception) as the most reliable source of knowledge, and ''[[Śabda]]'', the scriptural evidence, is considered secondary except for matters related to Brahman, where it is the only evidence.<ref>{{harvnb|Indich|1995|pp=65}}; {{harvnb|Gupta|1995|pp=137–166}}</ref>{{efn|Anantanand {{harvtxt|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}} states, "According to these [widely represented contemporary] studies, Shankara only accorded a provisional validity to the knowledge gained by inquiry into the words of the [[Śruti]] (Vedas) and did not see the latter as the unique source (''pramana'') of ''Brahmajnana''. The affirmations of the Śruti, it is argued, need to be verified and confirmed by the knowledge gained through direct experience (''anubhava'') and the authority of the Śruti, therefore, is only secondary." Sengaku {{harvtxt|Mayeda|2006|pp=46–47}} concurs, adding Shankara maintained the need for objectivity in the process of gaining knowledge (''vastutantra''), and considered subjective opinions (''purushatantra'') and injunctions in Śruti (''codanatantra'') as secondary. Mayeda cites Shankara's explicit statements emphasizing epistemology (''pramana–janya'') in section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri and section 1.1.4 of Brahmasutra–bhasya.}} In Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita, ''[[Śabda]]'', the scriptural testimony, is considered the most authentic means of knowledge instead.<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|2002|p=304}}; {{harvnb|Puligandla|1997|pp=208–211, 237–239}}; {{harvnb|Sharma|2000|pp=147–151}}</ref>

==== Theory of cause and effect ====
All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',{{sfn|Nicholson}} which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} According to {{harvtxt|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, post-Shankara Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman.{{efn|{{harvtxt|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} writes of Advaita Vedantin position of cause and effect - Although Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are essentially unreal, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.}}

==Overview of the main schools of Vedanta==
The ''Upanishads'' present an associative philosophical inquiry in the form of identifying various doctrines and then presenting arguments for or against them. They form the basic texts and Vedanta interprets them through rigorous philosophical [[exegesis]] to defend the point of view of their specific ''sampradaya''.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|pp=xxx–xxxiiii}}{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=95–96}} Varying interpretations of the ''Upanishads'' and their synthesis, the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'', led to the development of different schools of Vedanta over time.

Vinayak Sakaram Ghate of [[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]] conducted a comprehensive comparative analysis of the Brahma Sutra commentaries by [[Nimbarka]], [[Ramanuja]], [[Vallabha]], [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] and [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]]. In his conclusion, Ghate determined that Nimbarka's and Ramanuja's commentaries provide the most accurate interpretation of the Brahma Sutras, considering both the passages that emphasize unity and those that emphasize diversity.<ref>[https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.283844/2015.283844.The-Vedanta.pdf] Comparative analysis of Brahma Sutra commentaries</ref> Gavin Flood suggests that although Advaita Vedanta is the most well-known school of Vedanta and is sometimes wrongly perceived as the sole representation of Vedantic thought,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=239}} with Shankara being a follower of Shaivism,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=246}} the true essence of Vedanta lies within the Vaisnava tradition and can be considered a discourse within the broad framework of Vaisnavism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=246}} Four Vaishnava sampradays are considered to be of special significance based on the teachings of Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, and Nimbarka.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=133}}

The number of prominent Vedanta schools varies among scholars, with some classifying them as three to six.{{sfn|Chatterjee|Dutta|2007|pp=317–318}}{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=216}}{{sfn|Dandekar|1987}}{{efn|Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the ''[[Shaiva Siddhanta]]'' philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}}}{{efn|Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in [[India]].}}
# ''[[Bhedabheda]]'', as early as the 7th century CE,{{sfn|Nicholson}} or even the 4th century CE.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} 
#* ''[[Dvaitādvaita]]'' or ''Svabhavikabhedabheda'' (Vaishnava), founded by [[Nimbarka]] and [[Srinivasacharya]] in the 7th century CE{{sfn|Malkovsky|2001|p=118}}{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=180}}
# [[Advaita Vedanta|''Advaita'']] (monistic), many scholars of which most prominent are [[Gaudapada]] (~500 CE){{sfn|Jagannathan|2011}} and [[Adi Shankaracharya]] (8th century CE){{sfn|Comans|2000|p=163}}
# ''[[Vishishtadvaita]]'' (Vaishnava), prominent scholars are [[Nathamuni]], [[Yamunacharya|Yāmuna]] and [[Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE)
#* ''[[Akshar-Purushottam Darshan]]'', based on the teachings of [[Swaminarayan]] (1781-1830 CE) and rooted in Ramanuja's ''Vishishtadvaita'';{{efn|name=Vishishtadvaita roots}} propagated most notably by [[BAPS]]<ref name="SRI" /><ref name="BAPS-Sanstha" />{{sfn|Paramtattvadas|2019|p=40}}{{sfn|Williams|2018|p=38}}
# ''[[Tattvavada]] ([[Dvaita]])'' (Vaishnava), founded by [[Madhvacharya]] (1199–1278 CE). The prominent scholars are [[Jayatirtha]] (1345-1388 CE), and [[Vyasatirtha]] (1460–1539 CE)
# ''[[Suddhadvaita]]'' (Vaishnava), founded by [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531 CE)
# ''[[Achintya Bheda Abheda]]'' (Vaishnava), founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534 CE),{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}} propagated by [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]]

===Bhedabheda Vedanta  (difference and non-difference)===
{{main|Bhedabheda}}

[[Bhedabheda|Bhedābheda]] means "difference and non-difference" and is more a tradition than a school of Vedanta. The schools of this tradition emphasize that the individual self (''Jīvatman'') is both different and not different from ''Brahman''.{{sfn|Nicholson}} Notable figures in this school are Bhartriprapancha, [[Nimbārka]] and [[Srinivasacharya|Srinivasa]] (7th century){{sfn|Malkovsky|2001|p=118}}{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=180}} who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school, [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th–9th century), Ramanuja's teacher [[Yādavaprakāśa]],{{sfn|Nicholson|2013|p=34}} [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school, and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="Sivananda 1993 247">{{harvnb|Nicholson}}; {{harvnb|Sivananda|1993|p=247}}</ref>{{efn|According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential tradition of Vedanta before Shankara. Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described ''Bhedabheda'' as the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}

==== Dvaitādvaita ====
[[File:Nimbarkacharya's holy icon at the Ukhra Nimbarka Peeth Mahanta Asthal (West Bengal) (square).JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|right|Nimbarkacharya's icon at Ukhra, West Bengal]]
{{main|Dvaitadvaita}}

[[Nimbarka|Nimbārka]] (7th century){{sfn|Malkovsky|2001|p=118}}{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=180}} sometimes identified with [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]],<ref name="EB-Nimbarka">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Nimbarka |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nimbarka-Indian-philosopher}}</ref> and [[Srinivasacharya|Srinivasa]] propounded ''[[Dvaitādvaita]]''.{{sfn|Sharma|1994|p=376}} ''Brahman'' (God), souls ''(chit)'' and matter or the universe ''(achit)'' are considered as three equally real and co-eternal realities. ''Brahman'' is the controller ''(niyanta)'', the soul is the enjoyer ''(bhokta)'', and the material universe is the object enjoyed ''(bhogya)''. The Brahman is ''[[Krishna]]'', the ultimate cause who is omniscient, omnipotent, all-pervading Being. He is the [[efficient cause]] of the universe because, as Lord of ''Karma'' and internal ruler of souls, He brings about creation so that the individual souls can reap the consequences of their ''karma''. God is considered to be the [[material cause]] of the universe because creation was a manifestation of His powers of soul ''(chit)'' and matter ''(achit)''; creation is a transformation ''(parinama)'' of God's powers. He can be realized only through a constant effort to merge oneself with His nature through meditation and devotion.{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|p=376}}

===Advaita Vedanta===
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Shankaracharya]]
{{main|Advaita Vedanta}}

Advaita Vedanta ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: (अद्वैत वेदान्त), propounded by [[Gaudapada]] (7th century) and [[Adi Shankara]] (9th century), but popularized by [[Vidyaranya]] (14th century) and 19th-20th century [[Neo-Vedanta|neo-Vedantins]], espouses non-dualism and monism. ''Brahman'' is held to be the sole unchanging metaphysical reality and identical to the individual ''Atman''.{{sfn|Stoker|2011}} The physical world, on the other hand, is always-changing empirical [[Maya (illusion)|''Maya'']].<ref>{{harvnb|Das|1952}}; {{harvnb|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=160–161}}; {{harvnb|O'Flaherty|1986|p=119}}</ref>{{efn|{{harvtxt|O'Flaherty|1986|p=119}} says "that to say that the universe is an illusion (''{{IAST|māyā}}'') is not to say that it is unreal; it is to say, instead, that it is not what it seems to be, that it is something constantly being made. ''Maya'' not only deceives people about the things they think they know; more basically, it limits their knowledge."}} The absolute and infinite ''Atman''-''Brahman'' is realized by a process of negating everything relative, finite, empirical and changing.{{sfn|Das|1952}}

The school accepts no duality, no limited individual souls (''Atman'' / ''Jīvatman''), and no separate unlimited cosmic soul. All souls and their existence across space and time are considered to be the same oneness.{{Sfn|Sharma|2007|pp=19–40, 53–58, 79–86}} Spiritual liberation in ''Advaita'' is the full comprehension and realization of oneness, that one's unchanging ''Atman'' (soul) is the same as the ''Atman'' in everyone else, as well as being identical to ''Brahman''.<ref>{{harvnb|Indich|1995|pp=1–2, 97–102}}; {{harvnb|Etter|2006|pp=57–60, 63–65}}; {{harvnb|Perrett|2013|pages=247–248}}</ref>

===Vishishtadvaita Vedanta===
{{main|Vishishtadvaita}}

''Vishishtadvaita'', propounded by [[Ramanuja]] (11–12th century), asserts that ''Jīvatman'' (human souls) and ''Brahman'' (as ''Vishnu'') are different, a difference that is never transcended.<ref>{{Cite web |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.pressreader.com/india/the-hindu/20200106/282269552326084|title=Similarity to Brahman|date=6 January 2020|via=www.pressreader.com|access-date=2020-01-11}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Betty|2010|pp= 215–224}}; {{harvnb|Craig|2000|pp=517–518}}</ref> With this qualification, Ramanuja also affirmed monism by saying that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the ''Brahman''.<ref name="Bartley 2013 1–2, 9–10, 76–79, 87–98" /> ''Vishishtadvaita'' is a qualified non-dualistic school of Vedanta and like Advaita, begins by assuming that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation.<ref>{{harvnb|Etter|2006|pp=57–60, 63–65}}; {{harvnb|van Buitenin|2010}}</ref> On the relation between the ''Brahman'' and the world of matter (''Prakriti''), ''Vishishtadvaita'' states both are two different absolutes, both metaphysically true and real, neither is false or illusive, and that ''saguna'' ''Brahman'' with attributes is also real.{{sfn|Schultz|1981|pp=81–84}} Ramanuja states that God, like man, has both soul and body, and the world of matter is the glory of God's body.{{sfn|van Buitenin|2010}} The path to ''Brahman'' (''Vishnu''), according to Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of the personal god (''[[bhakti]]'' of ''saguna'' ''Brahman'').<ref>{{harvnb|Schultz|1981|pp=81–84}}; {{harvnb|van Buitenin|2010}}; {{harvnb|Sydnor|2012|pp=84–87}}</ref>

==== Akshar-Purushottam Darshan ====
[[File:Lord Swaminarayan writing the Shikshapatri.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.8|Swaminarayan]]
{{main|Akshar-Purushottam Darshan}}

The Swaminarayan Darshana, also called Akshar-Purushottam Darshan by the BAPS, was propounded by Swaminarayan (1781-1830 CE) and is rooted in Ramanuja's ''Vishishtadvaita''.{{efn|name=Vishishtadvaita roots}} It asserts that Parabrahman (Purushottam, Narayana) and Aksharbrahman are two distinct eternal realities. Adherents believe that they can achieve moksha (liberation) by becoming aksharrup (or brahmarup), that is, by attaining qualities similar to Akshar (or Aksharbrahman) and worshipping Purushottam (or Parabrahman; the supreme living entity; God).<ref>{{Citation |last1=Bhadreshdas |first1=Sadhu |title=Swaminarayan's Brahmajnana as Aksarabrahma-Parabrahma-Darsanam |date=2016-04-01 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199463749.003.0011 |work=Swaminarayan Hinduism |pages=172–190 |access-date=2021-10-26 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199463749.003.0011 |isbn=978-0-19-946374-9 |last2=Aksharananddas |first2=Sadhu|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Padoux |first=André |date=2002-04-01 |title=Raymond Brady Williams, An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism |journal=[[Archives de sciences sociales des religions]] |issue=118 |pages=87–151 |doi=10.4000/assr.1703 |issn=0335-5985 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Dvaita===
{{main|Dvaita}}

Tattvavada, propounded by [[Madhvacharya]] (13th century), is based on the premise of realism or realistic point of view. The term Dvaita, which means dualism, was later applied to Madhvacharya's philosophy. ''Atman'' (soul) and ''Brahman'' (as ''Vishnu'') are understood as two completely different entities.<ref>{{harvnb|Stoker|2011}}; {{harvnb|von Dehsen|1999|p=118}}</ref> ''Brahman'' is the creator of the universe, perfect in knowledge, perfect in knowing, perfect in its power, and distinct from souls, distinct from matter.{{Sfn|Sharma|1962|pp=353–354}}{{Efn|The concept of ''Brahman'' in ''Dvaita'' Vedanta is so similar to the monotheistic eternal God, that some early colonial–era ''[[Indologist]]s'' such as [[George Abraham Grierson]] suggested Madhva was influenced by early [[Christians]] who migrated to India,{{Sfn|Kulandran|Hendrik|2004|pp=177–179}} but later scholarship has rejected this theory.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=266}}; {{harvnb|Sarma|2000|pp=19–21}}</ref>}} In ''Dvaita'' Vedanta, an individual soul must feel attraction, love, attachment and complete devotional surrender to ''Vishnu'' for salvation, and it is only His grace that leads to redemption and salvation.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=266}}; {{harvnb|Sharma|1962|pp=417–424}}; {{harvnb|Sharma|1994|p=373}}</ref> Madhva believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned, a view not found in ''Advaita'' and ''Vishishtadvaita'' Vedanta.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|1994|pp=374–375}}; {{harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=361–362}}</ref> While the ''Vishishtadvaita'' Vedanta asserted "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls", Madhva asserted both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls".{{sfn|Sharma|1994|p=374}}

===Shuddhādvaita===
[[File:Shri mahaprabhuji.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Vallabhacharya]]
{{main|Shuddhadvaita|Pushtimarg}}

[[Shuddhadvaita]] (pure non-dualism), propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE), states that the entire universe is real and is subtly ''[[Brahman]]'' only in the form of ''[[Krishna]]''.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=479–481}} Vallabhacharya agreed with Advaita Vedanta's [[ontology]], but emphasized that ''prakriti'' (empirical world, body) is not separate from the ''Brahman'', but just another manifestation of the latter.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=479–481}} Everything, everyone, everywhere – soul and body, living and non-living, ''jīva'' and matter – is the eternal ''[[Krishna]]''.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=479-481}} The way to ''Krishna'', in this school, is ''[[bhakti]]''. Vallabha opposed renunciation of monistic ''sannyasa'' as ineffective and advocates the path of devotion (''bhakti'') rather than knowledge (''jnana''). The goal of ''bhakti'' is to turn away from ego, self-centered-ness and deception, and to turn towards the eternal ''Krishna'' in everything continually offering freedom from ''[[samsara]]''.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=479–481}}

=== Achintya-Bheda-Abheda ===
[[File:Chaitanya-Mahabrabhu-at-Jagannath.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]
{{main|Achintya Bhedabheda}}

[[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486 – 1533) was the prime exponent of ''Achintya-Bheda-Abheda''.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable'.<ref>{{harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=407}}; {{harvnb|Gupta|2007|pp=47–52}}</ref> ''Achintya-Bheda-Abheda'' represents the philosophy of "inconceivable difference in non-difference",{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=378–380}} in relation to the non-dual reality of ''Brahman''-''Atman'' which it calls (''[[Krishna]]''), ''svayam bhagavan''.{{sfn|Gupta|2016|pp=44–45}} The notion of "inconceivability" (''acintyatva'') is used to reconcile apparently contradictory notions in Upanishadic teachings. This school asserts that ''Krishna'' is ''[[Bhagavan]]'' of the ''bhakti yogins'', the ''Brahman'' of the ''jnana yogins'', and has a divine potency that is inconceivable. He is all-pervading and thus in all parts of the universe (non-difference), yet he is inconceivably more (difference). This school is at the foundation of the ''[[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]]'' religious tradition.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=378–380}} The [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]] or the Hare Krishnas also affiliate to this school of Vedanta Philosophy.

==History==
The history of Vedanta can be divided into two periods: one prior to the composition of the ''Brahma Sutras'' and the other encompassing the schools that developed after the ''Brahma Sutras'' were written. Until the 11th century, Vedanta was a peripheral school of thought.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=157; 229 note 57}}

===Before the ''Brahma Sutras'' (before the 5th century)===
Little is known{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} of schools of Vedanta existing before the composition of the ''Brahma Sutras'' (first composition c. 2nd cent. BCE, final redaction 400–450 CE).<ref name="Nakamura1989p436">{{harvnb|Nakamura|1989|p=436}}. "... we can take it that 400-450 is the period during which the Brahma-sūtra was compiled in its extant form."</ref>{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}{{efn|{{harvtxt|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} considers the ''Brahma Sutras'' as a group of sutras composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years. The precise date is disputed.<ref>{{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2000|p=746}}; {{harvnb|Nakamura|1949|p=436}}</ref> {{harvtxt|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} estimates that the book was composed in its current form between 400 and 450 CE. The reference shows BCE, but it's a typo in Nicholson's book}} It is clear that Badarayana, the writer of ''Brahma Sutras'', was not the first person to systematize the teachings of the ''Upanishads'', as he quotes six Vedantic teachers before him – Ashmarathya, Badari, Audulomi, Kashakrtsna, Karsnajini and Atreya.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}{{sfn|Sharma|1996|pp=124–125}} References to other early Vedanta teachers – Brahmadatta, Sundara, Pandaya, Tanka and Dravidacharya – are found in secondary literature of later periods.<ref>{{harvnb|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Sharma|1996|pp=124–125}}</ref> The works of these ancient teachers have not survived, but based on the quotes attributed to them in later literature, Sharma postulates that Ashmarathya and Audulomi were [[Bhedabheda]] scholars, Kashakrtsna and Brahmadatta were [[Advaita]] scholars, while Tanka and Dravidacharya were either Advaita or Viśiṣṭādvaita scholars.{{Sfn|Sharma|1996|pp=124–125}}

===''Brahma Sutras'' (completed in the 5th century)===
{{Main|Brahma Sutras}}

[[Badarayana]] summarized and  interpreted teachings of the ''Upanishads'' in the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'', also called the ''Vedanta Sutra'',<ref>{{harvnb|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=19, 21–25, 151–152}}; {{harvnb|Sharma|1994|pp=239–241}}; {{harvnb|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}</ref>{{efn|The Vedanta–sūtra are known by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma–sūtra, (2) Śārīraka–sutra, (3) Bādarāyaṇa–sūtra and (4) Uttara–mīmāṁsā.}} possibly "written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint."{{sfn|Nicholson}} Badarayana summarized the teachings of the classical Upanishads{{sfn|Chatterjee|Dutta|2007|page=317}}{{sfn|Sharma|2009|pp=239–241}}{{efn|Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ. {{harvnb|Pandey|2000|p=4}}}} and refuted the rival philosophical schools in ancient India like the [[Samkhya|sāṃkhya]] system.{{Sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} The Brahma Sutras laid the basis for the development of Vedanta philosophy.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-philosophy/Historical-development-of-Indian-philosophy#ref314631 |title=Historical Development of Indian Philosophy |encyclopedia=Britannica|date=17 October 2024 }}</ref>

Though attributed to Badarayana, the Brahma Sutras were likely composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} The estimates on when the Brahma Sutras were complete vary,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2000|p=746}}{{sfn|Nakamura|1949|p=436}} with Nakamura in 1989 and Nicholson in his 2013 review stating, that they were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE.<ref name="Nakamura1989p436"/>{{efn|{{harvnb|Nicholson|2013|p=26}} Quote: "From a historical perspective, the Brahmasutras are best understood as a group of sutras composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years, most likely composed in its current form between 400 and 450 BCE." This dating has a typo in Nicholson's book, it should be read "between 400 and 450 CE"}} Isaeva suggests they were complete and in current form by 200 CE,{{sfn|Isaeva|1992|p=[https://archive.org/details/shankaraindianph00isay/page/n45 36]}} while Nakamura states that "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that" (800 - 500 BCE).{{sfn|Nakamura|1949|p=436}}

The book is composed of four chapters, each divided into four-quarters or sections.{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=19, 21–25, 150–152}} These sutras attempt to synthesize the diverse teachings of the Upanishads. However, the cryptic nature of aphorisms of the ''Brahma Sutras'' have required exegetical commentaries.{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=151–152}} These commentaries have resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own commentary.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicholson|2010|pp=26–27}}; {{harvnb|Mohanty|Wharton|2011}}</ref>

===Between the ''Brahma Sutras'' and Adi Shankara (5th–8th centuries)===
{{See also|Vedas|Upanishads|Darsanas}}

Little with specificity is known of the period between the ''Brahma Sutras'' (5th century CE) and Adi Shankara (8th century CE).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=163}} Only two writings of this period have survived: the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}) and the ''Kārikā'' written by Gaudapada (early 6th{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=163}} or 7th century{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} CE).

Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his school in his commentaries.{{sfn|Roodurmum|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2021}}}} A number of important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the ''[[Siddhitraya]]'' by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the ''[[Vedarthasamgraha|Vedārthasamgraha]]'' by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the ''Yatīndramatadīpikā'' by Śrīnivāsa Dāsa.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} At least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahma Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.{{efn|Bhartŗhari (c. 450–500), Upavarsa (c. 450–500), Bodhāyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmānandin) (c. 500–550), Dravida (c. 550), Bhartŗprapañca (c. 550), Śabarasvāmin (c. 550), Bhartŗmitra (c. 550–600), Śrivatsānka (c. 600), Sundarapāndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600–700), Gaudapada (c. 640–690), Govinda (c. 670–720), Mandanamiśra (c. 670–750){{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} }}

A noted scholar of this period was Bhartriprapancha. Bhartriprapancha maintained that the Brahman is one and there is unity, but that this unity has varieties. Scholars see Bhartriprapancha as an early philosopher in the line who teach the tenet of [[Bhedabheda]].{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|pages=19, 21–25, 150–152}} Bhedābheda means "difference and non-difference" and is more a tradition than a school of Vedanta. The schools of this tradition emphasize that the individual self (''Jīvatman'') is both different and not different from ''Brahman''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhedabheda Vedanta {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/bhedabheda-vedanta/ |access-date=2023-08-08 |language=en-US}}</ref> Notable figures in this tradition are [[Nimbārka]] (7th century){{sfn|Malkovsky|2001|p=118}}{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=180}} who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school, [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th–9th century), Ramanuja's teacher [[Yādavaprakāśa]],{{sfn|Nicholson|2013|p=34}} [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school, and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="Sivananda 1993 247"/>{{efn|According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential tradition of Vedanta before Shankara. Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described ''Bhedabheda'' as the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}

===Gaudapada, Adi Shankara (Advaita Vedanta) (6th–9th centuries)===
{{Main|Advaita Vedanta|Gaudapada}}

Influenced by Buddhism, Advaita vedanta departs from the bhedabheda-philosophy, instead postulating the identity of ''Atman'' with the Whole (''Brahman''),

====Gaudapada====
Gaudapada (c. 6th century CE),<ref>{{harvnb|Comans|2000|p=163}}; {{harvnb|Jagannathan|2011}}</ref> was the teacher or a more distant predecessor of [[Govinda Bhagavatpada|Govindapada]],{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=2, 163}} the teacher of Adi Shankara. Shankara is widely considered as the apostle of [[Advaita Vedanta]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} Gaudapada's treatise, the ''{{IAST|Kārikā}}'' – also known as the ''{{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}'' or the ''{{IAST|Āgama Śāstra}}''{{sfn|Sharma|1994|p=239}} – is the earliest surviving complete text on Advaita Vedanta.{{efn|There is ample evidence, however, to suggest that Advaita was a thriving tradition by the start of the common era or even before that. Shankara mentions 99&nbsp;different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmum|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2021}}}} Scholarship since 1950 suggests that almost all [[Sannyasa#Sannyasa Upanishads|Sannyasa Upanishads]] have a strong Advaita Vedanta outlook.<ref>{{harvnb|Olivelle|1992|pp=17–18}}; {{harvnb|Rigopoulos|1998|pp=62–63}}; {{harvnb|Phillips|1995|p=332 with note 68}}</ref> Six Sannyasa Upanishads – Aruni, Kundika, Kathashruti, Paramahamsa, Jabala and Brahma – were composed before the 3rd Century CE, likely in the centuries before or after the start of the common era; the Asrama Upanishad is dated to the 3rd&nbsp;Century.<ref>{{harvnb|Olivelle|1992|pp=x–xi, 8–18}}; {{harvnb|Sprockhoff|1976|pp=277–294, 319–377}}</ref> The strong Advaita Vedanta views in these ancient Sannyasa Upanishads may be, states [[Patrick Olivelle]], because major Hindu monasteries of this period belonged to the Advaita Vedanta tradition.{{Sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=17–18}} }}

Gaudapada's ''{{IAST|Kārikā}}'' relied on the [[Mandukya Upanishad|Mandukya]], [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Brihadaranyaka]] and [[Chandogya Upanishad|Chhandogya]] ''Upanishads''.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|1994|p=239}}; {{harvnb|Nikhilananda|2008|pp=203–206}}; {{harvnb|Nakamura|2004|p=308}}; {{harvnb|Sharma|1994|p=239}}</ref> In the ''{{IAST|Kārikā}}'', Advaita (non-dualism) is established on rational grounds (''upapatti'') independent of scriptural revelation; its arguments are devoid of all religious, mystical or scholastic elements. Scholars are divided on a possible influence of [[Buddhism]] on Gaudapada's philosophy.{{efn|Scholars like {{harvtxt|Raju|1992|p=177}}, following the lead of earlier scholars like Sengupta,{{sfn|Nikhilananda|2008|pp=203–206}} believe that Gaudapada co-opted the Buddhist doctrine that ultimate reality is pure consciousness [[Yogacara#Representation–only|(''vijñapti-mātra'')]]. {{harvtxt|Raju|1992|pp=177–178}} states, "Gaudapada wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the Mandukaya Upanisad, which was further developed by Shankara." {{harvtxt|Nikhilananda|2008|pp=203–206}} states that the whole purpose of Gaudapada was to present and demonstrate the ultimate reality of Atman, an idea denied by [[Buddhism]]. According to {{harvtxt|Murti|1955|pp=114–115}}, Gaudapada's doctrines are unlike Buddhism. Gaudapada's influential text consists of four chapters: Chapters&nbsp;One, Two, and Three are entirely Vedantin and founded on the Upanishads, with little Buddhist flavor. Chapter&nbsp;Four uses Buddhist terminology and incorporates Buddhist doctrines but Vedanta scholars who followed Gaudapada through the 17th&nbsp;century, state that both Murti and Richard King never referenced nor used Chapter&nbsp;Four, they only quote from the first three.{{sfn|Jagannathan|2011}} While there is shared terminology, the doctrines of Gaudapada and Buddhism are fundamentally different, states {{harvtxt|Murti|1955|pp=114–115}}}} The fact that Shankara, in addition to the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'', the principal ''Upanishads'' and the ''[[Bhagvad Gita]]'', wrote an independent commentary on the ''{{IAST|Kārikā}}'' proves its importance in {{IAST|Vedāntic}} literature.{{sfn|Nikhilananda|2008|pp=203–206}}

====Adi Shankara====
Adi Shankara (c.800-c.850), elaborated on Gaudapada's work and more ancient scholarship to write detailed commentaries on the Prasthanatrayi and the ''{{IAST|Kārikā}}''. The Mandukya Upanishad and the ''{{IAST|Kārikā}}'' have been described by Shankara as containing "the epitome of the substance of the import of Vedanta".{{sfn|Nikhilananda|2008|pp=203–206}} It was Shankara who integrated Gaudapada work with the ancient ''Brahma Sutras'', "and give it a ''locus classicus''" alongside the realistic strain of the ''Brahma Sutras''.{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{efn|{{harvtxt|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} writes: "The ''Brahmasutras'' themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins."}}

A noted contemporary of Shankara was [[Maṇḍana Miśra]], who regarded [[Mīmāṃsā|Mimamsa]] and Vedanta as forming a single system and advocated their combination known as ''Karma-jnana-samuchchaya-vada''.{{sfn|Sharma|1994|pp=239–241, 372–375}}{{efn|According to Mishra, the [[sutra]]s, beginning with the first sutra of Jaimini and ending with the last sutra of Badarayana, form one compact [[shastra]].{{sfn|Sharma|1994|pp=239–241, 372–375}} }} The treatise on the differences between the Vedanta school and the Mimamsa school was a contribution of Adi Shankara. Advaita Vedanta rejects rituals in favor of [[sannyasa|renunciation]], for example.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-176}}

===Early Vaishnavism Vedanta (7th–9th centuries)===
Early Vaishnava Vedanta retains the tradition of ''bhedabheda'', equating Brahman with Vishnu or Krishna.

====Nimbārka and Dvaitādvaita====
{{main|Dvaitadvaita}}

[[Nimbarka|Nimbārka]] (7th century){{sfn|Malkovsky|2001|p=118}}{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=180}} sometimes identified with [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]],<ref name="EB-Nimbarka"/> propounded ''[[Dvaitādvaita]]'' or [[Bhedabheda|Bhedābheda]].{{sfn|Sharma|1994|p=376}}

====Bhāskara and Upadhika====
[[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th–9th century) also taught Bhedabheda. In postulating ''Upadhika'', he considers both identity and difference to be equally real. As the causal principle, ''Brahman'' is considered non-dual and formless pure being and intelligence.{{sfn|Sharma|1994|p=340}} The same ''Brahman'', manifest as events, becomes the world of plurality. ''{{IAST|Jīva}}'' is ''Brahman'' limited by the mind. Matter and its limitations are considered real, not a manifestation of ignorance. Bhaskara advocated ''bhakti'' as ''dhyana'' (meditation) directed toward the transcendental ''Brahman''. He refuted the idea of ''Maya'' and denied the possibility of liberation in bodily existence.{{sfn|Mohanty|Wharton|2011}}

===Vaishnavism Bhakti Vedanta (11th–16th centuries)===
{{Main|Vaishnavism|Bhakti}}
{{See also|Bhakti movement}}

The [[Bhakti movement]] of late medieval Hinduism started in the 7th century, but rapidly expanded after the 12th century.{{sfn|Smith|1976|pp=143–156}} It was supported by the Puranic literature such as the [[Bhagavata Purana]], poetic works, as well as many scholarly [[bhasya]]s and [[samhitas]].{{sfn|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=1–5}}{{sfn|Gupta|Valpey|2013|pp=2–10}}{{sfn|Bartley|2013||pp=1–4, 52–53, 79}}

This period saw the growth of Vashnavism Sampradayas (denominations or communities) under the influence of scholars such as [[Ramanujacharya]], [[Vedanta Desika]], [[Madhvacharya]] and [[Vallabhacharya]].{{Sfn|Beck|2012|p=6}} Bhakti poets or teachers such as [[Manavala Mamunigal]], [[Namdev]], [[Ramananda]], [[Surdas]], [[Tulsidas]], [[Eknath]], [[Tyagaraja]], Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and many others influenced the expansion of Vaishnavism.{{sfnm|1a1=Jackson|1y=1992|2a1=Jackson|2y=1991|3a1=Hawley |3y=2015|3pp=304–310}} These Vaishnavism sampradaya founders challenged the then dominant [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]'s doctrines of Advaita Vedanta, particularly [[Ramanuja]] in the 12th century, [[Vedanta Desika]] and [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]] in the 13th, building their theology on the devotional tradition of the [[Alvars]] ([[Shri Vaishnavas]]),{{sfn|Bartley|2013|p=1-4}} and [[Vallabhacharya]] in the 16th century.

In North and Eastern India, Vaishnavism gave rise to various late Medieval movements: [[Ramananda]] in the 14th century, [[Sankaradeva]] in the 15th and [[Vallabha]] and [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]] in the 16th century.

====Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta) (11th–12th centuries)====
Rāmānuja (1017–1137 CE) was the most influential philosopher in the [[Viśiṣṭādvaita]] tradition. As the philosophical architect of Vishishtadvaita, he taught qualified [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dualism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sullivan|2001|page=239}}; {{harvnb|Schultz|1981|pp=81–84}}; {{harvnb|Bartley|2013|pp=1–2}}; {{harvnb|Carman|1974|p=24}}</ref> Ramanuja's teacher, Yadava Prakasha, followed the Advaita monastic tradition. Tradition has it that Ramanuja disagreed with Yadava and Advaita Vedanta, and instead followed [[Nathamuni]] and [[Yamunacharya|Yāmuna]]. Ramanuja reconciled the ''Prasthanatrayi'' with the theism and philosophy of the Vaishnava [[Alvars]] poet-saints.<ref>{{harvnb|Olivelle|1992|pp=10–11, 17–18}}; {{harvnb|Bartley|2013|pp=1–4, 52–53, 79}}</ref> Ramanuja wrote a number of influential texts, such as a [[bhasya]] on the ''Brahma Sutras'' and the ''Bhagavad Gita'', all in Sanskrit.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|pp=82–87 with footnotes}}

Ramanuja presented the [[Epistemology|epistemological]] and [[Hindu soteriology|soteriological]] importance of bhakti, or the devotion to a personal God (Vishnu in Ramanuja's case) as a means to spiritual liberation. His theories assert that there exists a plurality and distinction between Atman (souls) and Brahman (metaphysical, ultimate reality), while he also affirmed that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the Brahman.<ref name="Bartley 2013 1–2, 9–10, 76–79, 87–98">{{harvnb|Bartley|2013|pp=1–2, 9–10, 76–79, 87–98}}; {{harvnb|Sullivan|2001|page=239}}; {{harvnb|Doyle|2006|pp=59–62}}</ref> Vishishtadvaiata provides the philosophical basis of [[Sri Vaishnavism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bernard|1947|pages=9–12}}; {{harvnb|Sydnor|2012|pp=0–11, 20–22}}</ref>

Ramanuja was influential in integrating ''[[Bhakti]]'', the devotional worship, into Vedanta premises.{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|p=288}}

==== Madhva (Tattvavada or Dvaita Vedanta)(13th–14th centuries) ====
[[Tattvavada]]{{efn|Madhvacharya gave his philosophy the name [[Tattvavada]] (realistic point of view or realism), but later after few centuries it was popularised as [[Dvaita Vedanta]] (dualism).}} or [[Dvaita Vedanta]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya]] (1238–1317&nbsp;CE).{{efn|Many sources date him to 1238–1317 period,<ref>{{harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=12–13, 359–361}}; {{harvnb|Sharma|2000|pp=77–78}}</ref> but some place him over 1199–1278&nbsp;CE.{{Sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=266}} }} He presented the opposite interpretation of Shankara in his Dvaita, or dualistic system.{{sfn|Bernard|1947|pp=9–12}} In contrast to Shankara's non-dualism and Ramanuja's qualified non-dualism, he championed unqualified dualism. Madhva wrote commentaries on the chief ''Upanishads'', the ''Bhagavad Gita'' and the ''Brahma Sutra''.{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|p=187}}

Madhva started his Vedic studies at age seven, joined an Advaita Vedanta monastery in Dwarka (Gujarat),{{Sfn|Sheridan|1991|p= 117}} studied under [[guru]] Achyutrapreksha,{{Sfn|von Dehsen|1999|p=118}} frequently disagreed with him, left the Advaita monastery, and founded Dvaita.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=79-80}} Madhva and his followers Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha, were critical of all competing Hindu philosophies, Jainism and Buddhism,<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|1962|pp=128–129, 180–181}}; {{harvnb|Sharma|1994|pp=150–151, 372, 433–434}}; {{harvnb|Sharma|2000|pp=80–81}}</ref> but particularly intense in their criticism of Advaita Vedanta and Adi Shankara.{{sfn|Sharma|1994|pp=372–375}}

Dvaita Vedanta is theistic and it identifies Brahman with Narayana, or more specifically Vishnu, in a manner similar to Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. But it is more explicitly pluralistic.{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=188–189}} Madhva's emphasis for difference between soul and Brahman was so pronounced that he taught there were differences (1) between material things; (2) between material things and souls; (3) between material things and God; (4) between souls; and (5) between souls and God.<ref>{{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2000|p=396}}; {{harvnb|Stoker|2011}}</ref> He also advocated for a difference in degrees in the possession of knowledge. He also advocated for differences in the enjoyment of bliss even in the case of liberated souls, a doctrine found in no other system of Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=188–189}}

====Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Achintya Bheda Abheda) (16th century)====
{{expand section|date=August 2020}}
''[[Achintya Bheda Abheda]]'' (Vaishnava), founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534 CE),{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}} was propagated by [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]]. Historically, it was [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] who founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century after becoming a [[sannyasi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bhajankutir.net/essays/nama-theology.pdf|title=Caitanya Vais.n. avism and the Holy Names|last=Delmonico|first=Neal|date=April 4, 2004|website=Bhajan Kutir|access-date=29 May 2017}}</ref>

===Modern times (19th century – present)===

==== Swaminarayan and Akshar-Purushottam Darshan (19th century) ====
The [[Swaminarayan Darshana]], which is rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita,{{sfn|Kim|2005}}{{sfn|Williams|2018|p=38}}{{sfn|Gajendragadkar|1966}}{{efn|name=Vishishtadvaita roots|Vishishtadvaita roots:<br>* Supreme Court of India, 1966 AIR 1119, 1966 SCR (3) 242: "Philosophically, Swaminarayan was a follower of Ramanuja"{{sfn|Gajendragadkar|1966}}<br>* Hanna H. Kim: "The philosophical foundation for Swaminarayan devotionalism is the viśiṣṭādvaita, or qualified non-dualism, of Rāmānuja (1017–1137 ce)."{{sfn|Kim|2005}}}} was founded in 1801 by [[Swaminarayan]] (1781-1830 CE), and is contemporarily most notably propagated by [[BAPS]].{{sfn|Aksharananddas|Bhadreshdas|2016|p={{page needed|date=February 2021}}}} Due to the commentarial work of [[Bhadreshdas Swami]], the Akshar-Purushottam teachings were recognized as a distinct school of Vedanta by the ''Shri Kashi Vidvat Parishad'' in 2017<ref name="SRI">{{cite web |publisher=BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha |url=https://www.baps.org/News/2017/HH-Mahant-Swami-Maharaj-announces-Akshar-Purushottam-Darshan-and-inaugurates-Swaminarayana-Siddhanta-Sudha-12035.aspx |date=17 Sep 2017 |title=HH Mahant Swami Maharaj Inaugurates the Svāminārāyaṇasiddhāntasudhā and Announces Parabrahman Svāminārāyaṇa's Darśana as the Akṣara-Puruṣottama Darśana}}</ref><ref name="BAPS-Sanstha">{{cite web |publisher=BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha |url=https://www.baps.org/News/2017/Swaminarayansiddhantasudha-Acclamation-by-the-%E2%81%A0%E2%81%A0%E2%81%A0%C5%9Ar%C4%AB-K%C4%81%C5%9B%C4%AB-Vidvat-Parisad-11826.aspx |date=31 Jul 2017 |title=Acclamation by th Sri Kasi Vidvat Parisad}}</ref> and by members of the 17th World Sanskrit Conference in 2018.<ref name="SRI"/>{{efn|"Professor Ashok Aklujkar said [...] Just as the Kashi Vidvat Parishad acknowledged Swaminarayan Bhagwan's Akshar-Purushottam Darshan as a distinct darshan in the Vedanta tradition, we are honored to do the same from the platform of the World Sanskrit Conference [...] Professor George Cardona [said] "This is a very important classical Sanskrit commentary that very clearly and effectively explains that Akshar is distinct from Purushottam."<ref name="SRI"/>}}{{sfn|Paramtattvadas|2019|p=40}} Swami Paramtattvadas describes the Akshar-Purushottam teachings as "a distinct school of thought within the larger expanse of classical Vedanta,"{{sfn|Paramtattvadas|2017|p=3}} presenting the Akshar-Purushottam teachings as a seventh school of Vedanta.<ref>{{citation|title=Swaminarayan's teachings|page=40}}. {{full citation needed|date=February 2021}}</ref>

====Neo-Vedanta (19th century)====
{{Main|Neo-Vedanta|Hindu nationalism|Hindu reform movements}}

Neo-Vedanta, variously called as "Hindu modernism", "neo-Hinduism", and "neo-Advaita", is a term that denotes some novel interpretations of [[Hinduism]] that developed in the 19th century,<ref>{{harvnb|King|1999|p=135}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=258}}; {{harvnb|King|2002|p=93}}</ref> presumably as a reaction to the colonial British rule.{{sfn|King|1999|pp=187, 135–142}} {{harvtxt|King|2002|pp=129–135}} writes that these notions accorded the Hindu nationalists an opportunity to attempt the construction of a nationalist ideology to help unite the Hindus to fight colonial oppression. Western [[Orientalism|orientalists]], in their search for its "essence", attempted to formulate a notion of "Hinduism" based on a single interpretation of Vedanta as a unified body of religious praxis.{{sfn|King|2002|p=118}} This was contra-factual as, historically, Hinduism and Vedanta had always accepted a diversity of traditions. {{harvtxt|King|1999|pp=133–136}} asserts that the neo-Vedantic theory of "overarching tolerance and acceptance" was used by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas of [[Universalism in religion|Universalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]], to challenge the polemic dogmatism of Judaeo-Christian-Islamic missionaries against the Hindus.

The neo-Vedantins argued that the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy were perspectives on a single truth, all valid and complementary to each other.{{Sfn|King|1999|p=137}}  {{harvtxt|Halbfass|2007|p=307}} sees these interpretations as incorporating western ideas{{sfn|Halbfass|2007|p=307}} into traditional systems, especially [[Advaita Vedanta]].{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} It is the modern form of Advaita Vedanta, states {{harvtxt|King|1999|p=135}}, the neo-Vedantists subsumed the Buddhist philosophies as part of the Vedanta tradition{{efn|Vivekananda, clarifies Richard King, stated, "I am not a Buddhist, as you have heard, and yet I am"; but thereafter Vivekananda explained that "he cannot accept the Buddhist rejection of a self, but nevertheless honors the Buddha's compassion and attitude towards others".{{sfn|King|1999|p=138}}}} and then argued that all the world religions are same "non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis", ignoring the differences within and outside of Hinduism.{{sfn|King|1999|pp=133–136}} According to {{harvtxt|Gier|2000|p=140}}, neo-Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta which accepts universal realism:{{blockquote|Ramakrishna, Vivekananda and Aurobindo have been labeled neo-Vedantists (the latter called it realistic Advaita), a view of Vedanta that rejects the Advaitins' idea that the world is illusory. As Aurobindo phrased it, philosophers need to move from 'universal illusionism' to 'universal realism', in the strict philosophical sense of assuming the world to be fully real.}}

A major proponent in the popularization of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was [[Vivekananda]],{{sfn|King|2002|pp=135–142}} who played a major role in the [[Hindu nationalism|revival of Hinduism]].{{sfn|von Dense|1999|p=191}} He was also instrumental in the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the West via the [[Vedanta Society]], the international arm of the [[Ramakrishna Order]].{{sfn|Mukerji|1983}}{{page needed|date=August 2016}}

===== Criticism of Neo-Vedanta label =====
{{harvtxt|Nicholson|2010|p=2}} writes that the attempts at integration which came to be known as neo-Vedanta were evident as early as between the 12th and the 16th century−  {{blockquote|...&nbsp;certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.{{efn|The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by [[Mikel Burley]].{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=24–33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=26–27}}}}}}

[[Bimal Krishna Matilal|Matilal]] criticizes Neo-Hinduism as an oddity developed by West-inspired Western Indologists and attributes it to the flawed Western perception of Hinduism in modern India. In his scathing criticism of this school of reasoning, {{harvtxt|Matilal|2002|pp=403–404}} says:{{blockquote|The so-called 'traditional' outlook is in fact a construction. Indian history shows that the tradition itself was self-conscious and critical of itself, sometimes overtly and sometimes covertly. It was never free from internal tensions due to the inequalities that persisted in a hierarchical society, nor was it without confrontation and challenge throughout its history. Hence Gandhi, Vivekananda and Tagore were not simply 'transplants from Western culture, products arising solely from confrontation with the west.

...It is rather odd that, although the early Indologists' romantic dream of discovering a pure (and probably primitive, according to some) form of Hinduism (or Buddhism as the case may be) now stands discredited in many quarters; concepts like neo-Hinduism are still bandied about as substantial ideas or faultless explanation tools by the Western 'analytic' historians as well as the West-inspired historians of India.}}

==Influence==
According to {{harvtxt|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}, the Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism:
{{Blockquote|The prevalence of Vedanta thought is found not only in philosophical writings but also in various forms of ([[Hindu]]) literature, such as the epics, lyric poetry, drama and so forth. ... the Hindu religious sects, the common faith of the Indian populace, looked to Vedanta philosophy for the theoretical foundations for their theology. The influence of Vedanta is prominent in the sacred literatures of Hinduism, such as the various Puranas, Samhitas, Agamas and Tantras ...{{Sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}}}

[[Frithjof Schuon]] summarizes the influence of Vedanta on Hinduism as follows:
{{Blockquote|The Vedanta contained in the Upanishads, then formulated in the ''Brahma Sutra'', and finally commented and explained by Shankara, is an invaluable key for discovering the deepest meaning of all the religious doctrines and for realizing that the ''[[Sanatana Dharma]]'' secretly penetrates all the forms of traditional spirituality.<ref>{{harvnb|Witz|1998|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Schuon|1975|p=91}}</ref>}}

[[Gavin Flood]] states,
{{Blockquote|... the most influential school of theology in India has been Vedanta, exerting enormous influence on all religious traditions and becoming the central ideology of the Hindu renaissance in the nineteenth century. It has become the philosophical paradigm of Hinduism "par excellence".{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=231–232, 238}}}}

=== Hindu traditions ===
Vedanta, adopting ideas from other [[Āstika and nāstika#Āstika|orthodox (''āstika'')]] schools, became the most prominent school of [[Hinduism]].{{sfn|Hiriyanna|2008|pp=19, 21–25, 150–152}}{{sfn|Clooney|2000|pp=96–107}} Vedanta traditions led to the development of many traditions in Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=231–232, 238}}<ref>{{harvnb|Brooks|1990|pp=20–22, 77–79}}; {{harvnb|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}</ref> [[Sri Vaishnavism]] of south and southeastern India is based on Ramanuja's ''Vishishtadvaita'' Vedanta.{{Sfn|Carman|Narayanan|1989|pp=3–4}} Ramananda led to the ''Vaishnav Bhakti'' Movement in north, east, central and west India. This movement draws its philosophical and theistic basis from ''Vishishtadvaita''. A large number of devotional ''Vaishnavism'' traditions of east India, north India (particularly the Braj region), west and central India are based on various sub-schools of ''Bhedabheda'' Vedanta.{{sfn|Nicholson}} ''Advaita'' Vedanta influenced ''Krishna Vaishnavism'' in the northeastern state of [[Assam]].{{sfn|Neog|1980|pp=243–244}} The Madhva school of Vaishnavism found in coastal [[Karnataka]] is based on ''Dvaita'' Vedanta.{{sfn|Sharma|1994|pp=372–375}}

''[[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgamas]]'', the classical literature of ''[[Shaivism]]'', though independent in origin, show Vedanta association and premises.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2003|pp=126–128}}; {{harvnb|Klostermaier|1984|pp=177–178}}</ref> Of the 92 ''Āgamas'', ten are (''[[dvaita]]'') texts, eighteen (''[[bhedabheda]]''), and sixty-four (''[[advaita]]'') texts.<ref>{{harvnb|Davis|2014|p=167 note 21}}; {{harvnb|Dyczkowski|1989|pp=43–44}}</ref> While the ''Bhairava Shastras'' are monistic, ''Shiva Shastras'' are dualistic.<ref>{{harvnb|Vasugupta|2012|pp=252, 259}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=162–167}}</ref> {{harvtxt|Isaeva|1995|pp=134–135}} finds the link between Gaudapada's ''Advaita'' Vedanta and ''[[Kashmir Shaivism]]'' evident and natural. [[Tirumular]], the Tamil ''Shaiva Siddhanta'' scholar, credited with creating "Vedanta–Siddhanta" (Advaita Vedanta and Shaiva Siddhanta synthesis), stated, "becoming ''Shiva'' is the goal of Vedanta and ''Siddhanta''; all other goals are secondary to it and are vain."{{sfn|Manninezhath|1993|pp=xv, 31}}

''[[Shaktism]]'', or traditions where a goddess is considered identical to ''[[Brahman]]'', has similarly flowered from a syncretism of the monist premises of ''Advaita'' Vedanta and dualism premises of ''Samkhya–Yoga'' school of Hindu philosophy, sometimes referred to as ''Shaktadavaitavada'' (literally, the path of nondualistic ''Shakti'').<ref>{{harvnb|McDaniel|2004|pp=89–91}}; {{harvnb|Brooks|1990|pp=35–39}}; {{harvnb|Mahony|1997|p=274 with note 73}}</ref>

=== Influence on Western thinkers ===
An exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia since the late 18th century as a result of colonization of parts of Asia by Western powers. This also influenced western religiosity. The first translation of ''Upanishads'', published in two parts in 1801 and 1802, significantly influenced [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], who called them the consolation of his life.{{sfn|Renard|2010|pp=177–178}} He drew explicit parallels between his philosophy, as set out in ''The World as Will and Representation'',{{sfn|Schopenhauer|1966|p={{page needed|date=February 2021}}}} and that of the Vedanta philosophy as described in the work of [[Sir William Jones]].{{sfn|Jones|1801|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.83840/page/n203/mode/2up 164]}} Early translations also appeared in other European languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=183-184}} Influenced by Śaṅkara's concepts of ''Brahman'' (God) and ''māyā'' (illusion), [[Lucian Blaga]] often used the concepts ''marele anonim'' (the Great Anonymous) and ''cenzura transcendentă'' (the transcendental censorship) in his philosophy.{{sfn|Iţu|2007}}

Paul Deussen, influenced by Schopenhauer, elevated Indian philosophy, particularly Advaita Vedanta, within German idealism and Indology. His works, including those on history of philosophy and Upanishad translations, portrayed Vedanta as the core of Indian thought, shaping 20th century scholarship. Deussen upheld Advaita as the original truth and acknowledged variations like Visistadvaita and Dvaita. He proposed a six-stage regression model tracing philosophy's decline from monistic idealism to realism and theism, paralleling Indian and Greek traditions.{{Sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=133-134}}

====Similarities with Spinoza's philosophy====
German Sanskritist [[Theodore Goldstücker]] was among the early scholars to notice similarities between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher [[Baruch Spinoza]], writing that Spinoza's thought was
{{blockquote|...&nbsp;so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines [...] comparing the fundamental ideas of both we should have no difficulty in proving that, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would in all probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta philosophy.{{sfn|Goldstucker|1879|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.76972/page/n51 32]}}}}
[[Max Müller]] noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying,
{{blockquote|The Brahman, as conceived in the Upanishads and defined by Sankara, is clearly the same as Spinoza's 'Substantia'."{{sfn|Muller|2003|p=123}}}}
[[Helena Blavatsky]], a founder of the [[Theosophical Society]], also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay,
{{blockquote|As to Spinoza's Deity – ''natura naturans'' – conceived in his attributes simply and alone; and the same Deity – as ''natura naturata'' or as conceived in the endless series of modifications or correlations, the direct outflowing results from the properties of these attributes, it is the Vedantic Deity pure and simple.{{sfn|Blavatsky|1982|pp=308–310}}}}

==See also==
* [[Mahajanas]]
* [[Badarayana]]
* [[Monistic idealism]]
* [[List of teachers of Vedanta]]
* [[Self-consciousness (Vedanta)]]
* [[Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|30em}}

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

==Sources==

===Printed sources===
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** {{cite book |last=Murti |first=T.R.V. |year=1955 |title=The central philosophy of Buddhism |place=London |publisher=Allen & Unwin |oclc=1070871178}}
<!-- N -->
* {{cite book|ref=none |last=Nakamura |first=Hajime |orig-year=1949 |title=A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 1 |place=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |edition=Reprint |year=1990 |isbn=978-81-208-0651-1}}
** {{cite book |last=Nakamura |first=Hajime |year=1989 |title=A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 1 |place=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0651-1 |oclc=963971598}}
** {{cite book |last=Nakamura |first=Hajime |year=1949 |title=A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy }} ,{{full citation needed|date=February 2021}} <!--I don't think this version exists BUT it is referenced.-->
* {{cite book |last=Nakamura |first=Hajime |orig-year=1950 |title=A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2 |place=Delhi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |edition=Reprint |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-208-1963-4}}
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* {{Citation | last =Williams | first =Raymond Brady | year =2018 | title =Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}
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{{refend}}

===Web sources===
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Indian philosophy - Historical development of Indian philosophy |last1=Mohanty |first1=Jitendra N. |last2=Wharton |first2=Michael |encyclopedia=Britannica |year=2011 |access-date=26 August 2016 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-philosophy/Historical-development-of-Indian-philosophy#ref314631}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Ramanuja - Hindu theologian and philosopher |last=van Buitenin |first=J.A.B. |date=2010 |access-date=26 August 2016 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja |encyclopedia=Britannica}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Doniger |first1=Wendy |last2=Stefon |first2=Matt |title=Vedanta, Hindu Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedanta |year=2015 |access-date=30 August 2016 |encyclopedia=Britannica}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Gaudapada |last=Jagannathan |first=Devanathan |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2011 |access-date=29 August 2016 |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/gau%E1%B8%8Dapad/}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Madhva (1238-1317) |last=Stoker |first=Valerie |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2011 |access-date=2 February 2016 |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Hindu Philosophy |last=Ranganathan |first=Shyam |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=26 August 2016 |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/hindu-ph/#SH3f}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Bhedabheda Vedanta |last=Nicholson |first=Andrew J. |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=26 August 2016 |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite web |url=http://www.vedantaworld.org/ |series=Vedanta Treatise |title=The Eternities |author-link=Swami Parthasarathy |first=Swami |last=Parthasarathy}}
* {{cite book |title=The System of Vedanta |author-link=Paul Deussen |first=Paul |last=Deussen |orig-year=1912 |edition=Reprint |year=2007}}
* {{cite book |title=Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition |year=1993 |url=https://archive.org/details/forgottentruthco00smit |url-access=registration |author-link=Huston Smith |first=Huston |last=Smith|publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |isbn=978-0-06-250787-7 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies |title=Vedanta Sutras of Nārāyana Guru |author1-link=Karl Harrington Potter |first1=Karl |last1=Potter |first2=Sibajiban |last2=Bhattachārya}}
*Comparative analysis of commentaries on Vedanta Sutras. https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.283844/2015.283844.The-Vedanta.pdf
* {{cite web |url=http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent%2FSriAurobindoAshram%2F-09%20E-Library%2F-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo%2F-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12 |title=The Upanishads |author-link=Sri Aurobindo |first=Sri |last=Aurobindo |publisher=[[Sri Aurobindo Ashram]] |place=[[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]] |year=1972|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104061813/http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent%2FSriAurobindoAshram%2F-09%20E-Library%2F-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo%2F-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12 |archive-date=4 January 2007 }}
* {{cite book |title=Choice Upanishads |author-link=Swami Parthasarathy |first=Swami |last=Parthasarathy}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.vedanta.com/ |website=Vedanta |title=A Simple Introduction |author-link=Pravrajika Vrajaprana |first=Pravrajika |last=Vrajaprana}}
* {{cite web |url=http://vedantahub.org |title=VedantaHub.org}} - Resources to help with the Study and Practice of Vedanta.

==External links==
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[[Category:Vedanta| ]]
[[Category:Āstika]]
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