View source for User:Garzo/lala

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=Lychee=
{{article|lychee}} — [[wikt:lychee]]

[[Middle Chinese]]: lèće

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 'Lychee' in various languages
|-
! Language
! Original script
! [[Romanisation]]
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|Pronunciation]]
|-
| [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]]
| {{zh|荔枝}}
| {{zh|lìzhī}}<br />{{zh-w|w=li<sup>4</sup>chih<sup>1</sup>}}
| {{IPA|[ li˥˩ ʈʂʐ̩˥˥ ]}}
|-
| [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]
| {{zh|荔枝}}
| {{Cantonese-j|j=lai6 zi1}}<br />{{zh-cy|cy=laihjì}}
| {{IPA|[ lɐi˨ tsiː˥˧ ]}}
|-
| [[Min Nan]]
| {{zh|荔枝}}
| [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]: {{Transliteration|zh-nan|Pe̍h-ōe-jī|nāi-chi}}
| {{IPA|[ nai˧˧ tɕi˥˥ ]}}
|-
| [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
| [[Katakana]]: {{script|Kana|レイシ、ライチー、ライチ}}<br />[[Kanji]]: {{script|Hani|茘枝}}
| [[Hepburn romanization|Hepburn]]: {{Transliteration|ja|Hepburn|reishi, raichī, raichi}}<br />[[Kunrei-shiki Rōmaji|Kunrei-shiki]]: {{Transliteration|ja|Kunrei-shiki|reisi, raitî, raiti}}
| {{IPA|[ɺ̠ejɕi]}}, {{IPA|[ɺ̠ajtɕiː]}}, {{IPA|[ɺ̠ajtɕi]}}
|-
| [[Korean language|Korean]]
| [[Hangul]]: {{script|Hang|여지}}
| [[McCune-Reischauer|MR]]: {{Transliteration|ko|McCune-Reischauer|yŏchi}}<br />[[Revised Romanization of Korean|Rev.]]: {{Transliteration|ko|Revised Romanization|yeoji}}<br />[[Yale Romanization#Korean|Yale]]: {{Transliteration|ko|Yale|yeci}}
| [[South Korea|SK]]: {{IPA|[jʌ.tɕi]}}<br />[[North Korea|NK]]: {{IPA|[jʌ.zi]}}
|-
| [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
| {{lang|vi|vải, lệ chi}}
| style="background:lightgrey;" | 
| [[Hanoi]]: {{IPA|[ vɐːj˧˩˧ ]}}, {{IPA|[ l̺ɜj˧˨ ci˧˧ ]}}<br />[[Saigon]]: {{IPA|[ jɐːj˧˩˧ ]}}, {{IPA|[ l̻ʲɜj˧˨ ci˧˧ ]}}
|-
| [[Thai language|Thai]]
| {{lang|th|ลิ้นจี่}}
| [[Royal Thai General System of Transcription|RTGS]]: {{Transliteration|th|RTGS|linchi}}<br />[[ISO 11940]]: {{Transliteration|th|ISO 11940|lîncī̀}}
| {{IPA|[lín.tɕìː]}}
|-
| [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]
| {{lang|tl|alupag-amo, letsias, licheas}}
| style="background:lightgrey;" | 
| {{IPA|[ɐˈlu.pəɡ ˈamo]}}, {{IPA|[lɪˈtʃi.əs]}}
|-
| [[Malay language|Malay]]
| {{lang|ms|laici}}
| style="background:lightgrey;" | 
| {{IPA|[ˈlaɪ̯.tʃi]}}
|-
| [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]
| [[Devanāgarī]]: {{script|Deva|लीची}}<br />[[Urdu alphabet|Urdu]]: {{nastaliq|لیچی}}
| [[IAST]]: {{IAST|līcī}}
| {{IPA|[liːtʃiː]}}
|}

=Linguistics templates=
See [[:Category:Multilingual support templates]].
* {{[[Template:Semxlit|Semxlit]]}} — {{
* {{[[Template:Ar|Ar]]}}, for making Arabic script
* {{[[Template:ArL|ArL]]}}, for making Arabic script large
* {{[[Template:Transl|Transl]]}}, for making Arabic transliteration, use either <nowiki>{{Transliteration|ar|TEXT}}</nowiki> or <nowiki>{{Transliteration|ar|DIN|text}}</nowiki> (the latter is for DIN transliteration)
* {{[[Template:lang-ar|lang-ar]]}}
* {{[[Template:lang-fa|lang-fa]]}}, for making Persian script bold
* {{[[Template:Polytonic|Polytonic]]}}
* {{[[Template:IPA|IPA]]}}
* {{[[Template:IPA2|IPA2]]}}

=Linguasphere codes=
Each [[Linguasphere]] ''phylozone'' has a separate PDF:
*0 — African geosector
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/00.pdf 00 — Mandaic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/01.pdf 01 — Sonhaic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/02.pdf 02 — Saharic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/03.pdf 03 — Sudanic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/04.pdf 04 — Nilotic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/05.pdf 05 — East-Sahel geozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/06.pdf 06 — Kordofanic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/07.pdf 07 — Rift-Valley geozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/08.pdf 08 — Khoisanic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/09.pdf 09 — Kalahari geozone]
*1 — Afro-Asian phylosector
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/10.pdf 10 — Tamazic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/11.pdf 11 — Coptic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/12.pdf 12 — Semitic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/13.pdf 13 — Bejic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/14.pdf 14 — Cushitic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/15.pdf 15 — Eyasic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/16.pdf 16 — Omotic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/17.pdf 17 — Charic phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/18.pdf 18 — Mandaric phylozone]
**[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/19.pdf 19 — Bauchic phylozone]

=Arabic use and transliteration policy (proposal)=

{|border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 103%; text-align: center;"
|+Arabic transliteration schemes
!Arabic||Strict<br>transliteration||Customary<br>transliteration||Notes
|-
|ا||||||Left untransliterated unless accompanied by other signs; see below.
|-
|ب||b||b|| 
|-
|ت||t||t|| 
|-
|ث||ṯ||th||
|-
|ج||ǧ||j ''or'' g||''J'' is used generally: ''g'' is used in those dialects that require it.
|-
|ح||ḥ||h||
|-
|خ||ẖ||kh||
|-
|د||d||d||
|-
|ذ||ḏ||dh||
|-
|ر||r||r||
|-
|ز||z||z||
|-
|س||s||s||
|-
|ش||š||sh||
|-
|ص||ṣ||s||
|-
|ض||ḍ||d||
|-
|ط||ṭ||t||
|-
|ظ||ẓ||z||
|-
|ع||ʿ||`||The 'back tick' (`) is convenient way of distinguishing `ayn from hamza.
|-
|غ||ġ||gh||
|-
|ف||f||f||
|-
|ق||q||q||
|-
|ك||k||k||
|-
|ل||l||l||
|-
|م||m||m||
|-
|ن||n||n||
|-
|ه||h||h||
|-
|و||w||w||
|-
|ي||y||y||
|-
|ء||ʾ||'||Hamza should always be transliterated.
|-
|ة||ä||a ''or'' at||There are a number of different ways of dealing with ta' marbuta.
|-
|َ||a||a||
|-
|َا||ā||a||
|-
|ِ||i||i||
|-
|ِي||ī||i||
|-
|ِيّ||iyy||iyy||
|-
|ُ||u||u||
|-
|ُو||ū||u||
|-
|ُوّ||uww||uww||
|-
|آ||ʾā||'a||
|-
|َى||à||a||This is useful to distinguish.
|-
|َي||ay||ay||
|-
|َو||aw||aw||
|}

= Using the language template =

The language template is for use in articles about languages or dialects. It provides a common standard for displaying data about a language.

===How to incorporate the template into an article: the basics===

The template should placed at the very top of the wikitext of the article, before any text. The absolute basic syntax is as shown below:

:'''<nowiki>{{language</nowiki>''' &larr; this calls the template<br>
:'''|name='''name of language &larr; the name of the language needs to be given<br>
:'''|familycolor='''appropriate colour for language family &larr; the selection of colours can be found at [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Languages#Colors in the infoboxes|WikiProject Languages]]<br>
:'''<nowiki>}}</nowiki>''' &larr; this ends the template call

However, you will probably want to add more than just this. Other parameters are listed below, they can be incorporated anywhere between the first and last lines, and in any order.

===Some more parameters===

There are several more parameters that can be defined between the opening and closing lines. These are:

'''|nativename='''native name of the language ← this is what the name of the language in that language<br>
'''|states='''countries in which it is mainly spoken<br>
'''|region='''geographic region in which it is mainly spoken<br>
'''|speakers='''the number of speakers of the language<br>
'''|iso1='''the [[ISO 639-1]] code for the language<br>
'''|iso2='''the [[ISO 639-2]] code for the language<br>
'''|iso3='''the [[ISO 639-3]] code for the language<br>
'''|sil='''the lanuage code in the 14th edition of [[Ethnologue]]

If any of these are unknown, simply leave them out: the template will provide a default text.

===How to display the genetic classification of a language===

You can use the language template to show the [[language family|genetic classification]] of a language at a glance. This classification is displayed as a descending staircase of language families, from the broadest to the most specific. To add the genetic classification use the following:

'''|fam1='''the broadest possible widely accepted [[language family]] of which the language is a part<br>
'''|fam2='''a more specific sub-family<br>
'''|fam3='''a more specific group

You can keep adding parameters in like fashion until you have completed the classification. If you would prefer to enter some other information in this box (for example, ''disputed''), use this parameter instead:

'''|family='''whatever you want to say

===Some optional parameters===

Some parts of the template remain invisible unless they are specifically called. Only use these parameters if they are required.

'''|fontcolor='''colour of font against 'familycolor' ← the font colour is usually black, use this to change it if it is difficultto read<br>
'''|rank='''language's ranking in the [[list of languages by number of native speakers]]<br>
'''|nation='''list of countries in which it is an official language<br>
'''|agency='''regulatory body or language academy for the language

===Where a language has more than one ISO 639-3 code===

Some languages have a number of [[ISO 639-3]] codes, one for each dialect of that language. If you try putting all of these codes in the usual '''iso3=''' parameter, it will get quite messy. Instead, use the following parameters:

'''|lc1='''language code of the first dialect<br>
'''|ld1='''name of the first language dialect<br>
'''|ll1='''link to the Wikipedia article on that dialect

For subsequent dialects, use '''lc2''' and so forth. If the name of a language is the same as its Wikipedia article, you do not need to define '''ll3'''. It will link without it.

===Using the template for sign languages===

This template is appropriate to use for sign languages. Somewhere, add this following parameter:

'''|signers='''number of people who sign that language

Once this parameter is defined (even if it's set to ''unknown''), the rest of the template makes sure that any reference to 'speaking' is replaced by ones to 'signing'. All the other parameters work in exactly the same way.

= Classification of [[Semitic languages]] =

There are a number of different classification schemes for Semitic languages. The main difference seems to be based on whether the writer is working mainly with extinct languages (e.g. [[Akkadian]]) or living languages (e.g. [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]]). I'm trying to work out what the consensus is here, so please feel free to add to this table.

Text from [http://webs.ono.com/usr042/ignacioferrando/jsai.htm Ignacio Ferrando]:
:The issue of Semitic subclassification, and especially the position of dialects related to Arabic or Northarabic<sup>1</sup> has produced in the last decades a good deal of scientific debate amongst Western scholars. It is indeed an actual fact that Arabic shares significant isoglosses with Southsemitic languages, such as a rich system of internal or "broken" plurals or the articulation -f for northern -p. On the other hand Arabic also shares some important features with Northwest Semitic, among them the imperfect verbal stem without gemination (yaqtul) and a set of -t suffixes in the perfect stem. In light of these facts, some scholars, following the traditional lines of Semitic studies, classified Arabic within the Southwest Semitic branch along with the languages of South Arabia and Ethiopia; see the works of Diem (1980), Zaborski (1994), Corriente (1992:24) (1996:12-13) and Ratcliffe (1998a) and (1998b:150-152 and 204-213). However, other scholars prefer to accept the hypothesis put forward by Hetzron (1974), which adopts the view that Arabic belongs to the Central Semitic branch, along with the traditionally named Northwest Semitic (Hebrew, Aramaic). Among these scholars we find Voigt (1987), Rodgers (1991), Kaye (1991), Faber (1997) and Lipinski (1997:46-49).

:There is also a somewhat intermediate proposal put forward by Garbini (1984:110-112) and Garbini & Durand (1994:140-143), that Arabic is the result of an innovative Northwest Semitic dialect (Amorreic) which entered the Arabian Peninsula in the first millenium b.c. Interference and interaction with the local pre-Semitic substratum, mainly prone to archaism, ultimately produced the Arabic language in its historical form.<sup>2</sup>

NOTES:
# It is not necessary to insist here on the heterogeneity of elements on the basis of which the Arabic koinè (Classical Arabic) was formed, rapidly reaching a prestigious status and spreading, in such a way that it is nowadays justified to speak of "Arabic" rather than of "Arabic varieties". Besides this general perspective, it is important of course not to forget the absence of homogeneity in the first phases of the history of the language.
# It is interesting to observe that, in line with the methodological premises of Hetzron (1976), all these attempts of classification are based on morphologic, to a lesser extent phonetic features. But it would be perhaps interesting to consider other levels of language (syntax, lexicon and semantics) when establishing such genetic relationships between languages and/or dialects, as suggested by Owens (1996), who, after emphasizing the role of idiomatic structure as a useful tool for the task of classification and subclassification of linguistic varieties, applies this perspective to Nigerian Arabic.

== Different schemes for classifying Semitic languages ==

{| border="1" celpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"
! Languages
! Beyer
! Huehnergard
! Ethnologue
! source unknown
! Hetzron
|-
| Babylonian-Assyrian
| East Semitic
| rowspan="2"|East Semitic
| rowspan="4"|not classified
| rowspan="3"|North Peripheral
| rowspan="3"|Eastern Semitic
|-
| Euphrates dialects
| rowspan="2"|North Semitic
|-
| rowspan="2"|Ugaritic
| rowspan="4"|West S/Central S/Northwest S
|-
| rowspan="3"|West Semitic
| rowspan="3"|North Central
| rowspan="3"|Central S/Northwest S
|-
| Aramaic
| Central/Aramaic
|-
| Canaanite
| rowspan="2"|Central/South
|-
| Arabic
| rowspan="4"|South Semitic
| rowspan="2"|West S/Central S/North Arabian
| rowspan="2"|South Central
| rowspan="2"|Central S/South Central (Arabic)
|-
| Ancient North Arabic
| not classified
|-
| South Arabian
| rowspan="2"|West S/South S
| South/South Arabian
| rowspan="2"|South Peripheral
| rowspan="2"|South Semitic
|-
| Ethiopic
| South/Ethiopian
|}

Huehnergard's ''A Grammar of Akkadian'' also has an interesting chart that further subdivides the Semitic family:

# East Semitic
## ''Akkadian'' and ''Eblaite''
# West Semitic
## Central Semitic
###Northwest Semitic
#### ''Ugaritic''
#### Canaanite (including ''Hebrew'')
#### ''Aramaic''
### North Arabian
#### Arabic Dialects
## South Semitic
### South Arabian
#### Old South Arabian Languages
### Ethiopian
#### ''Ge'ez''
#### ''Amharic''

I'd be willing to reorganize the article along these lines, but not until this is paraphrased (ideally by the addition of more language names).

[[user:Benwbrum|Ben Brumfield]]

Thankyou for that Ben, including the above there are now four different classifications I know of. In one of them Punic comes under West Semetic somewhere between North & South Arabian and Ugaritic under Canaanite which is also called NorthCentral. A user called [[user:Wetman]] on the [[Phoenician]] page proposed "Phoenician was one of the northwestern Semitic languages, those languages that include Amorite and Ugaritic, in addition to the Canaanite languages that include Phoenician, Hebrew and Aramaic." As you can see he seperates Amorite from Canaanite and replaces it with Punic. These may be very minor differences in opinion but I wonter how the arguments go for the different classifications?

== Categorization of Canaanite languages ==

{| border="1" celpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"
! Languages
! Beyer
|-
| parts of Ugaritic
| rowspan="2"|North Canaanite
|-
| the language of the names at Ugarit
|-
| Amortite
| East Canaanite
|-
| Proto-Byblian
| rowspan="3"|West Canaanite
|-
| the western area of Amarna glosses
|-
| Phoenician-Punic (and the Gezer Calendar)
|-
| Proto-Sinaitic
| rowspan="8"|South Canaanite
|-
| Taanach and southern area of Amarna glosses
|-
| North Hebrew
|-
| Ammonite
|-
| Moabite
|-
| South Hebrew
|-
| Gileadite
|-
| Edomite
|}

== Text from the Semitic languages article reworked ==

{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="center"
! rowspan="2" style="background:#0000ff; color:#ffffff;"|East<br>Semitic
| colspan="7"|[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] &mdash; extinct
|-
| colspan="7"|[[Eblaite language|Eblaite]] &mdash; controversial, either East Semitic or Northwest Semitic &mdash; extinct
|-
! rowspan="41" style="background:#ffff00; color:#000000;"|West<br>Semitic
! rowspan="11" bgcolor="#00ff00"|Central<br>Semitic
| rowspan="9" bgcolor="#99ff00"|Northwest<br>Semitic
| colspan="5"|[[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]] &mdash; extinct
|-
| rowspan="5" bgcolor="#ccff00"|[[Canaanite languages|Canaanite<br>languages]]
| colspan="4"|[[Ammonite language|Ammonite]] &mdash; extinct
|-
| colspan="4"|[[Moabite language|Moabite]] &mdash; extinct
|-
| colspan="4"|[[Edomite language|Edomite]] &mdash; extinct
|-
| colspan="4"|[[Hebrew languages|Hebrew]] &mdash; renewed
|-
| colspan="4"|[[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] (incl. [[Punic]]) &mdash; extinct
|-
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="#99ff33"|[[Aramaic languages|Aramaic<br>languages]]
| colspan="4"|[[Syriac language|Syriac]]
|-
| colspan="4"|[[Mandaic language|Mandaic]]
|-
| colspan="5"|[[Amorite language|Amorite]] &mdash; extinct<br>(attested only in proper names transcribed in Akkadian;<br>perhaps parent lang. of NW or Cent. Semitic)
|-
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="#00ff99"|Southwest<br>Semitic<br>(Arabic)
| colspan="5"|[[Arabic language|Arabic]]
|-
| colspan="5"|[[Maltese language|Maltese]]
|-
! rowspan="30" bgcolor="#ff0000"|South<br>Semitic
| rowspan="24" bgcolor="#ff9900"|Southwest<br>Semitic
| rowspan="20" bgcolor="#ff3300"|Ethiopic
| rowspan="3" bgcolor="#ff6600"|North<br>Ethiopic
| colspan="3"|[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]
|-
| colspan="3"|[[Tigre language|Tigre]]
|-
| colspan="3"|[[Ge'ez language|Ge'ez]]
|-
| rowspan="17" bgcolor="#ff3333"|South<br>Ethiopic
| rowspan="8" style="background:#996699; color:#ffffff;"|Transverse
| colspan="2"|[[Amharic language|Amharic]]
|-
| colspan="2"|[[Argobba language|Argobba]]
|-
| colspan="2"|[[Harari language|Harari]]
|-
| rowspan="5" bgcolor="#cc33cc"|East<br>Gurage<br>languages
| [[Selti language|Selti]]
|-
| [[Wolane language|Wolane]]
|-
| [[Zway language|Zway]]
|-
| [[Ulbare language|Ulbare]]
|-
| [[Inneqor language|Inneqor]]
|-
| rowspan="9" style="background:#669966; color:#ffffff;"|Outer
| colspan="2"|[[Soddo language|Soddo]] (North Gurage)
|-
| colspan="2"|[[Goggot language|Goggot]] (Gurange unclass.)
|-
| colspan="2"|[[Muher language|Muher]] (Gurage unclass.)
|-
| rowspan="6" bgcolor="#33cc33"|West<br>Gurage<br>languages
| [[Masqan language|Masqan]] (Gurage unclass.?)
|-
| [[Ezha language|Ezha]]
|-
| [[Gura language|Gura]]
|-
| [[Gyeto language|Gyeto]]
|-
| [[Ennemor language|Ennemor]]
|-
| [[Endegen language|Endegen]]
|-
| rowspan="4" bgcolor="#ff9933"|[[Old South Arabian|Old<br>South<br>Arabian]]
| colspan="4"|[[Sabaean language|Sabaean]] &mdash; extinct
|-
| colspan="4"|[[Minaean language|Minaean]] &mdash; extinct
|-
| colspan="4"|[[Qatabanian language|Qatabanian]] &mdash; extinct
|-
| colspan="4"|[[Hadhramautic languages|Hadhramautic languages]] &mdash; extinct
|-
| rowspan="6" bgcolor="#ff0099"|Southeast<br>Semitic
| colspan="5"|[[Soqotri language|Soqotri]]
|-
| colspan="5"|[[Mehri language|Mehri]]
|-
| colspan="5"|[[Jibbali language|Jibbali]]
|-
| colspan="5"|[[Harsusi language|Harsusi]]
|-
| colspan="5"|[[Bathari language|Bathari]]
|-
| colspan="5"|[[Hobyot language|Hobyot]]
|}

== How Ethnologue does it ==

Afro-Asiatic  (372) 
*Semitic (74) 
**Central (57) 
***Aramaic (19) 
****Eastern (17) 
*****Central (14)
******Northeastern (12) 
*******ASSYRIAN NEO-ARAMAIC  [AII] (Iraq) 
*******LISHANID NOSHAN  [AIJ] (Israel) 
*******BOHTAN NEO-ARAMAIC  [BHN] (Georgia) 
*******BIJIL NEO-ARAMAIC  [BJF] (Israel) 
*******BABYLONIAN TALMUDIC ARAMAIC  [BYA] (Israel) 
*******CHALDEAN NEO-ARAMAIC  [CLD] (Iraq) 
*******HÉRTEVIN  [HRT] (Turkey (Asia)) 
*******HULAULÁ  [HUY] (Israel) 
*******KOY SANJAQ SURAT  [KQD] (Iraq) 
*******LISHANA DENI  [LSD] (Israel) 
*******SENAYA  [SYN] (Iran) 
*******LISHÁN DIDÁN  [TRG] (Israel) 
******Northwestern (2) 
*******MLAHSÖ  [QMQ] (Syria) 
*******TUROYO  [SYR] (Turkey (Asia)) 
*****Mandaic (2)
******MANDAIC  [MID] (Iran) 
******MANDAIC, CLASSICAL  [MYZ] (Iran) 
*****SYRIAC  [SYC] (Turkey (Asia)) 
****Western (2) 
*****WESTERN NEO-ARAMAIC  [AMW] (Syria) 
*****SAMARITAN ARAMAIC  [SRA] (Palestinian West Bank and Gaza) 
***South (38) 
****Arabic (35) 
*****ARABIC, ALGERIAN SAHARAN SPOKEN  [AAO] (Algeria) 
*****ARABIC, TAJIKI SPOKEN  [ABH] (Tajikistan) 
*****ARABIC, STANDARD  [ABV] (Saudi Arabia) 
*****ARABIC, MESOPOTAMIAN SPOKEN  [ACM] (Iraq) 
*****ARABIC, TA'IZZI-ADENI SPOKEN  [ACQ] (Yemen) 
*****ARABIC, HIJAZI SPOKEN  [ACW] (Saudi Arabia) 
*****ARABIC, OMANI SPOKEN  [ACX] (Oman) 
*****ARABIC, CYPRIOT SPOKEN  [ACY] (Cyprus) 
*****ARABIC, DHOFARI SPOKEN  [ADF] (Oman) 
*****ARABIC, TUNISIAN SPOKEN  [AEB] (Tunisia) 
*****ARABIC, SA<IDI SPOKEN  [AEC] (Egypt) 
*****ARABIC, GULF SPOKEN  [AFB] (Iraq) 
*****ARABIC, BAHARNA SPOKEN  [AFH] (Bahrain) 
*****ARABIC, SOUTH LEVANTINE SPOKEN  [AJP] (Jordan) 
*****ARABIC, JUDEO-TUNISIAN  [AJT] (Israel) 
*****ARABIC, JUDEO-MOROCCAN  [AJU] (Israel) 
*****ARABIC, NORTH LEVANTINE SPOKEN  [APC] (Syria) 
*****ARABIC, SUDANESE SPOKEN  [APD] (Sudan) 
*****ARABIC, ALGERIAN SPOKEN  [ARQ] (Algeria) 
*****ARABIC, NAJDI SPOKEN  [ARS] (Saudi Arabia) 
*****ARABIC, MOROCCAN SPOKEN  [ARY] (Morocco) 
*****ARABIC, EGYPTIAN SPOKEN  [ARZ] (Egypt) 
*****ARABIC, UZBEKI SPOKEN  [AUZ] (Uzbekistan) 
*****ARABIC, EASTERN EGYPTIAN BEDAWI SPOKEN  [AVL] (Egypt) 
*****ARABIC, HADRAMI SPOKEN  [AYH] (Yemen) 
*****ARABIC, LIBYAN SPOKEN  [AYL] (Libya) 
*****ARABIC, SANAANI SPOKEN  [AYN] (Yemen) 
*****ARABIC, NORTH MESOPOTAMIAN SPOKEN  [AYP] (Iraq) 
*****ARABIC, JUDEO-YEMENI  [JYE] (Israel) 
*****HASSANIYYA  [MEY] (Mauritania) 
*****MALTESE  [MLS] (Malta) 
*****ARABIC, CHADIAN SPOKEN  [SHU] (Chad) 
*****ARABIC, SHIHHI SPOKEN  [SSH] (United Arab Emirates) 
*****ARABIC, JUDEO-IRAQI  [YHD] (Israel) 
*****ARABIC, JUDEO-TRIPOLITANIAN  [YUD] (Israel) 
****Canaanite (3) 
*****HEBREW, ANCIENT  [HBO] (Israel) 
*****HEBREW  [HBR] (Israel) 
*****SAMARITAN  [SMP] (Palestinian West Bank and Gaza) 
**South (17) 
***Ethiopian (12) 
****North (3) 
*****GEEZ  [GEE] (Ethiopia) 
*****TIGRIGNA  [TGN] (Ethiopia) 
*****TIGRÉ  [TIE] (Eritrea) 
****South (9) 
*****Outer (4) 
******n-Group (2) 
*******GAFAT  [GFT] (Ethiopia) 
*******GURAGE, SODDO  [GRU] (Ethiopia) 
******tt-Group (2) 
*******GURAGE, WEST  [GUY] (Ethiopia) 
*******MESMES  [MYS] (Ethiopia) 
*****Transversal (5) 
******Amharic-Argobba (2) 
*******ARGOBBA  [AGJ] (Ethiopia) 
*******AMHARIC  [AMH] (Ethiopia) 
******Harari-East Gurage (3) 
*******GURAGE, EAST  [GRE] (Ethiopia) 
*******HARARI  [HAR] (Ethiopia) 
*******ZAY  [ZWA] (Ethiopia)
***South Arabian (5) 
****HOBYÓT  [HOH] (Oman) 
****HARSUSI  [HSS] (Oman) 
****MEHRI  [MHR] (Yemen) 
****JIBBALI  [SHV] (Oman) 
****SOQOTRI  [SQT] (Yemen)


Hm, I added more info to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Semitic_languages (Classification again) with no reaction. If somebody really interested I look forward. [[User:Koryakov Yuri|Koryakov Yuri]] 10:11, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

= Grammar Universals =

Some of the grammar articles on WP are in a mess. They are heavily biased towards English and Indo-European languages. [[Grammatical tense/multilingual sources]] is a preparation area for a more universal approach to tense in language. This is my thinking outloud section.

== Conceptual hierarchy ==

* Temporal deixis (semantic feature of referring to time).
** Non-morphosyntactic temporal deixis (time referrence is inferred only by context).
*** Temporal adverbs used for clarification.
** Morphosyntactic temporal deixis (time referrence is grammatically marked).
*** Syntactic temporal deixis (a grammatical particle marks time referrences).
*** Morphological temporal deixis (one or more words carry the time referrence marker).

Often blurred kinds of temporal deixis:
# Tense (major temporal referrence).
## Absolute tense (referrence to the 'now' of the utterance).
## Relative tense (reference to the 'then' of narative).
## Hybrid tense (reference to the 'then' of narrative in referrence to the 'now' of utterance).
# 'Temporal contouring' (the 'viewpoint' and 'kind of action')
## Aspect (grammatical coding - aspectuality is additional encoding) (perfective/imperfective) ('viewpoint')
## Aktionsart (lexical coding - words have encoded aspectuality) (stative/dynamic) ('kind of action')

== Getting tense? ==

'''Anders:''' I am primarily indebted to the Sw Natl Encyclopedia and Siegfried Lienhard: ''Tempusgebrauch und Aktionsartenbildung in der modernen Hindi'' for what follows. (Another book to check out is, according to Lienhard, Horst Renicke: ''Die Theorie der Aspekte und Aktionsarten'' and perhaps also Max Deuschbein: ''Aspekte und Aktionsarten im Neuenglischen''. There is also a more recent, massive tome, edited by Östen Dahl, ''Tense and Aspect Systems''.)

Aktionsarten are verbal constructions, describing the general characteristics of actions, as objectively stated by the speaker. A personal involvement of the speaker is possible, but subordinate. Examples of Aktionsarten are starting (ingressive-inchoative), instantaneous, continuing (progressive-continuative) and ending (egressive-conclusive).

Aspects are kinds of time perspectives which describe the speaker's view, like perfective, progressive or habitual.

Lienhard regards tenses (at least in Hindi) as secondary phenomena that relate originally aspect carrying forms to time domains. "A tense" originates "by a kind of linear interpretation of a localized aspect". (My translation of Lienhard's quoting F. Rundgren: ''Intensiv und Aspektkorrelation. Studien zur äthiopischen und akkadischen Verbalstammbildung''.)

Finally, it seems that Jerzy Kury<s>l</s>owicz in ''Aspect et temps dans l'histoire du persan'', and his ''L'apophonie en indo-européen'' discusses the pair of opposites imperfective-perfective in an interesting way, assigning different symbols consisting of combinations of Greek letters and subscripts to, for example, I write, I am writing, I have written, I have been writing, I wrote, I was writing,  I had written and I had been writing.

'''Anders:''' I'm afraid that this question requires a definition of "word"... Hindi uses verbs, lots of them in a row, to express subtle shades of meaning, but who am I to tell if they are verb forms as separate words, or if they can be classified as inflectional morphemes? The most common term is "compound verbs", but I don't find any consensus on the interpretation of usages. Compare the general nonspecific ''gâ.ri caltî hai'' "the train gone is" 'the train goes' or ''gâ.rî caltî thî'' "the train gone was" 'the train went' with ''gâ.rî cal dî'' "train went gave" 'the train left', in principle stressing that the action concerns somebody else than the doer, and the more sudden ''gâ.rî cal pa.rî'' "train went fell (preterite of 'fall')" 'the train began to move'.

This is interesting to compare to the Chinese general notion of going (away) ''chu'', the completed/accomplished (perfective?) having gone ''laile'', the having gone once ''laiguo'' or the ongoing going ''laizhe''.

'''Flaminius:''' Japanese adjectives are conjugated in the same paradigm as verbs, although the two parts of speech have different ''inflectional forms'' for the same paradigm.  To tell you the truth I am not very comfortable using the word conjugation in Japanese grammar for the paradigm is not defined by such features as are common in European and Semitic languages; person, number, gender etc.  For detail please refer first to my then-irrelevant posts in Ottoman Turkish thead.

I will show a part of Japanese conjugational paradigm just to contrast conjugations of verbs and adjectives (hyphen separates the stem and the inflectional affix).

Present or unmarked tense
shiro-i (am/are/is white) (< CJ shiroshi)
kam-u (I/you/he/she/they bite)

After-Noun-Clause form
shiro-i N (a/the white N) (< CJ shiroki)
kam-u N (a/the N that bites)

Past test or perfect aspect
shiro-katta (was/were white) (< shiroku-atta; white-existed morphologically)
kan-da (I/you/he/she they bit) (< kam-ta; morphologically)

After-Negation form in the unmarked tense
shiro-ku nai (white not); the negative word ''nai'' is another adjective.
kam-a nai (do/does not bite)

And-Form (I suspect this is adverbialisation)
shiro-ku te kuroi (am/is/are white and black)
kan-de taberu (bite and eat = ''awkward'' masticate)

'''Henri:''' I confess myself a little confused by the examples given by Anders to illustrate aspect in Chinese verbs.

But why the switch of verbs, from «''chu''» («''qu''» ?) to «''lai''» ? In any event, the use of the particle «''zhe''» after verbs is especially interesting, but it is important not to identify such combinations with an English progressive tense. Thus a dialogue of the type ''What are you doing ? - I'm eating'' would be rendered in Chinese by ''Ni zuo shemma ? - (Wo) chifan'' rather than by ''Ni zuozhe shemme ? - (Wo) chizhe fan''. 
In my experience, «''zhe''» is most often suffixed to a verb to indicate that it serves as ongoing background to the action desribed by another verb. Thus the phrase mentioned by Flam on another [http://www.yourdictionary.com/cgi-bin/agora/agora.cgi?board=translate;action=display;num=1102840762;start=14#14 thread] ''I have once heard a chinese comment on his compatriot students of Japanese, "xiao3 zhao2 jin3, ku2 zhao2 chu2."  In a peculiar parallel to Henri's expression it means "laughing enter but crying exit."'' which I, however, would transliterate slightly differently, as follows:
«''Xiao''4''zhe''0 ''jin''4, ''ku''1''zhe''0 ''chu''1».

Indeed, if I may speculate, I can't help wondering if the «''te''» suffix in Japanese ''And-Form (I suspect this is adverbialisation)  
shiro-ku te kuroi (am/is/are white and black)  
kan-de taberu (bite and eat = awkward masticate) ''
is not, in fact, derived from this use of the particle «''zhe''» in Chinese. Let us hope that that Chinese Otto Jespersen of the Japanese language does turn up while we are still around to benefit !...

'''Flaminius:''' Myself ''And-Form (I suspect this is adverbialisation)  
shiro-ku te kuroi (am/is/are white and black)  
kan-de taberu (bite and eat = awkward masticate) ''
Verbs can form request expressions with this ''te''-form.  E.g., kande kudasai (Please bite) ''kudasai'' < CJ kudasare; ''polite'' to give; imperative.

I consider this usage somewhat akin to English expressions like "ask you to bite," although the subject to the infinitive is not explicitly shown in the Japanese counterpart.  

However, an adjective in ''te''-form before a verb is ungrammatical.
E.g., *shiroku-te kudasai.
In order for any form of imperative/request expression using adjectives to be grammatical, a verb in ''te''-form should intervene between the adjective and the main verb.

Thus, some examples of such expressions are;
shiroku-natte kudasai.  (natte < naru; become)
   Become white, please.
shiroku-shite kudasai. (shite < suru; do or make)
   Make it/him/yourself/etc. white, please.

For convenience of those who intend to commit Internet search, I favoured the term ''te''-form in this post.  This is the most dominant appellation in the literature (In our examples the verb ''kande'' is the result of forward assimilation like kami-te > kamte > kande).

My conviction is, though, that this is advervialisation for it is "suffixed to a verb to indicate that it serves as ongoing background to the action ([http://www.yourdictionary.com/cgi-bin/agora/agora.cgi?board=grammar;action=display;num=1103748928;start=14#14 M._Henri_Day])."  I don't see any problem in including infinitive-like use of ''te''-form in advervialisation.  In view of the history that the English ''to''-infinitive also started out from an adverbial phrase (constructed by virtue of preposition ''to''), this may not be so wild a speculation.

'''Henri:''' Interesting analysis, Flam! I'm not sure that I find your view of the suffix «-''te''» as an infinite marker when used with verbal imperatives like ''kudasai'' or ''kure'' convincing ; rather I tend to see it as a marker for combining verbals (in Japanese, both verbs and adjectives) with other verbals, with the restrictions involving combinations of the two sub-categories that you mention.

In any event, even if this use of «-''te''» should, in fact, derive from the Chinese use of «''zhe''», it should be noted that in Japanese, unlike in Chinese, one does find a morphological construction closely akin to the progressive tenses in English, i e, V-''te-iru/aru''. Thus the little dialogue mentioned in my earlier posting would, in Japanese, come out something like the following (in language denuded of honorifics, etc)
''Nani(wo) yateiruka ? -Gohan(wo) tabeteiru.''
Or am I misinformed ?...

'''Anders:''' Yes, I mixed up the verbs for coming and going in the middle of the night (I think). I'm not perfectly sure on how to use ''chu/qu/chuqu'' 'come out' etc.; ''quchu'' however seems to be more of a noun. That may be the reason for suddenly? switching to ''lai'' 'come'.

It is fairly common for Chinese "adjectives" to be referred to as "stative verbs" when used predicatively. One argument is that no other verb is needed. But they can also be the subject of a sentence, and may then perhaps be compared to an English gerund: ''Leng bu hao'' '[Being/to be] cold [is] not good."

Russian adjectives are inflected in a nounish way, but they too can be used verbishly: ''Sankt Peterburg - krasiviy gorod'' "Sankt Petersburg [is a] beautiful town".

'''Garzo:''' I've got the feeling that predicative adjectives in these situations imply a zero copula. That is particularly the case in Russian. However, classifying the absense of something is not too easy. However, if, as in Japanese, an adjective can show tense, it might be fair to say that it is the 'verb' and not magic up a zero copula. In an isolating language, isn't this a subjective matter?

= Nabataean alphabet =

[[Image:Nabataean_alphabet.jpg]]
This image does not work: it was a nice idea, but it doesn't work. The IPA symbols are messed up, and I'm not sure what the historical perspective on the language should be.

= Playing with IPA in Unicode =

* ʔ Glottal stop (660)
* ʕ Voiced pharyngeal fricative (661)
* ɟ Voiced palatal plosive (607)
* ɢ Voiced uvular plosive (610)
* ɲ Voiced palatal nasal (626)
* ŋ Voiced velar nasal (331)
* ʃ Voiceless postalveolar fricative (643)
* Ʒ Voiced postalveolar fricative (439)
* ɣ Voiced velar fricative (411)

== Semitic transliteration templates ==

<s>Template:unicode forces browsers to use a unicode font to display the text given as its parameter.</s> However, Unicode can be quite awkward to remember. It would be good to have a template that called Unicode characters by memorable names. This would be most useful for transliteration and would force browsers to show the text properly (if these templates piggy-backed on template:unicode).
{|cellpadding="5" border="1"
!Code
!Character
!Unicode
!Use
|-
|glot
|
|146
|glottal stop<br>Protosemitic ''alpu''<br>Aramaic/Hebrew א<br>Arabic ء
|-
|aa
|ā
|257
|long ''a'' vowel
|-
|ee
|ē
|275
|long (open) ''e'' vowel
|-
|oo
|ō
|333
|long (open) ''o'' vowel
|-
|bh
|ḇ
|7687
|soft ''b''
|-
|gh
|ḡ
|7713
|soft ''g''<br>Protosemitic ''gharu''<br>Arabic غ
|-
|htie
|ḫ
|7723
|Protosemitic ''harmu''<br>Egyptian<hiero>x</hiero>
|-
|dh
|ḏ
|7695
|soft ''d''<br>Protosemitic ''dhabu''<br>Arabic ذ
|-
|uu
|ū
|363
|long ''u'' vowel
|-
|odot
|ọ
|7885
|(short) close ''o'' vowel
|-
|oodot
|ộ
|7897
|long close ''o'' vowel
|-
|hdot
|ḥ
|7717
|Aramaic/Hebrew ח<br>Arabic ح<br>Egyptian<hiero>H</hiero>
|-
|hline
|ẖ
|7830
|Egyptian<hiero>X</hiero>
|-
|tdot
|ṭ
|7789
|emphatic ''t''<br>Aramaic/Hebrew ט<br>Arabic ط
|-
|ii
|ī
|299
|long ''i'' vowel
|-
|edot
|ặ
|7865
|(short) close ''e'' vowel
|-
|eedot
|ệ
|7879
|long close ''e'' vowel
|-
|kh
|ḵ
|7733
|soft ''k''<br>Arabic خ
|-
|ayn
|
|145
|Aramaic/Hebrew ע<br>Arabic ع
|-
|ph
|ṗ
|7767
|soft ''p''
|-
|sdot
|ṣ
|7779
|emphatic ''s''<br>Aramaic/Hebrew צ<br>Arabic ص
|-
|sacute
|ś
|347
|Protosemitic ''sannu''<br>Aramaic/Hebrew ש
|-
|sh
|š
|353
|Protosemitic ''shetu''<br>Aramaic/Hebrew ש<br>Arabic ش
|-
|th
|ṯ
|7791
|soft ''t''<br>Arabic ث
|-
|j
|ğ
|287
|Arabic ج
|-
|ddot
|ḍ
|7693
|emphatic ''d''<br>Arabic ض
|-
|dhdot
|ẓ
|7827
|emphatic ''dh''<br>Arabic ظ
|-
|ch
|č
|269
|extended Arabic چ
|-
|zh
|ž
|382
|extended Arabic ژ
|-
|reed
|ỉ
|7881
|Egyptian<hiero>i</hiero>
|}

= Playing with WikiHiero syntax =

WikiHiero syntax is a straightforward way of writing in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]].

Information can be found on [[m:Help:WikiHiero syntax]] and [[m:Help:WikiHiero phonemes]].

For example, the Egyptian word ''3pdw'' means birds, and is written (in full) <hiero>A-p:d-w-G38:Z2</hiero>.

{{hiero}}

== One-consonant signs ==

{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
!colspan="3"|<big>1-consonant signs</big>
|-
! Sign
! Coding
! Notes
|-
| <hiero>A</hiero>
| A
| Aleph ''3''
|-
| <hiero>i</hiero>
| i
| Yodh ''&#7881;''
|-
| <hiero>i-i</hiero>
| i-i
|rowspan="2"| ''y
|-
| <hiero>y</hiero>
| y
|-
| <hiero>a</hiero>
| a
| Ayin ''<sup>c</sup>''
|-
| <hiero>w</hiero>
| w
|rowspan="2"| Waw ''w''
|-
| <hiero>W</hiero>
| W
|-
| <hiero>b</hiero>
| b
| ''b''
|-
| <hiero>p</hiero>
| p
| ''p''
|-
| <hiero>f</hiero>
| f
| ''f''
|-
| <hiero>m</hiero>
| m
| ''m''
|-
| <hiero>n</hiero>
| n
| ''n''
|-
| <hiero>r</hiero>
| r
| ''r''
|-
| <hiero>h</hiero>
| h
| ''h''
|-
| <hiero>H</hiero>
| H
| 'h-dot' ''&#7717;''
|-
| <hiero>x</hiero>
| x
| 'h-tie' ''&#7723;''
|-
| <hiero>X</hiero>
| X
| 'h-underline' ''<u>h</u>'' ''&#7830;''
|-
| <hiero>s</hiero>
| s
|rowspan="2"| ''s''
|-
| <hiero>z</hiero>
| z
|-
| <hiero>S</hiero>
| S
| ''sh''
|-
| <hiero>q</hiero>
| q
| 'k-dot' ''q''
|-
| <hiero>k</hiero>
| k
| ''k''
|-
| <hiero>g</hiero>
| g
| ''g''
|-
| <hiero>t</hiero>
| t
| ''t''
|-
| <hiero>T</hiero>
| T
| ''<u>t</u>''
|-
| <hiero>d</hiero>
| d
| ''d''
|-
| <hiero>D</hiero>
| D
| ''<u>d</u>''
|}

== Colours for ancient Egypt templates ==

{|border="2" align="left" cellpadding="2"
!style="bottom-border:2px red"|Period
!style="bottom-border:2px red"|Background colour
!style="bottom-border:2px red"|Border colour
|-bgcolor="plum"
|style="border:2px red"|Pre-dynastic
|style="border:2px red"|plum
|style="border:2px red"|red
|- bgcolor="sandybrown"
|style="border:2px indianred"|Early dynastic
|style="border:2px indianred"|sandybrown
|style="border:2px indianred"|indianred
|- bgcolor="gold"
|style="border:2px royalblue"|Old Kingdom
|style="border:2px royalblue"|gold
|style="border:2px royalblue"|royalblue
|- bgcolor="crimson"
|style="border="2px gold"|First IP
|style="border:2px gold"|crimson
|style="border:2px gold"|gold
|- bgcolor="palegoldenrod"
|style="border:2px crimson"|Middle Kingdom
|style="border:2px crison"|palegoldenrod
|style="border:2px crimson"|crimson
|- bgcolor="red"
|style="border:2px palegoldenrod"|Second IP
|style="border:2px palegoldenrod"|red
|style="border:2px palegoldenrod"|palegoldenrod
|- bgcolor="aquamarine"
|style="border:2px black"|New Kingdom
|style="border:2px black"|aquamarine
|style="border:2px black"|black
|- bgcolor="lime"
|style="border:2px red"|Third IP
|style="border:2px red"|lime
|style="border:2px red"|red
|- bgcolor="fuchsia"
|style="border:2px orchid"|Late period
|style="border:2px orchid"|fuchsia
|style="border:2px orchid"|orchid
|- bgcolor="skyblue"
|style="border:2px steelblue"|Ptolomys
|style="border:2px steelblue"|skyblue
|style="border:2px steelblue"|steelblue
|}

==Titles==
The official titulary of the king by the [[New Kingdom]] consisted of five names; for some rulers, we know only one or two of them. In the order of their appearance they are:
===Horus name===
This is the earliest recorded name, which was created to identify the king with an aspect of the [[Hawk]]-god Horus. It was written inside a [[serekh]].
===Two ladies name===
The ''nebty'' or Two Ladies name was associated with the goddess of [[Upper Egypt]] (the [[vulture]]-goddess [[Nekhbet]]), and the goddess of [[Lower Egypt]] (the [[cobra]]-goddess [[Wadjet]]).
===Golden Horus name===
The Golden [[Falcon]] Name first appeared in the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]], and became a part of the official titulary.
===Praenomen===
The throne name, by which he was addressed in diplomatic correspondence. It was the first of the two names written inside a [[cartouche]], and usually accompanied by one of two phrases: either ''n-sw-bity'', "He of the [[Cyperaceae|Sedge]] and the [[Bee]]"; or ''neb tawy'', "Lord of the Two Lands".

===Nomen===
{| cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="left" style="margin: 0px 10px 5px 0px; border:2px solid #cc9900;"
|-
| style="border-bottom:2px solid #cc9900; background:#ffcc00; text-align:center;" | '''Ramesses II [[Egyptian hieroglyph|in hieroglyphs]]'''
|-
| style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:5px 5px;" | '''praenomen''' or '''throne name'''
|-
| style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:4px 10px 0px 0px;" |
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"
|-
| style="text-valign:middle;padding:0px 4px 0px 10px;" |
<hiero>M23:t-L2:t</hiero>
|[[Image:Hiero_Ca1.png]]
|
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|-
| height="2px" bgcolor="black" |
|-
| height="45" style="padding: 0px 0px 0px 0px;" |<hiero>ra-wsr-mAat-ra:stp:n</hiero>
|-
| height="2px" bgcolor="black" |
|}
| align="center" valign="middle" |[[Image:Hiero_Ca2.png]]
|}
|-
| style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:10px 10px;" | '''nomen''' or '''birth name'''
|-
| style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:0px 15px 10px 0px;" |
{| cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|-
| height="45" valign="middle" style="padding:0px 4px 0px 10px;" |<hiero>G39-N5</hiero>
|[[Image:Hiero_Ca1.png]]
|
{| cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"
|-
| height="2px" bgcolor="black" |
|-
| height="45" style="padding: 0px 0px 0px 0px;" | <hiero>i-mn:n:N36-ra:Z1-ms-s-sw</hiero>
|-
| height="2px" bgcolor="black" |
|}
| align="center" valign="middle" |[[Image:Hiero_Ca2.png]]
|}
|}
The Nomen was given to the crown prince at birth; it was his "real" name. The other names were received at his coronation. Beginning with [[Chephren]] of the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]], this name was introduced by the title "son of [[Ra]]."

= [[English grammar]] =

The [[English language]] is an [[inflection|inflectional language]] using [[subject-verb-object]] construction as its norm. It is a [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], which has undergone significant changes over time. This article is a [[prescriptive and descriptive|description]] of the grammar of [[Modern English]]; for information about English at earlier periods of its development, see the [[History of the English language]].

== Nouns ==

English [[noun]]s are inflected for [[grammatical number]]: either singular (unmarked) or plural (marked). The usual inflection for the plural number is the suffix ''-s'': ''cat'' (singular), ''cats'' (plural). In cases where the unmarked noun ends in a [[sibilant consonant]] (s, z, {{IPA|&#643;}}, {{IPA|&#658;}}, {{IPA|t&#643;}} or {{IPA|d&#658;}}), the ending becomes ''-es'': ''bus''→''busses'', ''jazz''→''jazzes'', ''stash''→''stashes'', ''church''→''churches'', for example. [[Old English]] had many different ways to mark the plural number, and some of these still exist in [[Modern English]]. The ''internal plural'', involving the change of the internal vowel of a word, can be seen in ''foot''→''feet'', ''mouse''→''mice'' and ''woman''→''women''. Another irregular plural is the ending ''-en'', which can be seen in ''ox''→''oxen'' and ''child''→''children'' (the additional ''-r-'' is from a now obsolete form, ''childer''). A few English nouns are considered to be [[mass noun]]s, and thus have no plural form: ''furniture'', ''knowledge'', ''fish'' and ''sheep'', for example.

=== Possession ===

There are two usual ways of indicating possession in English. The ''of''-construnction links the possessoed to the possessor by way of the word ''of'': for example, ''the King of Sweden'', ''the Last Night of the Proms''. However, it can also add description: ''a book of short stories''.

The other form of marking possession in English is with the possessive [[clitic]]. The usual form of the clitic is ''-<nowiki>'</nowiki>s'', and it is appended to the possessor: ''the dog's bowl''. The clitic is not strictly part of the word to which it is appended (or an inflection of it). It is appended to the final word of the entire noun phrase of the possessor: ''the King of Sweden's bicycle''.

A reduced form of the clitic, ''-<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', is used when it is appended to word that has taken its plural in ''-s'': ''bus's''→''busses<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' and ''car's''→''cars<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', but ''woman's''→''women's'' and ''child's''→''children's''. This reduced form is sometimes used with singular proper names that end in ''-s'', but this use is generally restricted to 'classical' names where the possessive clitic is not pronounced: ''Socrates<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', ''Jesus<nowiki>'</nowiki>''. The clitic is not reduced in instances where the ''s'' is pronounced: ''Thomas's'', but, refering to the Thomas family, ''Thomases<nowiki>'</nowiki>''.

== Pronouns and determiners==

[[Pronoun]]s are the only word class in English that inflect to show [[grammatical case]]. This is the remnant of the more complete case system of [[Old English]]. Due to its simplified case system, grammarians of English now tend to prefer the labels ''[[subjective (grammar)|subject case]]'', ''[[objective (grammar)|object case]]'' and ''[[possessive case]]'' to the traditional terms (respectively, [[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]] and [[dative case|dative]], and [[genitive case|genitive]]).

=== Personal pronouns and determiners ===

The personal pronouns and determiners exhibit case, number, person and, in the case of the third person singular, gender. As English does not have grammatical gender, ''he'' and ''she'' are usually used in accordance with natural gender. ''It'' tends to be impersonal. The indefinite pronoun ''one'' is sometimes used where none of these seems appropriate. The former form for the second person singular, ''thou'', is now obsolete, and has been replaced completely by the plural ''you''. There is a trend in Modern English to use the third person plural forms, ''they'', for third person singular without marking gender: ''I know if I've got a good doctor, because they will look at me when they're talking''. This usage is not yet considered standard.
{|border="1" align="center" cellpadding="5"
!
!Subject pronoun
!Object pronoun
!Reflexive pronoun
!Possessive pronoun
!Possessive determiner
|-
!1st person singular
|I
|me
|myself
|mine
|my
|-
!2nd person singular [''archaic forms'']
|you [''thou'']
|you [''thee'']
|yourself [''thyself'']
|yours [''thine'']
|your [''thy'']
|-
!3rd person singular feminine
|she
|her
|herself
|hers
|her
|-
!3rd person singular masculine
|he
|him
|himself
|his
|his
|-
!3rd person singular impersonal
|it
|it
|itself
|its
|its
|-
!1st person plural
|we
|us
|ourselves
|ours
|our
|-
!2nd person plural
|you
|you
|yourselves
|yours
|your
|-
!3rd person plural
|they
|them
|themselves
|theirs
|their
|}

=== Other pronouns and determiners ===
*Relative pronouns
**who, whom, whose, which, that
*Interrogative pronouns and determiners
**what(ever), which(ever), who(ever), whom, whose
*Demonstrative pronouns and determiners
**this, these, that, those
*Indefinite pronouns and determiners
**everybody, something, every, some, all, either of, one

== Adjectives ==

English [[adjective]]s can be used either attributively or predicatively, or independently implying a noun.

Attributive adjectives usually precede the noun they modify: ''red dress'', ''beautiful smile'', ''funny conversations''. Adjectives do not inflect to agree with their noun: ''red dress''→''red dresses''.

Predicative adjectives are used in statements of identity, and are connected to their noun by a [[copula]]: ''their dresses are red'', ''his smile was beautiful'', ''our conversations became funny''.

== Verbs ==
{|border="1" cellpadding="5" align="right"
!Regular verb forms
!Examples
|-
|Base form
|play, point, pass
|-
| -s form
|plays, points, passes
|-
| -ing form
|playing, pointing, passing
|-
| -ed form
|played, pointed, passed
|}
English [[verb]]s can be inflected to show tense and the number, person and gender of the subject. It is useful to distinguish between the form and the function of the verb. There are only four regular verb forms in English (see the table to the right). However, these forms, particularly the base form, have a number of different functions in English grammar.

The base form of the verb (as it would appear in a dictionary) is used to form the [[infinitive]], the [[present tense]] (except in the third person singular), the [[imperative]] and the [[subjunctive]]. The ''-s'' form (formed just like a regular noun plural) is used for the third person singular of the present tense. The ''-ing'' form is used as the [[present participle]] and the [[gerund]], and the ''-ed'' form is used for the [[past tense]] and the [[past participle]].
{|border="1" cellpadding="5" align="right"
!Irregular verb forms
!Examples
|-
| -t form
|sent [←send], lent [←lend]
|-
| -en form
|taken [←take], shaken [←shake]
|-
| vowel-gradated form
|took [←take], shook [←shake]
|}
It is this last form of the verb that is subject to the most irregularity (see right). Some English verbs use an irregular ending instead of the ''-ed'' form. Some use different forms for the past tense and past participle.

=== Present tense ===
{|border="1" cellpadding="5" align="left"
!Subject
!Example
|-
|1st person singular
|I play
|-
|2nd person singular
|you play
|-
|3rd person singular
|she plays
|-
|1st person plural
|we play
|-
|2nd person plural
|you play
|-
|3rd person plural
|they play
|}
The English present tense is normally used to speak about present time, now. The base form of the verb is used in all instances, except where the subject is the third person singular, when the ''-s'' form is used.

Despite its name, the present tense can be used to talk about past or future events as well as those of the present. The use of the present tense to talk about past time is often called the [[historic present]]. When this is done (and it is not done all that often), it can add a sense of immediacy, vividness and drama to narrative: ''Then, the landing craft jolts to a stop, and grabbing our rifles we wade to the beach under heavy fire &mdash; that was what it was like on D-Day, son''.

There are various ways of talking about future time in English, and it is often done using the present tense. Sometimes, this is achieved by the context: ''we play football tomorrow''.

=== Past tense ===
{|border="1" cellpadding="5" align="right"
!Subject
!Example
|-
|1st person singular
|I played
|-
|2nd person singular
|you played
|-
|3rd person singular
|she played
|-
|1st person plural
|we played
|-
|2nd person plural
|you played
|-
|3rd person plural
|they played
|}
The past tense is formed by the ''-ed'' form of the verb, except for irregular verbs that use one of the forms mentioned above. The verb form remains the same for all persons, singular or plural. The past tense is normally used to talk about events in past time. However, it can be used to talk about the present and the future. If the present temse gives a sense of immediacy to a discourse, the past tense gives a sense of distancing. This distancing can be used to express doubt, possibility or politeness: ''If I played the long ball to Mary next time, we might just win'', or ''I wanted to see you before you went''.

=== Non-finite verbs ===

There are five types of non-finite verbs in English: the [[present participle|present]] and [[past participle]]s, the [[gerund]], the ''to''-[[infinitive]] and the base infinitive.

The present participle is the ''-ing'' form of the verb. Despite its name, the present participle does not signify present time. It can be used as an adjective (''playing cards''), or to show [[imperfective aspect|progressive aspect]].

The past participle of regular verbs uses the ''-ed'' form of the verb. Irregular verbs use one of the irregular endings, and some verbs use a different ending for the past participle to that used for the past tense (for example, ''he took lunch to her'', ''lunch was taken to her''). The past participle can be used as an adjective (''a well-built shed'') or to indicate the [[perfective aspect]] or [[passive voice]].

The gerund, like the present participle, is also formed from the ''-ing'' form of the verb. Where as the participle can act in an adjective-like way, the gerund acts in a noun-like fashion. Some modern grammarians prefer not to distinguish between these two uses of the same verb form. The gerund can be used by itself (''no fishing'') or as the object of a [[catenative verb]] (''I enjoy fishing in this river'').

The infinitive is the base form of the verb. In English, it is usually preceded by the particle ''to'': ''to play''. It is used to describe the action of the verb: ''to sleep, perchance to dream''. It may also occur as the object of a catenative verb: ''I want to go with you''. The infinitive is often used without ''to'' as well. This base infinitive is used after certain verbs (especially [[modal verbs]]): ''I could go with you''.

=== Verb functions ===

English verbs have two distinct roles:
# [[Main verb]]s carry lexical meaning (their dictionary definitions).
# [[Auxilliary verb]]s carry grammatical meaning (they alter the grammar of a sentence).

English verbs can be divided into three classes by their function:
# [[Primary verb]]s can function both as main verbs and auxilliary verbs.
#* There are only three primary verbs: ''be'', ''have'' and ''do''.
# [[Lexical verb]]s can only function as main verbs.
#* Most English verbs are lexical verbs.
# [[Modal verb]]s can only function as auxilliary verbs.
#* The core modal verbs are: ''can/could'', ''may/might'', ''must'', ''shall/should'' and ''will/would''.

=== Progressive aspect ===

English uses auxilliary verbs to show how the action of a verb relates to time. The progressive aspect describes the action of a verb in progress at the moment in question. English forms the progressive aspect with the auxilliary ''be'' and the present participle of the main verb: ''I am playing football'' (present progressive), ''they were driving too fast'' (past progressive). The auxilliary, a form of the verb ''be'', shows the tense (past or perfect), and in combination with the participle show the aspect. The ''simple'' forms of the verb, unmarked for aspect, tend to describe habitual action: ''I play football'', ''they drive too fast''.

=== Perfective aspect ===

Likewise, English uses a form of the verb ''have'' with the past participle to show the perfective aspect. This aspect describes the action of the verb as complete: ''I have played football'' (present perfective), ''they had driven too fast'' (past perfective). Old-fashioned terms for the present perfective and the past perfective are perfect tense and pluperfect tense, respectively. However, it makes far better sense of English grammar to keep the sense of tense and aspect apart.

It is possible to apply both the perfective and progressive aspects to a verb. This shows that the action of the verb was ongoing, but has been completed. The perfect-progressive is formed by a form of the verb ''have'' followed by ''been'' (the past participle of ''be'') followed by the present participle of the main verb: ''I have been playing football'' (present perfect-progressive), ''they had been driving too fast'' (past perfect-progressive).

=== Passive voice ===

Most sentences are in the [[active voice]], where the grammatical subject performs the action of the verb: ''we hugged the big, old tree''. However, the passive voice enables a shift of emphasis so that the subject has the action of the verb done to it. This is achieved in English in a similar fashion to aspect. The passive voice is formed by a form of the verb ''be'' followed by the past participle of the main verb: ''the big, old tree was hugged by us''. The actor of the verb can be indicated by the preposition ''by''.

It is possible to combine the passive voice with either or both aspects. In such cases, the passive voice is applied last: ''I had been being hugged'' (present perfect-progressive passive)!

=== Modal verbs ===

The [[modal verb]]s are a group of auxilliary verbs that are used to express mood. Their range of meaning and expression is large, but they can only be used in combination with a main verb (at least it has to be implied). The central modal verbs are ''can/could'', ''may/might'', ''must'', ''shall/should'', ''will/would''. They can express possibility, neccesity, desire, obligation and much more. Historically, ''could'' is the past tense of ''can'', but, in the case of modals, this simply implies a 'distancing'. ''Could'', ''might'', ''should'' and ''would'' are less solid moods than ''can'', ''may'', ''shall'' and ''will''.

The verb that follows a modal verb, which cannot be another modal, is in its base infinitive form: ''she can go to the ball''.

A few verbs are described as semi-modal in that they are lexical verbs that are able to function in a similar way to modals. These are ''dare'', ''need'', ''used to'' and ''ought to''.

= [[International English]] =
{{English dialects by continent}}
:''This has been reworked, but some of this sorce material may still be useful.''
Referrenced by ''Sitran'' from [http://www.yourdictionary.com/cgi-bin/agora/agora.cgi?board=translate;action=display;num=1104687200 yourDictionary.com/Agora Discussion Board], and [http://iteslj.org/Articles/Yamaguchi-Language.html Towards International English in EFL Classrooms in Japan, Chiaki Yamaguchi]

<blockquote>The reasons, however, for putting International English into the expanding circle [sic] are twofold. Firstly, there is the fact that it is often said that non-native speakers use English more as a lingua franca between themselves than in encounters with native speakers; thus, it is no longer the property of its native speakers (Jenkins, 1998; Prodromou, 1997; Widdowson, 1994). The situation or society where International English is thus used cannot fit in to any circle other than the expanding circle. Secondly, drawing on the previous citation from Romaine (1994) that language always reflects the real situation of its users, it cannot be said that the identity of International English could be identified with any one of the native or non-native varieties of English. That is, English as a lingua franca seems to be a foreign language to anybody (not only non-native but also native) to some extent. For example, native speakers of English change their speech manner depending on their interlocutor; so called, 'Foreigner Talk'. 'Foreigner Talk' is the register used by native speakers when they address non-native speakers. It involves simplified, sometimes, ungrammatical speech to adjust one's utterance to the interlocutor to enhance their communication.</blockquote>

My contribution to the Agora discussion:
<blockquote>International English is a complex idea. British and American standards, for historical reasons, dominante the field. Many with English as a native language do not really wish to use either standard, and there is a desire for a neutral idiom standard for international communication. Also, English has a 'special' position throughout most of the Commonwealth, and non-native varieties of English have developed. For instance, English is the lingua franca of choice in Southern India, so much so that it has developed a distinctive dialect standard of its own. Added to this, global dominance of English, means that many people living in countries with no historical connexion with the language are choosing/forced to learn it. International English is a rapidly evolving array of concepts about language politics, neutrality, flexibility and intelligibility.</blockquote>

== New draft introduction ==

'''International English''' is the concept of the [[English language]] as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and the movement towards an international standard for the language. It is sometimes referred to as ''Global English'', ''World English'' or ''[[Standard English]]''. Sometimes these terms refer simply to the array of varieties of English spoken throughout the world; sometimes they refer to a desired standarisation. However, consensus on the terminology and path to standardisation has not been reached.

== Historical context ==

The modern concept of International English does not exist in isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the English language.

The language of [[England]] came to dominance throughout [[Britain in the Middle Ages|Britain]] and [[Ireland]] during the Middle Ages. In the modern era, printing led to the gradual standardisation of English, and particularly the use of the [[prestige dialect]] of the English ruling classes.

The establishment of first permanent English-speaking colony in [[North America]] in [[1607]] was a major step towards the globalisation of the language. As the American settlements were established midway through the process of standardisation of [[British English]], and were seperated by the Atlantic, [[American English]] began to evolve a distinct standard form. In particular, [[Noah Webster]]'s reform of American-English spelling gave rise to the main division in English spelling.

In the [[18th century]], British colonialism focused on the [[southern hemisphere]]. [[British English]] had settled into a more standard form than that of the previous century, and this confident English was brought to [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from Britain and Ireland, and the administrative language imposed on speakers of other languages in the various parts of [[British Empire]]. The first form can be seen in [[New Zealand English]], and the latter in [[Indian English]]. The term [[Commonwealth English]] refers to these groups of English dialects.

The English-speaking nations of [[Canada]] and the [[Caribbean]] are caught between historical connections with British and Commonwealth English, and geographical connections with American English.

The ebb and flow between standardisation of the language and diversification have been ever present throughout its history. The flagship of the former is intelligibility and practicality, while the latter has cultural autonomy and flexibility.

== Modern global language ==

There is a distinction between English as spoken as a [[native language]] around the world (in Britain, [[USA]], [[Australia]] and so forth) and as a non-native language spoken as a regional or global [[lingua franca]].

Particularly in Britain and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], a second distinction is made between those countries where non-native English has official or historical importance (''special significance'', for example, in [[Pakistan]] and [[Uganda]]), and those where it does not ([[Japan]] and [[Peru]]).

In the terminology of [[Language education|English language teaching]], we have:
* English as a native language (ENL), also called ''first language'' (L1).
* [[English as an additional language]] (EAL) or English for speakers of other languages (ESOL):
** English as a second language ([[TESL|ESL]]) in an environment where English has a ''special significance'', also called ''second language'' (L2).
** English as a foreign language (EFL) in places where it has no ''special significance'', also called ''third language'' (L3).

English as a second language might refer either to acquisition of the language in southern India, where it is a prominent, regional lingua franca, or the acquisition of the language by a speaker of another language in a predominantly English-speaking country (a Brazilian living in Barbados, for instance). It may not be an individual's actual second language, but perhaps third or fourth.

In the context of language teaching, English as an additional language (EAL) usually is based on the standards of either British/Commonwealth English or American English. English as an international language (EIL) is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to communicate internationally.

== English language teaching terminology ==

* '''L1''' ''first language'' '''NL''' ''native language'' '''ENL''' ''English as a native language''
* '''ENNL''' ''English as a non-native language'' '''ESOL''' ''English for speakers of other languages''
* '''L2''' ''second language'' '''ESL''' ''English as a second language''
* '''L3''' ''third language'' '''EFL''' ''English as a foreign language''

* '''EIL''' ''English as an international language''

* '''EGP''' ''English for general purposes''
* '''ESP''' ''English for specific purposes''
** '''EAP''' ''English for academic purposes''
** '''EST''' '' English for science and technology''

= Language-related projects =

* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject French dialects]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Hebrew languages]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Language families]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Languages]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Latin alphabet]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Linguistics]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Phonetics]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Writing systems]]