View source for Uncrewed spacecraft

{{short description|Spacecraft without people on board}}
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{{Multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Progress M-06M.jpg
| alt1              = The uncrewed resupply vessel Progress M-06M
| image2            = 1989 s34 Galileo Deploy 5.jpg
| alt2              = Galileo space probe mounted on a [[Inertial Upper Stage]] booster, prior to departure from Earth orbit in 1989
| image3            = Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG
| alt3              = Uncrewed spacecraft ''Buran'' launched, orbited Earth, and landed as an uncrewed spacecraft in 1988 (shown here at an airshow)
| image4            = JWST_spacecraft_model_3.png
| alt4              = Model of [[James Webb Space Telescope]]
| footer            =
Top: The uncrewed resupply vessel [[Progress M-06M]] (left). ''[[Galileo (spacecraft)|Galileo]]'' space probe, prior to departure from Earth orbit in 1989 (right).<br />
Bottom: Spaceplane ''[[Buran (spacecraft)|Buran]]'' was launched, orbited Earth, and landed as an uncrewed spacecraft in 1988 (left). Model of [[James Webb Space Telescope]] (right).
}}
{{Spaceflight sidebar}}

'''Uncrewed spacecraft''' or '''robotic spacecraft''' are [[spacecraft]] without [[people]] on board. Uncrewed spacecraft may have varying levels of autonomy from human input, such as [[Remotely operated vehicle|remote control]], or remote guidance. They may also be [[autonomous vehicle|autonomous]], in which they have a pre-programmed list of operations that will be executed unless otherwise instructed. A robotic spacecraft for scientific measurements is often called a space probe or [[space observatory]].

Many space missions are more suited to [[telerobotic]] rather than [[Human spaceflight|crewed]] operation, due to lower cost and risk factors. In addition, some planetary destinations such as [[Venus]] or the vicinity of [[Jupiter]] are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]], and [[Neptune]] are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them. Telerobotics also allows exploration of regions that are vulnerable to contamination by Earth micro-organisms since spacecraft can be sterilized. Humans can not be sterilized in the same way as a spaceship, as they coexist with numerous micro-organisms, and these micro-organisms are also hard to contain within a spaceship or spacesuit.

The first uncrewed space mission was ''[[Sputnik]]'', launched October 4, 1957 to orbit the Earth. Nearly all [[satellite]]s, [[lander (spacecraft)|lander]]s and [[rover (space exploration)|rover]]s are robotic spacecraft. Not every uncrewed spacecraft is a robotic spacecraft; for example, a reflector ball is a non-robotic uncrewed spacecraft. Space missions where other [[animals in space|animals]] but no humans are on-board are called uncrewed missions.

Many habitable spacecraft also have varying levels of robotic features. For example, the space stations [[Salyut 7]] and [[Mir]], and the [[International Space Station]] module [[Zarya (ISS module)|Zarya]], were capable of remote guided station-keeping and docking maneuvers with both resupply craft and new modules. [[Uncrewed resupply spacecraft]] are increasingly used for crewed [[space station]]s.

==History==
[[File:Sputnik asm.jpg|thumb|A replica of Sputnik 1 at the U.S. [[National Air and Space Museum]]]]
[[File:Explorer1.jpg|thumb|A replica of Explorer 1]]

The first robotic spacecraft was launched by the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) on 22 July 1951, a [[suborbital spaceflight|suborbital]] flight carrying [[Soviet space dogs|two dogs]] Dezik and Tsygan.<ref>Asif Siddiqi, ''Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge'', University Press of Florida, 2003, {{ISBN|081302627X}}, p. 96</ref> Four other such flights were made through the fall of 1951.

The first artificial [[satellite]], [[Sputnik 1]], was put into a {{convert|215|by|939|km|nmi|sp=us|adj=on}} Earth orbit by the USSR on 4 October 1957. On 3 November 1957, the USSR orbited [[Sputnik 2]]. Weighing {{convert|113|kg|lb}}, Sputnik 2 carried the first animal into orbit, the dog [[Laika]].<ref>{{cite web
 |url          = http://news.bbc.co.uk/
 |title        = First dog in space died within hours
 |last         = Whitehouse
 |first        = David
 |date         = 2002-10-28
 |publisher    = BBC News World Edition
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20130717032506/http://news.bbc.co.uk/
 |archive-date = 2013-07-17
 |quote        = The animal, launched on a one-way trip on board Sputnik 2 in November 1957, was said to have died painlessly in orbit about a week after blast-off. Now, it has been revealed she died from overheating and panic just a few hours after the mission started.
 |access-date  = 2013-05-10
 |url-status   = dead
}}</ref> Since the satellite was not designed to detach from its [[launch vehicle]]'s upper stage, the total mass in orbit was {{convert|508.3|kg|lb}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.russianspaceweb.com/sputnik2_decision.html|title = ''Sputnik 2'', Russian Space Web|date = 3 November 2012|access-date = 7 January 2023|archive-date = 2 February 2023|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230202130746/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/sputnik2_decision.html|url-status = live}}</ref>

In a [[Space Race|close race with the Soviets]], the United States launched its first artificial satellite, [[Explorer 1]], into a {{convert|193|by|1373|nmi|km|adj=on|order=flip}} orbit on 31 January 1958. Explorer I was an {{convert|80.75|in|cm|adj=on|order=flip|0}} long by {{convert|6.00|in|cm|adj=on|order=flip}} diameter cylinder weighing {{convert|30.8|lb|kg|order=flip}}, compared to Sputnik 1, a {{convert|58|cm|in|sp=us|adj=on}} sphere which weighed {{convert|83.6|kg|lb}}. Explorer 1 carried sensors which confirmed the existence of the Van Allen belts, a major scientific discovery at the time, while Sputnik 1 carried no scientific sensors. On 17 March 1958, the US orbited its second satellite, [[Vanguard 1]], which was about the size of a grapefruit, and which remains in a {{convert|360|by|2080|nmi|km|adj=on|order=flip}} orbit {{As of|2016|lc=y}}.

The first attempted lunar probe was the [[Luna E-1 No.1]], launched on 23 September 1958. The goal of a lunar probe repeatedly failed until 4 January 1959 when [[Luna 1]] orbited around the Moon and then the Sun.

The success of these early missions began a race between the US and the USSR to outdo each other with increasingly ambitious probes. ''[[Mariner 2]]'' was the first probe to study another planet, revealing Venus' extremely hot temperature to scientists in 1962, while the Soviet ''[[Venera 4]]'' was the first atmospheric probe to study Venus. ''[[Mariner 4]]''{{'s}} 1965 Mars flyby snapped the first images of its cratered surface, which the Soviets responded to a few months later with images from on its surface from ''[[Luna 9]]''. In 1967, America's ''[[Surveyor 3]]'' gathered information about the Moon's surface that would prove crucial to the [[Apollo 11]] mission that landed humans on the Moon two years later.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/jpl/education/spaceprobe-20100225.html|title=NASA - What Is a Space Probe?|website=www.nasa.gov|access-date=9 January 2023|archive-date=30 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830134558/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/jpl/education/spaceprobe-20100225.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The first interstellar probe was ''[[Voyager 1]]'', launched 5 September 1977. It entered interstellar space on 25 August 2012,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Barnes |first=Brooks |date=12 September 2013 |title=In a Breathtaking First, NASA's Voyager 1 Exits the Solar System |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/13/science/in-a-breathtaking-first-nasa-craft-exits-the-solar-system.html |access-date=1 August 2022 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=7 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407210540/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/13/science/in-a-breathtaking-first-nasa-craft-exits-the-solar-system.html |url-status=live }}</ref> followed by its twin ''[[Voyager 2]]'' on 5 November 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Potter |first=Sean |date=9 December 2018 |title=NASA's Voyager 2 Probe Enters Interstellar Space |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-voyager-2-probe-enters-interstellar-space |access-date=1 August 2022 |website=NASA |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521092358/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-voyager-2-probe-enters-interstellar-space/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Nine other countries have successfully launched satellites using their own launch vehicles: France (1965),<ref>{{cite news|title=France launches first satellite|date=November 26, 1965|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1965/11/26/France-launches-first-satellite/7861511630886/|publisher=UPI|access-date=March 4, 2023}}</ref> Japan<ref>{{cite web|title=11 February 1970. This Day in History: Japan launches its first satellite|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-worlds-fourth-space-power|publisher=History Channel|access-date=March 4, 2023|archive-date=5 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305063018/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-worlds-fourth-space-power|url-status=live}}</ref> and China (1970),<ref>{{cite web|title=Timeline: Major milestones in Chinese space exploration|date=November 22, 2020|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-exploration-china-moon-timeline/timeline-major-milestones-in-chinese-space-exploration-idUSKBN2830LD|publisher=Reuters|access-date=March 4, 2023|archive-date=5 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305063016/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-exploration-china-moon-timeline/timeline-major-milestones-in-chinese-space-exploration-idUSKBN2830LD|url-status=live}}</ref> the United Kingdom (1971),<ref>{{cite web|title=28 October 1971: Britain's only independent satellite launch|author=Ben Judge|date=October 28, 2020|url=https://moneyweek.com/412365/28-october-1971-black-arrow-britain-independent-satellite-launch-prospero|publisher=Money Week|access-date=March 4, 2023|archive-date=5 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305063017/https://moneyweek.com/412365/28-october-1971-black-arrow-britain-independent-satellite-launch-prospero|url-status=live}}</ref> India (1980),<ref>{{cite web|title=Blast from the past: An insider's account of India's first successful experimental satellite launch|author=VP Sandlas|date=August 31, 2018|url=https://scroll.in/article/892545/blast-from-the-past-an-insiders-account-of-indias-first-successful-experimental-satellite-launch|access-date=March 4, 2023|archive-date=8 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108114509/https://scroll.in/article/892545/blast-from-the-past-an-insiders-account-of-indias-first-successful-experimental-satellite-launch|url-status=live}}</ref> Israel (1988),<ref>{{cite news|title=Israel Launches its First Satellite into Orbit|author=Glenn Frankel|date=September 20, 1988|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1988/09/20/israel-launches-its-first-satellite-into-orbit/2c301a6a-aa45-41a7-9057-a943c3a2d264/|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=March 4, 2023|archive-date=8 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108114508/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1988/09/20/israel-launches-its-first-satellite-into-orbit/2c301a6a-aa45-41a7-9057-a943c3a2d264/|url-status=live}}</ref> Iran (2009),<ref>{{cite news|title=Iran launches first satellite, draws concern|date=February 3, 2009|url=https://www.denverpost.com/2009/02/03/iran-launches-first-satellite-draws-concern/|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=March 4, 2023|archive-date=5 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305063018/https://www.denverpost.com/2009/02/03/iran-launches-first-satellite-draws-concern/|url-status=live}}</ref> North Korea (2012),<ref>{{cite news|title=North Korea Launches First Satellite into Orbit|date=December 14, 2012|url=https://spacenews.com/north-korea-launches-first-satellite-into-orbit/|publisher=[[Space News]]|access-date=March 4, 2023|archive-date=8 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108114509/https://spacenews.com/north-korea-launches-first-satellite-into-orbit/|url-status=live}}</ref> and South Korea (2022).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/south-korea-launches-first-satellite-homegrown-rocket-rcna34679|title=South Korea launches first satellite with homegrown rocket|date=June 22, 2022|publisher=NBC News|access-date=March 5, 2023|archive-date=8 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108114509/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/south-korea-launches-first-satellite-homegrown-rocket-rcna34679|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Design==
{{Too many sections|section|date=May 2023}}

In spacecraft design, the [[United States Air Force]] considers a vehicle to consist of the mission [[payload (air and space craft)|payload]] and the [[satellite bus|bus]] (or platform). The bus provides physical structure, thermal control, electrical power, attitude control and telemetry, tracking and commanding.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://space.au.af.mil/primer/spacecraft_design_structure_ops.pdf | title = Air University Space Primer, Chapter 10 – Spacecraft Design, Structure And Operation | publisher = USAF | access-date = 2007-10-13 | archive-date = 2016-12-21 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161221152400/http://space.au.af.mil/primer/spacecraft_design_structure_ops.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref>

[[JPL]] divides the "flight system" of a spacecraft into subsystems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf11-1.html |title=Chapter 11. Typical Onboard Systems |publisher=JPL |access-date=2008-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428193152/http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf11-1.html |archive-date=2015-04-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> These include:

=== Structure ===
[[File:NASA’s Orion spacecraft approaching the robotic asteroid capture vehicle.jpg|thumb|An illustration's of NASA's planned [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion spacecraft]] approaching a robotic asteroid capture vehicle]]

The physical backbone structure, which

* provides overall mechanical integrity of the spacecraft
* ensures spacecraft components are supported and can withstand launch loads

=== Data handling ===
This is sometimes referred to as the command and data subsystem. It is often responsible for:

* command sequence storage
* maintaining the spacecraft clock
* collecting and reporting spacecraft telemetry data (e.g. spacecraft health)
* collecting and reporting mission data (e.g. photographic images)

=== Attitude determination and control ===
{{See also|Attitude control system}}

This system is mainly responsible for the correct spacecraft's orientation in space (attitude) despite external disturbance-gravity gradient effects, magnetic-field torques, solar radiation and aerodynamic drag; in addition it may be required to reposition movable parts, such as antennas and solar arrays.<ref>Wiley J. Larson; James R. Wertz(1999). ''Space Mission Analysis and Design, 3rd ed.'' Microcosm. pp. 354. {{ISBN|978-1-881883-10-4}},</ref>

==== Entry, descent, and landing ====
Integrated sensing incorporates an image transformation [[algorithm]] to interpret the immediate imagery land data, perform a real-time detection and avoidance of terrain hazards that may impede safe landing, and increase the accuracy of landing at a desired site of interest using landmark localization techniques. Integrated sensing completes these tasks by relying on pre-recorded information and cameras to understand its location and determine its position and whether it is correct or needs to make any corrections (localization). The cameras are also used to detect any possible hazards whether it is increased fuel consumption or it is a physical hazard such as a poor landing spot in a crater or cliff side that would make landing very not ideal (hazard assessment).

===== Landing on hazardous terrain =====
In planetary exploration missions involving robotic spacecraft, there are three key parts in the processes of landing on the surface of the planet to ensure a safe and successful landing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Howard |first=Ayanna |date=January 2011 |title=Rethinking public–private space travel |journal=Space Policy |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=266–271 |bibcode=2013SpPol..29..266A |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2013.08.002}}</ref> This process includes an entry into the planetary gravity field and atmosphere, a descent through that atmosphere towards an intended/targeted region of scientific value, and a safe landing that guarantees the integrity of the instrumentation on the craft is preserved. While the robotic spacecraft is going through those parts, it must also be capable of estimating its position compared to the surface in order to ensure reliable control of itself and its ability to maneuver well. The robotic spacecraft must also efficiently perform hazard assessment and trajectory adjustments in real time to avoid hazards. To achieve this, the robotic spacecraft requires accurate knowledge of where the spacecraft is located relative to the surface (localization), what may pose as hazards from the terrain (hazard assessment), and where the spacecraft should presently be headed (hazard avoidance). Without the capability for operations for localization, hazard assessment, and avoidance, the robotic spacecraft becomes unsafe and can easily enter dangerous situations such as surface collisions, undesirable fuel consumption levels, and/or unsafe maneuvers.

=== Telecommunications ===
Components in the [[telecommunications]] subsystem include radio antennas, transmitters and receivers. These may be used to communicate with ground stations on Earth, or with other spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web
 |url          = http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/
 |title        = Space Communications
 |author       = LU. K. Khodarev
 |year         = 1979
 |publisher    = The Great Soviet Encyclopedia
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20130510002527/http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/
 |archive-date = 2013-05-10
 |quote        = The transmission of information between the earth and spacecraft, between two or more points on the earth via spacecraft or using artificial means located in space (a belt of needles, a cloud of ionized particles, and so on), and between two or more spacecraft.
 |access-date  = 2013-05-10
 |url-status   = dead
}}</ref>

==== Electrical power ====
The supply of electric power on spacecraft generally come from [[photovoltaic]] (solar) cells or from a [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]. Other components of the subsystem include batteries for storing power and distribution circuitry that connects components to the power sources.<ref>Wiley J. Larson; James R. Wertz (1999). ''Space Mission Analysis and Design, 3rd ed.''. Microcosm. pp. 409. {{ISBN|978-1-881883-10-4}},</ref>

=== Temperature control and protection from the environment ===
{{Main|Spacecraft thermal control}}

Spacecraft are often protected from temperature fluctuations with insulation. Some spacecraft use mirrors and sunshades for additional protection from solar heating. They also often need shielding from [[micrometeoroid]]s and orbital debris.<ref>{{cite web
 | url                 = http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/mmod.pdf
 | title               = Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD) Protection
 | publisher           = NASA
 | access-date          = 2013-05-10
| url-status          = dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029013503/http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/mmod.pdf|archive-date=2009-10-29}}</ref>

=== Propulsion ===
{{Main|Spacecraft propulsion}}

Spacecraft [[propulsion]] is a method that allows a [[spacecraft]] to travel through space by generating thrust to push it forward.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/bgp.html|title=Welcome to the Beginner's Guide to Propulsion|last=Hall|first=Nancy|date=May 5, 2015|website=NASA|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=8 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108114511/https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/bgp.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, there is not one universally used propulsion system: monopropellant, bipropellant, ion propulsion, etc. Each propulsion system generates thrust in slightly different ways with each system having its own advantages and disadvantages. But, most spacecraft propulsion today is based on [[rocket]] engines. The general idea behind rocket engines is that when an oxidizer meets the fuel source, there is explosive release of energy and heat at high speeds, which propels the spacecraft forward. This happens due to one basic principle known as [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's third law]]. According to Newton, "to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction." As the energy and heat is being released from the back of the spacecraft, gas particles are being pushed around to allow the spacecraft to propel forward. The main reason behind the usage of rocket engine today is because rockets are the most powerful form of propulsion there is.

==== Monopropellant ====
For a propulsion system to work, there is usually an [[Oxidizing agent|oxidizer]] line and a fuel line. This way, the spacecraft propulsion is controlled. But in a monopropellant propulsion, there is no need for an oxidizer line and only requires the fuel line.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Bin|date=October 2014|title=A verification framework with application to a propulsion system|journal=Expert Systems with Applications|volume=41|issue=13|pages=5669–5679|doi=10.1016/j.eswa.2014.03.017}}</ref> This works due to the oxidizer being chemically bonded into the fuel molecule itself. But for the propulsion system to be controlled, the combustion of the fuel can only occur due to a presence of a [[Catalysis|catalyst]]. This is quite advantageous due to making the rocket engine lighter and cheaper, easy to control, and more reliable. But, the downfall is that the chemical is very dangerous to manufacture, store, and transport.

==== Bipropellant ====
A bipropellant propulsion system is a rocket engine that uses a liquid propellant.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yang|date=April 2017|title=Dynamic modeling and simulation of an integral bipropellant propulsion double-valve combined test system|journal=Acta Astronautica|volume=133|pages=346–374|doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2016.10.010|bibcode=2017AcAau.133..346C|url=https://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/bitstream/123456789/18463/1/Wang%20Dynamic%20modeling%20and%20simulation%202016%20Accepted.pdf|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=8 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108114520/https://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/18463/Wang%20Dynamic%20modeling%20and%20simulation%202016%20Accepted.pdf;jsessionid=57E3E8B4D1F3713BB149517AED3E40A5?sequence=1|url-status=live}}</ref> This means both the oxidizer and fuel line are in liquid states. This system is unique because it requires no ignition system, the two liquids would spontaneously combust as soon as they come into contact with each other and produces the propulsion to push the spacecraft forward. The main benefit for having this technology is because that these kinds of liquids have relatively high density, which allows the volume of the propellent tank to be small, therefore increasing space efficacy. The downside is the same as that of monopropellant propulsion system: very dangerous to manufacture, store, and transport.

==== Ion ====
An [[ion]] propulsion system is a type of engine that generates thrust by the means of electron bombardment or the acceleration of ions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/fs21grc.html|title=Ion Propulsion|last=Patterson|first=Michael|date=August 2017|website=NASA|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=31 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231081317/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/fs21grc.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> By shooting high-energy [[electron]]s to a propellant atom (neutrally charge), it removes electrons from the propellant atom and this results in the propellant atom becoming a positively charged atom. The positively charged ions are guided to pass through positively charged grids that contains thousands of precise aligned holes are running at high voltages. Then, the aligned positively charged ions accelerates through a negative charged accelerator grid that further increases the speed of the ions up to {{convert|90,000|mph|km/s|order=flip}}. The momentum of these positively charged ions provides the thrust to propel the spacecraft forward. The advantage of having this kind of propulsion is that it is incredibly efficient in maintaining constant velocity, which is needed for deep-space travel. However, the amount of thrust produced is extremely low and that it needs a lot of electrical power to operate.

=== Mechanical devices ===
Mechanical components often need to be moved for deployment after launch or prior to landing. In addition to the use of motors, many one-time movements are controlled by [[pyrotechnic]] devices.<ref>Wiley J. Larson; James R. Wertz(1999). ''Space Mission Analysis and Design, 3rd ed''. Microcosm. pp. 460. {{ISBN|978-1-881883-10-4}},</ref>

===Robotic vs. uncrewed spacecraft===
Robotic spacecraft are specifically designed system for a specific hostile environment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/basics/chapter9-1/|title=Basics of Space Flight|last=Davis|first=Phillips|website=NASA|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=2 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602200632/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/basics/chapter9-1/|url-status=live}}</ref> Due to their specification for a particular environment, it varies greatly in complexity and capabilities. While an uncrewed spacecraft is a spacecraft without personnel or crew and is operated by automatic (proceeds with an action without human intervention) or remote control (with human intervention). The term 'uncrewed spacecraft' does not imply that the spacecraft is robotic.

==Control==
Robotic spacecraft use [[telemetry]] to radio back to Earth acquired data and vehicle status information. Although generally referred to as "remotely controlled" or "telerobotic", the earliest orbital spacecraft – such as Sputnik 1 and Explorer 1 – did not receive control signals from Earth. Soon after these first spacecraft, command systems were developed to allow remote control from the ground. Increased [[Autonomous robot|autonomy]] is important for distant probes where the light travel time prevents rapid decision and control from Earth. Newer probes such as ''[[Cassini–Huygens]]'' and the [[Mars Exploration Rovers]] are highly autonomous and use on-board computers to operate independently for extended periods of time.<ref>{{cite web
 |url          = http://www7.informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de/
 |title        = AUTONOMY AND ON-BOARD MISSION MANAGEMENT ASPECTS FOR THE CASSINI-TITAN PROBE
 |author       = K. Schilling
 |author2      = W. Flury
 |date         = 1989-04-11
 |format       = PDF
 |publisher    = ATHENA MARS EXPLORATION ROVERS
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20130505120105/http://www7.informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de/
 |archive-date = 2013-05-05
 |quote        = Current space missions exhibit a rapid growth in the requirements for on-board autonomy. This is the result of increases in mission complexity, intensity of mission activity and mission duration. In addition, for interplanetary spacecraft, the operations are characterized by complicated ground control access, due to the large distances and the relevant solar system environment[…] To handle these problemsn, the spacecraft design has to include some form of autonomous control capability.
 |access-date  = 2013-05-10
 |url-status   = dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 | url                 = http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/mmod.pdf
 | title               = Frequently Asked Questions (Athena for kids): Q) Is the rover controlled by itself or controlled by scientists on Earth?
 | year                = 2005
 | publisher           = ATHENA MARS EXPLORATION ROVERS
 | archive-url          =https://web.archive.org/web/20091029013503/http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/mmod.pdf| archive-date         =2009-10-29| quote               = Communication with Earth is only twice per sol (martian day) so the rover is on its own (autonomous) for much of its journey across the martian landscape. Scientists send commands to the rover in a morning 'uplink' and gather data in an afternoon 'downlink.' During an uplink, the rover is told where to go, but not exactly how to get there. Instead, the command contains the coordinates of waypoints toward a desired destination. The rover must navigate from waypoint to waypoint without human help. The rover has to use its 'brain' and its 'eyes' for these instances. The 'brain' of each rover is the onboard computer software that tells the rover how to navigate based on what the Hazcams (hazard avoidance cameras) see. It is programmed with a given set of responses to a given set of circumstances. This is called 'autonomy and hazard avoidance.'
 | url-status          = dead
 | access-date          = 2013-05-10
}}</ref>

==Space probes and observatories==
{{further|List of Solar System probes|List of space telescopes|Lists of spacecraft}}

A '''space probe''' is a robotic spacecraft that does not orbit Earth, but instead, explores further into outer space. Space probes have different sets of scientific instruments on board. A space probe may approach the Moon; travel through interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land on other planetary bodies; or enter interstellar space. Space probes send collected data to Earth. Space probes can be orbiters, landers, and rovers. Space probes can also [[sample return mission|gather materials from its target]] and return it to Earth.<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA - What Is a Space Probe? |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/jpl/education/spaceprobe-20100225.html |website=www.nasa.gov |access-date=26 February 2023 |language=en |archive-date=30 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830134558/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/jpl/education/spaceprobe-20100225.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Space Probes |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/space-probes/ |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |access-date=26 February 2023 |language=en |archive-date=26 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226080329/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/space-probes/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Once a probe has left the vicinity of Earth, its trajectory will likely take it along an [[Heliocentric orbit|orbit around the]] [[Sun]] similar to the Earth's orbit. To reach another planet, the simplest practical method is a [[Hohmann transfer orbit]]. More complex techniques, such as [[gravitational slingshot]]s, can be more fuel-efficient, though they may require the probe to spend more time in transit. Some high [[Delta-V]] missions (such as those with high [[Orbital inclination change|inclination changes]]) can only be performed, within the limits of modern propulsion, using gravitational slingshots. A technique using very little propulsion, but requiring a considerable amount of time, is to follow a trajectory on the [[Interplanetary Transport Network]].<ref name="Ross-SA-2006">{{cite journal |last=Ross |url=http://www2.esm.vt.edu/~sdross/papers/AmericanScientist2006.pdf |first=S. D. |date=2006 |doi=10.1511/2006.59.994 |title=The Interplanetary Transport Network |journal=[[American Scientist]] |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=230–237 |access-date=2013-06-27 |archive-date=2013-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020185722/http://www2.esm.vt.edu/~sdross/papers/AmericanScientist2006.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

A '''[[space telescope]]''' or '''space observatory''' is a [[telescope]] in outer space used to observe astronomical objects. Space telescopes avoid the filtering and distortion of [[electromagnetic radiation]] which they observe, and avoid [[light pollution]] which [[Observatory#Ground-based observatories|ground-based observatories]] encounter. They are divided into two types: satellites which map the entire sky ([[astronomical survey]]), and satellites which focus on selected [[astronomical object]]s or parts of the sky and beyond. Space telescopes are distinct from [[Earth imaging satellite]]s, which point toward Earth for [[satellite imaging]], applied for [[Weather satellite|weather analysis]], [[Reconnaissance satellite|espionage]], and [[Remote sensing|other types of information gathering]].

== Cargo spacecraft ==
{{further|Comparison of space station cargo vehicles}}{{image frame|content={{Photomontage
| size    = 250
| photo1a = Progress spacecraft.jpg
| photo1b = CRS-22 docking approach (cropped).jpg
| photo2a = Tianzhou Rendering.png
| photo2b = Cygnus Enhanced spacecraft.jpg
}}|width=250|caption=The four currently active space station cargo vehicles. Clockwise from top left: Progress, Cargo Dragon 2, Cygnus, Tianzhou.}}'''Cargo''' or '''resupply spacecraft''' are robotic vehicles designed to transport supplies, such as food, propellant, and equipment, to space stations. This distinguishes them from space probes, which are primarily focused on scientific exploration.

Automated cargo spacecraft have been servicing space stations since 1978, supporting missions like [[Salyut 6]], [[Salyut 7]], [[Mir]], the [[International Space Station]] (ISS), and the [[Tiangong space station]].

Currently, the ISS relies on three types of cargo spacecraft: the Russian [[Progress (spacecraft)|Progress]],<ref>{{cite news |author=Abbey A. Donaldson |date=February 12, 2024 |title=NASA to Provide Coverage of Progress 87 Launch, Space Station Docking |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-to-provide-coverage-of-progress-87-launch-space-station-docking/ |work=Nasa}}</ref> along with the American [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Cargo Dragon 2]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Post |first=Hannah |date=16 September 2014 |title=NASA Selects SpaceX to be Part of America's Human Spaceflight Program |url=https://www.spacex.com/news/2014/09/16/nasa-selects-spacex-be-part-americas-human-spaceflight-program |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315165820/https://www.spacex.com/news/2014/09/16/nasa-selects-spacex-be-part-americas-human-spaceflight-program |archive-date=15 March 2019 |access-date=3 March 2019 |publisher=SpaceX}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Berger |first1=Eric |date=9 June 2017 |title=So SpaceX is having quite a year |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/06/so-spacex-is-having-quite-a-year/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609161325/https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/06/so-spacex-is-having-quite-a-year/ |archive-date=9 June 2017 |access-date=9 June 2017 |work=Ars Technica}}</ref> and [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Jeff Foust |date=January 30, 2024 |title=Falcon 9 launches Cygnus cargo spacecraft to space station |url=https://spacenews.com/falcon-9-launches-cygnus-cargo-spacecraft-to-space-station/ |work=Space News}}</ref> China's Tiangong space station is solely supplied by the [[Tianzhou (spacecraft)|Tianzhou]].<ref>{{cite web |date=21 April 2021 |title=长征七号遥三火箭 • 天舟二号货运飞船 • LongMarch-7 Y3 • Tianzhou-2 |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/cz-7-tianzhou-2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611233243/http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/cz-7-tianzhou-2 |archive-date=11 June 2021 |access-date=25 May 2021 |work=spaceflightfans.cn |language=zh}}</ref><ref name="SN-20210413">{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |date=13 April 2021 |title=China preparing Tianzhou-2 cargo mission to follow upcoming space station launch |url=https://spacenews.com/china-preparing-tianzhou-2-cargo-mission-to-follow-upcoming-space-station-launch/ |access-date=24 April 2021 |work=[[SpaceNews]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 September 2021 |title=China rolls out rocket for Tianzhou 3 cargo mission ahead of Monday launch (Photos) |url=https://www.space.com/china-tianzhou-3-cargo-mission-rollout-photos |website=[[Space.com]]}}</ref>

The American [[Dream Chaser]]<ref name="Vulcan-Selection">
{{cite press release |title=SNC Selects ULA for Dream Chaser® Spacecraft Launches |date=August 14, 2019 |url=https://www.sncorp.com/press-releases/snc-ula-dream-chaser-launch-announcement/ |access-date=August 14, 2019 |work=[[Sierra Nevada Corporation]]}}
</ref><ref name="vid">
{{cite web |date=February 5, 2011 |title=NASA Deputy Administrator Lori Garver touts Colorado's role |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjsGFG8ko1Q |access-date=August 29, 2012 |publisher=Youtube.com}}
</ref> and Japanese [[HTV-X]] are under development for future use with the ISS. The European [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] was previously used between 2008 and 2015.

==See also==
* {{Portal inline|Spaceflight}}
* [[Beacon mode service]]
* [[Geosynchronous satellite]]
* [[Human spaceflight]]
* [[List of passive satellites]]
* [[Timeline of Solar System exploration]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Spaceflight}}
{{Cargo spacecraft}}
{{Mobile robots}}
{{Space exploration lists and timelines}}
{{NASA space program}}
{{Russian space program}}
{{Solar System}}
{{Robotics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Uncrewed spacecraft| ]]
[[Category:Cargo spacecraft]]
[[Category:Space probes]]
[[Category:Space robots]]
[[Category:Spacecraft]]
[[Category:Solar System]]