View source for Vasconic substrate hypothesis

{{Short description|Proposal regarding Western European languages}}
{{Expand Spanish|Teoría del sustrato vascónico|date=March 2022}}
The '''Vasconic substrate hypothesis''' is a proposal that several Western European languages contain remnants of an old [[language family]] of [[Vasconic languages]], of which [[Basque language|Basque]] is the only surviving member. The proposal was made by the German linguist [[Theo Vennemann]], but has been rejected by other linguists.

According to Vennemann, Vasconic languages were once widespread on the European continent before they were mostly replaced by [[Indo-European languages]]. Relics of these languages include [[toponymy|toponyms]] across Central and Western Europe.

== Basis of the hypothesis ==
Theo Vennemann based his hypothesis on the works of [[Hans Krahe]], who postulated an [[Old Europe (archaeology)|Old European]] [[Stratum (linguistics)|substrate]] as the origin of the European [[hydronym]]y ([[Old European hydronymy]]). He classified the substratum language as Indo-European.<ref>See {{cite book |last1=Krahe |first1=Hans |author1-link=Hans Krahe |title=Die Struktur der alteuropäischen Hydronymie |date=1963 |publisher=Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz |location=Wiesbaden/Mainz |language=de |oclc=4872207 |trans-title=The structure of the Old European hydronymy}}</ref>{{r|Spektrum}}

Vennemann rejected the classification. He gives the following reasons:
* The area of the hydronymy substrate language covers the Iberic Peninsula, which he postules to be non-Indo-European during the time the hydronymy developed according to Krahe.<ref name="Vennemann-Frage">{{cite book |last1=Vennemann |first1=Theo |editor1-last=Noel Aziz Hanna |editor1-first=Patrizia |title=Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica |date=2003 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |location=Berlin/New York |isbn=3-11-017054-X |pages=517–590 |language=de |chapter=Zur Frage der vorindogermanischen Substrate in Mittel- und Westeuropa |series=Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs|volume=138|trans-chapter=On the question of Pre-Indo-European substrata in Central and Western Europe}}</ref>{{rp|page=525}}
* From a [[phoneme]]-statistical point of view, the dominance of [[a-vocalism]] and the sparseness of [[plosive]]s is noteworthy.{{r|Vennemann-Frage|pages=522-523}}
* Some hydronyms survived for a long time.{{vague|date=July 2024}} This led Vennemann to the "[[toponomastic]] main axiom": Once places are given a name, they keep it, and languages that newly arrive at such a place take over the already existing toponymy. He concludes that most place names in Europe must therefore be pre-Indo-European.{{r|Vennemann-Frage|pages=518-519|quote=[Da] lange vor der Indogermanisierung alle markanten natürlichen Merkmale des Gebietes und alle guten Siedlungsplätze benannt waren [… folgt daraus], daß fast alle Örtlichkeiten von einiger Bedeutung vorindogermanische Namen tragen.}}

== The hypothesis and its evidence==
[[Image:Proposed area of Vasconic languages.png|thumb|Proposed area of Vasconic substratum]]
Vennemann developed his ideas in a series of papers which were collected in a book called ''Europa Vasconica–Europa Semitica''.<ref name=lingua>{{cite journal|last1=Baldi|first1=Philip |author-link1=Philip Baldi|last2=Page|first2=B. Richard|title=Europa Vasconica-Europa Semitica|journal=[[Lingua (journal)|Lingua]]|date=December 2006|volume=116|issue=12|pages=2183–2220|doi=10.1016/j.lingua.2005.03.011|quote=Abstract: In this review article we evaluate Theo Vennemann's provocative theories on the role of Afroasiatic and Vasconic (e.g. Basque) languages in the pre-historic development of Indo-European languages in Europe as presented in the volume Europa Vasconica-Europa Semitica, a collection of 27 of Vennemann's essays...}}</ref>

He accepts Krahe's theory that there was a uniform [[Old European languages |Old European]] language, which is the origin of the Old European hydronymy, but proposes that it is of Vasconic origin. Vasconic is a [[language family]] proposed by Vennemann encompassing Basque (its only extant member), [[Aquitanian language|Aquitanian]], [[Ligurian (ancient language)|Ligurian]], and possibly [[Iberian language|Iberian]] and [[Paleo-Sardinian language|Proto-Sardinian]].<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite journal |last1=Vennemann |first1=Theo |title=Etymologische Beziehungen im Alten Europa |journal=Der Ginkgo-Baum: Germanistisches Jahrbuch für Nordeuropa |date=1995 |volume=13 |issue=39–115 |publisher=University of Helsinki |location=Helsinki |language=de |issn=0359-7210}}|{{cite book |last1=Vennemann |first1=Theo |editor1-last=Noel Aziz Hanna |editor1-first=Patrizia |title=Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica |date=2003 |orig-date=1995|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |location=Berlin/New York |isbn=3-11-017054-X |pages=203–298 |chapter=Etymologische Beziehungen im Alten Europa |language=de |trans-chapter=Etymological relations in Old Europe |series=Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs|volume=138}}}}</ref>

Vennemann proposes that this uniform Vasconic [[language substrate| substrate]] must come from a [[linguistics|linguistically]] uniform population, which can only exist within a small area. He therefore proposes that during the [[Last glacial period|last Ice Age]], the Vasconic people lived in the modern region of Aquitania. As the [[glacier]]s retreated, the Vasconics began moving to the north and south, settling most of [[Western Europe |Western]] and [[Central Europe]], spreading their language. They gave names to the rivers and places. This toponymy mostly persisted after the Vasconic language was replaced by Indo-European languages in most of their area, of which the present Basque area in [[northern Spain]] and [[southern France]] is postulated to be a relic.<ref name="Spektrum">{{cite journal |last1=Vennemann |first1=Theo |last2=Hamel |first2=Elisabeth |title=Ursprache: Vaskonisch war die Ursprache des Kontinents |journal=Spektrum der Wissenschaft |date=1 May 2002 |url=https://www.spektrum.de/magazin/vaskonisch-war-die-ursprache-des-kontinents/828702 |language=de |pages=32–40 |location=Heidelberg |issn=0170-2971}}</ref><ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite book |last1=Vennemann |first1=Theo |editor1-last=Bammesberger |editor1-first=Alfred |editor2-last=Vennemann |editor2-first=Theo |title=Languages in prehistoric Europe |date=2003 |publisher=Winter |location=Heidelberg |isbn=3-8253-1449-9 |pages=319–332 |edition=2 |chapter=Languages in prehistoric Europe north of the Alps |series=Indogermanische Bibliothek}}|{{cite book |last1=Vennemann |first1=Theo |editor1-last=Noel Aziz Hanna |editor1-first=Patrizia |title=Germania Semitica |date=2012 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |location=Berlin |isbn=9783110300949 |pages=257–268 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110301090/html |access-date=26 December 2022 |chapter=Languages in prehistoric Europe north of the Alps |doi=10.1515/9783110301090 |series=Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs |volume=259 |orig-date=2003}}}}</ref>{{r|Noel}}

=== Evidence cited by Vennemann ===
In support of this argument, Vennemann cites, ''inter alia'':
* cultural similarities noted by [[Marija Gimbutas]];{{Example needed|date=May 2017}}{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
* parallels in geographical [[toponym]]s that may be relics of a [[Indo-European substrate hypotheses|pre-Indo-European]] [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]], including
** numerous examples from [[Old European hydronymy]] and maritime terminology, noted by scholars such as [[Hans Krahe]], that do not necessarily have an Indo-European root, such as words in [[West Germanic languages]] for "[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/saiwiz|sea]]" (Dutch ''[[wikt:zee#Dutch|zee]]'') and "[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/īsą|ice]]" (Dutch ''[[wikt:ijs#Dutch|ijs]]'') that are similar to their respective Basque counterparts; i.e., ''[[wikt:itsaso#Basque|itsaso]]'' and ''[[wikt:izotz#Basque|izotz]]'';<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vennemann |first1=Theo |editor1-last=Noel Aziz Hanna |editor1-first=Patrizia |title=Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica |date=2003 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |location=Berlin/New York |isbn=3-11-017054-X |pages=315–342 |chapter=German Eisvogel, Greek halkyon, English alder. A study in Old European Etymology |series=Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs |volume=138}}</ref>
** the similarity of names like [[Val d'Aran]], [[Arundel]], and [[Arendal]] to (for example) the [[Standard Basque]] word ''[[wikt:haran#Basque|haran]]'' ('valley');<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vennemann |first1=Theo |editor1-last=Noel Aziz Hanna |editor1-first=Patrizia |title=Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica |date=2003 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |location=Berlin/New York |isbn=3-11-017054-X |pages=479–516 |chapter=Remarks on some British place names |series=Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs|volume=138}}</ref>
** the similarity of names containing ''Eber-'' with {{langx|eu|ibar}} "valley," "river mouth".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vennemann |first1=Theo |editor1-last=Noel Aziz Hanna |editor1-first=Patrizia |title=Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica |date=2003 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |location=Berlin/New York |isbn=3-11-017054-X |pages=753–802 |chapter=Volksetymologie und Ortsnamenforschung |language=de |series=Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs |volume=138}}</ref>

==== Vigesimal numerical systems ====
Elements of [[vigesimal]] ("base-20") [[counting system|counting]] and [[numbering system|number system]]s, which Vennemann regards as a trait of Vasconic languages,{{r|Spektrum}} exist in [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[French language|French]].{{r|Vennemann-Frage|pages=530-539}}<ref name="Vennemann-Anthropologie">{{cite book|author1-last=Vennemann|author1-first=Theo|editor1-last=Noel Aziz Hanna |editor1-first=Patrizia |title=Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica |date=2003 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |location=Berlin/New York |isbn=3-11-017054-X |pages=453–472 |language=de |chapter=Basken, Semiten, Indogermanen: Urheimatfragen in linguistischer und anthropologischer Sicht |trans-chapter=Basques, Semites, Indo-Europeans: Questions about the Urheimat from a linguistic and an anthropological point of view |series=Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs|volume=138}}</ref>{{rp|461}}

=== Genetics ===
Evidence from [[genetics]] and [[blood type]]s shows that the modern [[Basque people]] share physical characteristics with old populations{{vague|date=July 2024}} throughout Western and Central Europe, especially in likely [[Refugium (population biology)|refugia]] areas, such as [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peter |first1=Forster |last2=Hamel |first2=Elisabeth |title=Ursprache: Drei Viertel unserer Gene stammen von den Urbasken |journal=Spektrum der Wissenschaft |date=1 May 2002 |pages=41–45 |url=https://www.spektrum.de/magazin/drei-viertel-unserer-gene-stammen-von-den-urbasken/828704 |language=de |location=Heidelberg |issn=0170-2971}}</ref><ref name="Noel">{{cite book |last1=Noel Aziz Hanna |first1=Patrizia |editor1-last=Noel Aziz Hanna |editor1-first=Patrizia |title=Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica |date=2003 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |location=Berlin/New York |isbn=3-11-017054-X |pages=XV-XXII |chapter=Introduction |series=Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs|volume=138}}</ref>

== Reception ==
===General criticism===
The hypothesis has been largely rejected by historical linguists.<ref name=lingua/><ref name="Georg">{{cite journal |last1=Georg |first1=Stefan |title=Europa Semitica? Kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa |journal=Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie |date=1 September 2014 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=294–299 |doi=10.1515/zcph.2014.028 |publisher=De Gruyter |location=Berlin |s2cid=164830023 |language=de}}</ref> Vennemann's theories on "Vasconic" toponymy and hydronymy were opposed by linguists such as P. R. Kitson (1996),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kitson |first1=P.R. |title=British and European River-Names |journal=Transactions of the Philological Society |date=November 1996 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=73–118 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-968X.1996.tb01178.x}}</ref> and [[Philip Baldi|Baldi]] & Richard (2006), who pointed out that most linguists see unusual European hydronyms as more likely to have Indo-European roots of some kind,<ref name=lingua /> and the Indo-European linguist Michael Meier-Brügger.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Meier-Brügger |first1=Michael|editor-first1=Matthias |editor-first2=Manfred |editor-last1=Fritz |editor-last2=Mayrhofer |author1-link=Michael Meier-Brügger|title=Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft |date=2010 |publisher=De Gruyter |location=Berlin/New York |isbn=978-3-11-025144-9 |edition=9 |doi=10.1515/9783110251449 |language=de |page=166 |quote=Eine eigene Dynamik entfaltet Th. Vennemann. Er bezieht Baskisch und Hamito-Semitisch in seine Theorien zur sprachlichen Vorgeschichte Europas mit ein und rechnet mit einem alten Nebeneinander von vaskonischen, atlantischen und indogermanischen Sprachen. Seine Hypothesen sind allesamt reich an nicht beweisbarer Phantasie.}}</ref>

German linguist Dieter H. Steinbauer argued that it is difficult to argue on the basis of Basque because:
* its status as an [[language isolate|isolate]] means that there is insufficient historical data for the reconstruction of the substratal language and;
* Basque itself has adopted many words from Indo-European languages.
Steinbauer also criticized Vennemann for
* assuming that a Vasconic substratal language would necessarily share with Basque a feature of root words with initial [[consonant clusters]];{{Example needed|date=December 2014}}
* ignoring indications that the ancient [[Etruscan language]] seems more closely related to western [[Anatolian languages]], and for
* several methodological flaws, concluding that "a scientific discourse with Vennemann must face insurmountable obstacles".<ref>{{cite book |author1-first=Dieter H. |author1-last=Steinbauer |editor1-last=Hauska |editor1-first=Günter |title=Gene, Sprachen und ihre Evolution: Wie verwandt sind die Menschen - wie verwandt sind ihre Sprachen? |trans-title=Gens, languages and their evolution: How closely related are humans - How closely related are their languages?|date=2005 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Regensburg |location=Regensburg |pages=53–67|isbn=3-930480-46-8 |language=de |chapter=Vaskonisch - Ursprache Europas? |trans-chapter=Vasconic - The original language of Europe? |series=Schriftenreihe der Universität Regensburg |volume=29 |issn=0171-7529}}</ref>

The Bascologist Joseba Lakarra rejects Vennemann's Vasconic etymologies, as he considers them to be incompatible with the current state of research on historical phonology and morphology of Basque.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lakarra |first1=Joseba A. |editor1-last=Udolph |editor1-first=Jürgen |title=Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa |publication-date=2013 |publisher=Baar |location=Hamburg |isbn=978-3-935536-06-6 |pages=65–150 |chapter=On Ancient European and Reconstruction of Proto-Basque|year=2013 }}</ref> [[Larry Trask]] concludes that Vennemann found an agglutinating language unrelated to Basque, which could e.g. be Indo-European.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trask |first1=R. Larry |author1-link=Larry Trask |title=The history of Basque |date=1997 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=9780415867801}}</ref>

Harald Bichlmeier points out that Vennemann compares the etymological roots of the toponymy with modern Basque words. This is incoherent, as the comparison should be done using the reconstructed forms of Proto-Basque.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bichlmeier |first1=Harald |title=Analyse und Bewertung der sprachwissenschaftlichen Standards aktueller Forschungen traditioneller Art zur 'alteuropäischen Hydronymie' aus der Perspektive der heutigen Indogermanistik |journal=Namenkundliche Informationen |date=2013 |issue=101/102 |pages=397–438 |url=https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:bsz:15-qucosa-150718 |access-date=26 December 2022 |publisher=Leipziger Universitätsverlag |location=Leipzig |doi=10.58938/ni496 |s2cid=164307908 |language=de|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{rp|page=424}}

Jürgen Udolph shows that some of the assumed Vasconic roots are in fact Indo-European like Vennemann's *muna, especially since Proto-Basque lacked word initial /m/.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Udolph |first1=Jürgen |editor1-last=Udolph |editor1-first=Jürgen |title=Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa |publication-date=2013 |publisher=Baar |location=Hamburg |isbn=978-3-935536-06-6 |pages=211–32 |language=de |chapter=Vaskonisches und Semitisches in Europa aus namenkundlicher Sicht |year=2013 |trans-chapter=Vasconic and Semitic elements in Europe from an onomastic point of view}}</ref> Stefan Georg adds, that some roots do not exist in Basque or Proto-Basque.<ref name="Georg" />

According to Lutz Reichardt the hypothesis is based on the assumption that "settlement continuity exists and that this means continuity of names throughout all languages being spoken in that settlement".<ref name="Reichardt">{{cite journal |last1=Reichardt |first1=Lutz |title=Nachfolger Hans Bahlows |journal=Beiträge zur Namensforschung |date=1996 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=398–406 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Winter |location=Heidelberg |language=de}}</ref>{{rp|399|quote=[dass] Siedlungskontinuität vorläge und damit Namenkontinuität durch alle nachfolgenden Sprachschichten hindurch}} Furthermore, he criticizes the methodology applied by those who support the Vasconian hypothesis:{{r|Reichardt|page=405}}
{{Blockquote|text=[The words] are segmented arbitrarily and some segments are explained poorly, others are not explained at all. In addition, the elements -ingen, -hûsen, -dorf, -bach etc. are supposed to have been added to the toponymy at a later date although there is no proof for this assumption in historical documents.{{r|Reichardt|page=405|quote=„Es wird willkürlich segmentiert und ein Teil der Segmente nicht oder nicht richtig erklärt. Außerdem wird ständig entgegen der urkundlichen Beleglage mit sekundärem Antreten der Ortsnamenbildungselemente -ingen, -hûsen, -dorf, -bach und so weiter gerechnet.}}}}

Hayim Y. Sheynin, an expert on Semitic languages, reviewed the work of Vennemann and concluded that his reasoning is based on outdated data and scientific works rejected by critics. He states that much of the evidence presented for an Afro-Asiatic stratum is objectable and based on mere sound similarities only.<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite web |last1=Sheynin |first1=Hayim Y. |title=Review: Historical Linguistics: Vennemann (2003) |url=https://linguistlist.org/issues/15/15-1878/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120170757/https://linguistlist.org/issues/15/15-1878/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 20, 2021 |website=The LINGUIST List |access-date=26 December 2022 |language=en |date=21 June 2004}} |{{cite book |last1=Sheynin |first1=Hayim Y. |editor1-last=Udolph |editor1-first=Jürgen |title=Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa |publication-date=2013 |orig-date=2004 |publisher=Baar |location=Hamburg |isbn=978-3-935536-06-6 |pages=181–210 |chapter=Indo-European, Old European, and Afrasian, or contra Vennemann|year=2013 }}}}</ref>

Peter Anreiter noted that toponymy with an unknown meaning can be "interpreted" in almost any language. To demonstrate his point, he then "interprets" the Vasconisms proposed by Vennemann as Turkish words.<ref name="Anreiter">{{cite book |last1=Anreiter |first1=Peter |editor1-last=Udolph |editor1-first=Jürgen |title=Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa |publication-date=2013 |publisher=Baar |location=Hamburg |isbn=978-3-935536-06-6 |pages=11–64 |chapter=Gedanken zum Buch von Theo Vennemann |year=2013 |language=de |trans-chapter=Thoughts on the book of Theo Vennemann}}</ref>{{rp|pages=25–27}} Nonetheless, he states that words with plausible Indo-European etymology should be considered as toponymy of Indo-European origin.{{r|Anreiter|page=63}}

Piotr Gąsiorowski cautioned that it is unclear whether or not an Old European Hydronymy exists at all. According to him it is mere speculation to postulate an etymology for similarly appearing toponymy from a vast area without being able to show that they are indeed from the same substratum.<ref>{{cite conference |author-last=Gąsiorowski |author-first=Piotr |editor1-last=Løye Hejl |editor1-first=Christina |editor2-last=Bahs Jacquet |editor2-first=Janus |editor3-last=Heide |editor3-first=Marie |book-title=Etymology and the European Lexicon |conference=14th Fachtagung of the Indogermanische Gesellschaft, 17–22 September 2012|date=2012 |publisher=University of Copenhagen |title=Against Old European: Why we need to be more specific|pages=47–48}}</ref>

=== Origin of the vigesimal numerical systems in Europe ===
Vennemann argues that the vigesimal numerical systems in the modern Celtic languages, in French and Danish are a remnant of the Vasconic vigesimal counting system. According to Manfred Kudlek, Old Irish and Gallic did not have vigesimal counting systems and neither did Old Norse. The vigesimal systems in the respective languages developed during the Middle Ages, e.g. Danish started to use a vigesimal system in the 13th/14th century. Therefore, the French system cannot be the result of Celtic influence.<ref name="Kudlek">{{cite book |last1=Kudlek |first1=Manfred |editor1-last=Bachmann |editor1-first=Armin R. |editor2-last=Himstedt |editor2-first=Katja |editor3-last=El Mogharbel |editor3-first=Christliebe |title=Form und Struktur in der Sprache : Festschrift für Elmar Ternes |date=2010 |publisher=Narr |location=Tübingen |isbn=9783823362869 |pages=221–240 |language=de |chapter=Vigesimale Zahlensysteme : in Sprachen Europas und benachbarter Gebiete}}</ref> Kudlek proposes that the Celtic and Danish systems are loans from French.{{r|Kudlek}} Brigitte Bauer, too, rejects substratal influence. She suggests that intrasocietal developments, e.g. in the monetary system, may explain the adoption of vigesimal systems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bauer |first1=Brigitte |title=Vigesimal numerals in Romance: an Indoeuropean perspective |journal=General Linguistics |date=2004 |volume=41 |pages=21–46}}</ref>

=== Genetics ===
Manfred Kayser and Lutz Roewer, both experts on genetics, commented in 2013 that genetics do not reveal anything about the languages spoken by the individuals. Furthermore, the information genetics can deliver on population historical hypothesis is limited.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Udolph |first1=Jürgen |last2=Kayser |first2=Manfred |last3=Roewer |first3=Lutz |editor1-last=Udolph |editor1-first=Jürgen |title=Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa |publication-date=2013 |publisher=Baar |location=Hamburg |isbn=978-3-935536-06-6 |pages=361–386 |chapter=Fragen an die Genforschung |year=2013 |language=de}}</ref>

Dieterlen and Bengtson find the distribution of blood factors and haploid groups is convincing evidence for Basque settlement in Western Europe before the Indo-Europeans settled there in line with Vennemann's hypothesis. They note that similarity between the distributions in Basque areas and Sardinia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dieterlen |first1=Florent |last2=Bengtson |first2=John |title=Confirmation de l'ancienne extension des Basques par l'étude des dialectes de l'Europe de l'Ouest romane |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |date=1 January 2017 |volume=14 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.31826/jlr-2017-141-204 |trans-title=Confirmation on the former extension of the Basque through the study of Western European Romance dialects |publisher=Gorgias Press |location=Piscataway |language=fr|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Atlantic (Semitic) languages]]
*[[Atlantic Bronze Age]]
*[[Aquitanian language]]
*[[Bronze Age in Europe]]
*[[Indo-European substrate hypotheses]]
*[[Neolithic Europe#Language in the Neolithic|Neolithic Europe § Language in the Neolithic]]
*[[Old European hydronymy]]
*[[Origin of the Basques#Old European|Origin of the Basques § Old European]]
*[[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula]]
*[[Proto-Basque]]
*[[Urbian]]
*[[Dené–Caucasian languages]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}<!--added under references heading by script-assisted edit-->

==External links==
* [http://www.theo-vennemann.com/ Personal homepage of Theo Vennemann]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100505004454/http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~vennemann/ Theo Vennemann's page at University of Munich]
* [https://linguistlist.org/issues/15/15-1878/ Review of Theo Vennemann's collection of articles, ''Europa Vasconica - Europa Semitica''], by Hayim Sheynin via [[LINGUIST List]] 15.1878 (June 21, 2004)
* [http://www.psu.edu/dept/cls/pubs/pubs/LINGUA1158.pdf Review of Theo Vennemann's ''Europa Vasconica-Europa Semitica''], by [[Philip Baldi]] and B. Richard Page, in ''Lingua'', volume 116, issue 12, December 2006.

{{Eurasian languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vasconic Substratum Theory}}
[[Category:Pre-Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Basque language]]
[[Category:Historical linguistics]]
[[Category:Linguistic strata]]