View source for Užice dialect

{{Short description|Eastern Herzegovinian subdialect of Užice}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Užice dialect
| nativename       = {{lang|sh-Cyrl|ужички говор}} / {{lang|sh-Latn|užički govor}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|sh|ˈuʃə̆tʃkiː ˈɡɔʋɔːr|}}
| states           = [[Serbia]]
| region           = [[Stari Vlah]] ([[Užice]])
| extinct          = Considered [[Moribund language|moribund]], suppressed by the [[standard language]]
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
| fam3             = [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
| fam4             = [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]]
| fam5             = [[Western South Slavic]]
| fam6             = [[Shtokavian]]
| fam7             = [[Neo-Shtokavian]]
| fam8             = [[Eastern Herzegovinian]]
| isoexception     = dialect
| glotto           = uzic1234
| notice           = IPA
}}
The '''Užice dialect''' ({{lang-sh-Cyrl-Latn|ужички говор|užički govor|separator=" / "}}), also known as the '''Zlatibor dialect''' ({{lang-sh-Cyrl-Latn|златиборски говор|zlatiborski govor|separator=" / "}}), is a [[Neo-Shtokavian]] subdialect of the [[Eastern Herzegovinian]] dialect<ref>Павле Ивић, „Дијалектологија српскохрватског језика{{spaced ndash}}увод и штокавско наречје“, Сремски Карловци{{spaced ndash}}Нови Сад 2001, p. 175</ref> traditionally spoken in the [[Zlatibor District|Zlatibor]] and [[Moravica District]]s of the [[Užice]] region ([[Stari Vlah]]) in southwestern [[Serbia]]. The dialect is spoken by approximately 500,000 people, including both [[Bosniaks]] and [[Serbs]] living in the area.<ref name="ReferenceA">Милисав Р. Ђенић, „Златибор“, Титово Ужице 1970, p. 74</ref><ref>''The Užice [[Regions of Serbia|region]] consists of [[Zlatibor]], [[Kosjerić|užička Crna gora]], [[Stari Vlah]], [[Bajina Bašta|Soko]], [[Požega, Serbia|Požega Valley]], [[Moravica District|Moravica]], [[Polimlje]] and [[Prijepolje|Podblaće]], which comprise a region with some specific geographic, and somewhat also ethnographic characteristics within Serbia''{{spaced ndash}}Р. Познановић, „Традиционално усмено народно стваралаштво Ужичког краја“, Посебна издања Етнографског института САНУ 30/1, Београд 1988, pp. 24–25</ref><ref>According to [http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/popis.htm 2002 population census in Serbia] there were 313,396 people living in the [[Zlatibor District]] (the capital of which is [[Užice]]) and 224,772 people settled in the [[Moravica District]] (the capital of which is [[Čačak]]).</ref>

== Names ==
One of the earliest mentions of the local dialect of [[Užice]] region is found in [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] geographer [[Evliya Çelebi]]'s record on his visit to the Užice [[nahiya]] in 1664.<ref>Evlija Čelebi, „Putopis“, Sarajevo 1973.</ref> In his travelogue, the language of [[Užicans]] is called the "Bosnian language".<ref>Љубомир Симовић, „Ужице са вранама“, Београд 2002, p. 39 and 43</ref>

Today [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] people in the Užice region usually claim to speak [[Serbian language|Serbian]], whereas [[Sunni Muslim|Muslims]] (who primarily dwell in the municipalities of [[Nova Varoš]], [[Priboj]], [[Prijepolje]], and [[Sjenica]] in the [[Zlatibor District]]) claim to speak [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]. The name [[Serbo-Croatian]] was also used during the [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] era.<ref>cf. the population censa in [[Serbia]] and former [[Yugoslavia]]</ref>

== Classification ==
{{South Slavic languages sidebar}}
The Užice dialect is a [[Štokavian dialect|Neo-Štokavian]] dialect with [[Ijekavian accent]]. It is characterized by an Eastern Herzegovinian [[Accent (dialect)|accenting system]] consisting of four pitch accents with long vowels following accented syllables, and a [[grammatical case|case system]] using full declension.<ref>Живојин Станојчић, Љубомир Поповић, „Граматика српскога језика“, Београд 2004, p. 10</ref> Today many people in the Užice region, especially in urban areas, use the [[Ekavian accent]] (which is dominant in Serbia) in speech and writing, instead of the traditional Ijekavian.<ref>Љубомир Симовић, „Ужице са вранама“, Београд 2002, p. 274</ref> Nevertheless, the original Ijekavian forms of local toponyms such as [[Bioska]], [[Đetinja]], [[Prijepolje]], [[Bjeluša]], [[Kosjerić]], [[Drijetanj]] etc., are usually preserved, as these are the names used in official documents and other publications.<ref>as recognized by the [http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/en/index.php Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219162515/http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/en/index.php |date=2009-02-19 }}</ref> However, there is also a number of toponyms which were Ekavized in the written language, although their original Ijekavian forms have often survived in the spoken language. These include [[Donja Bela Reka (Nova Varoš)|Donja Bela Reka]] / [[Gornja Bela Reka (Nova Varoš)|Gornja Bela Reka]], [[Kriva Reka (Čajetina)|Kriva Reka]], [[Seništa]] and others, which can often be heard as ''Bijela Rijeka'', ''Kriva Rijeka'', ''Sjeništa'' etc. in conversation among the locals.<ref>cf. Милисав Р. Ђенић, „Златибор“; Љубиша Р. Ђенић, „Златиборски летопис“; Љубомир Симовић, „Ужице са вранама“ and other works that nonetheless mention them in their original Ijekavian forms.</ref>

In the Central South Slavic [[dialect continuum]], the Užice dialect forms a transition between the neighbouring dialects of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and the dialects of [[Serbia]]. Some of its characteristics are shared with either dialects, but many of them are common with the Bosnian vernacular rather than the dialects of the rest of Serbia; including the traditional Ijekavian reflex of [[yat]], the [[vowel reduction|reduction]] of short unaccented vowels in speech, and other characteristics of the local [[phonetics]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and [[lexis (linguistics)|lexis]], the latter manifested primarily in many loanwords from [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Persian language|Persian]], and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] languages, which are, however, suppressed and less used in the modern language. The connections between the [[Stari Vlah|Užice region]] and Bosnia were even stronger in the past, as parts of this region once belonged to the mediaeval Bosnian state, and the mediaeval local population were followers of the [[Bosnian Church|Church of Bosnia]].<ref>Милисав Р. Ђенић, „Златибор у прошлости“, Титово Ужице 1983, p. 11</ref>

== History ==
The local population descends from the [[Slavs]] who mixed with [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] and [[Celts|Celtic]] tribes in the early [[Middle Ages]],<ref>Милисав Р. Ђенић, „Златибор“, Титово Ужице 1970, p. 73</ref> and therefore the dialect in its earliest mediaeval form has been rather influenced by the Celtic and Illyrian languages, the remaining of which are some local toponyms of Illyrian or [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] Celtic etymology, such as [[Tara Mountain]], [[Negbina]], [[Murtenica]], [[Čigota]] etc.,<ref>Милисав Р. Ђенић, „Златибор у прошлости“, Титово Ужице 1983, p. 6</ref> or the mediaeval Užican personal name [[Brian|Brajan]] of Celtic origin.<ref name="Aličić">Ахмед С. Аличић, „Турски катастарски пописи неких подручја западне Србије{{spaced ndash}}XV и XVI век“, Чачак 1984</ref>

Mediaeval records of local toponyms show [[Ikavian]] characteristics of the local Slavonic [[vernacular]], similarly to the mediaeval [[Bosnian language]]. These toponyms include ''Bila Rika'', ''Siča Rika'', ''Biluša'', and others, which are today known as Bela Reka or ''Bijela Rijeka'', [[Seča Reka]], and [[Bjeluša]] (either Ijekavian accent or Ekavized during the 19th and 20th centuries).<ref name="Aličić"/>

The dialect’s vocabulary was later influenced by the [[Ottoman Turkish language]].<ref>Љубомир Симовић, „Ужице са вранама“, Београд 2002, p. 140</ref> A mention of the respectable Turkish influence on Užican language and mentality is also found in the novel ''Došljaci'' by a notable Užice writer [[Milutin Uskoković]]:

{{cquote|The Turkish influence still remained in speech and mentality. The language ... is full with Turkish words. Older Užicans are at home still very much like the Turks|24px|24px|[[Milutin Uskoković]]|''Došljaci'' (1919)}}

During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, the [[Stari Vlah|Užice region]] was mostly populated by the migrants from [[Herzegovina]], [[Montenegro]], and other [[Dinaric Alps|Dinaric]] regions. Most of the present-day [[Užicans]] descend from these settlers.<ref>Милисав Р. Ђенић, „Златибор у прошлости“, Титово Ужице 1983, p. 50</ref> The local dialect was then influenced by the Younger Ijekavian dialects of Herzegovina and Montenegro, and thus became one of the Eastern Herzegovinian dialects.<ref>Similarly to other Serbo-Croatian dialects that were influenced by the settlers from Herzegovina, and today are classified under Eastern Herzegovinian dialects. The [[Dubrovnik]] dialect was originally [[Čakavian]] [[Ikavian]] but today is Herzegovinian [[Ijekavian]], and the dialects of [[Lika]] were originally [[Ikavian]] but today are mostly Eastern Herzegovinian [[Ijekavian]]. Both [[Dubrovnik]] and [[Lika]], like [[Užice]], were settled by migrants from Herzegovina during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule over the [[Balkans]].</ref>

== Characteristics ==
* Interrogatory pronouns are ''šta'' (what) and ''ko'' (who), according to which the pronoun ''nešta'' (something) is used instead of the standard ''nešto''; and ''što'' (why) is used with the meaning of the standard ''zašto''.
* The dialect has younger [[Štokavian]] accentuation consisting of four accents and long vowels following the accented syllables, and the full [[declension]] using the ending ''-a'' in [[genitive case|genitive plural]] and a same form for [[dative case|dative]], [[instrumental case|instrumental]], and [[locative case|locative]] plural. The post-accent long vowels are more frequent in the Užican dialect than in the [[standard language]], appearing on all [[vocative case|vocative]] endings and the [[past tense|praeterite]] suffixes.
* The old vowel [[yat]] is replaced with ''ije'' in long syllables and ''je'' in the short ones. Before another vowel or a [[palatal consonant]], it is replaced with ''i'', and after a [[consonant cluster]] or the consonant ''r'', it is pronounced as ''e''. The reflex of long [[yat]] (''ije'') is always bisyllabic, while it is [[diphthong]]al in some other Ijekavian dialects.
* The older Ijekavian [[yat|yat reflex]] has been kept in several pronouns and declension endings: ''ovijem'' instead of the standard ''ovim'', ''moijem'' instead of ''mojim'', ''starijem'' for ''starim'' etc.
* The dialectal Ijekavian [[iotation]] (''dj > đ'' {{IPA|[dʑ]}}, ''tj > ć'' {{IPA|[tɕ]}}) has been preserved: ''đe'' for ''gdje'', ''đevojka'' for ''djevojka'', ''đeca'' for ''djeca'', ''međed'' for ''medvjed'', ''lećeti'' for ''letjeti'', ''ćerati'' for ''tjerati'' etc. The iotation also affects sound {{IPA|/s/}}, and to a lesser degree sounds {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/ts/}}, yielding {{IPA|[ɕ]}} or {{IPA|[ʃʲ]}} for ''sj'', {{IPA|[ʑ]}} or {{IPA|[ʒʲ]}} for ''zj'', and {{IPA|[tɕ]}} for ''cj'': ''sjutra > śutra'', ''posjek > pośek'', ''cjepanica > ćepanica'' etc. More archaic Ijekavian iotation affecting labial sounds (''pj > plj'' {{IPA|[pʎ]}}, ''vj > vlj'' {{IPA|[vʎ]}}) is found in the text of the [[Kremansko proročanstvo|Prophecy of Kremna]] but is, however, usually omitted.
* Several dialectal words and expressions are differently built, such as: ''sjutra'' or ''sjutre'' (that is, ''śutra'' or ''śutre'' when the iotation occurs) instead of the standard ''sutra''; ''puštiti'' instead of ''pustiti''; ''jošte'' instead of ''još''; ''računjati'' instead of ''računati''; ''morem, more'' instead of ''mogu, može''; ''bidem'' or ''bidnem'' instead of ''budem''; ''četri'' instead of ''četiri''; ''potlje'' and ''pošlje'' instead of ''poslije'' or ''posle''; as well as dialectal expressions ''najvolim'' and ''najposle''.
* The ending ''-t'' is used instead of ''-n'' for the [[grammatical voice|passive voice]] of the verbs of the II, IV, V, and VII [[grammatical conjugation]]: ''napisat, napisata'' for ''napisan, napisana''; ''izabrat'' for ''izabran'' and so on.
* Sounds {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/x/}} have been either lost or replaced with sounds {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/ʋ/}}, {{IPA|/j/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} or {{IPA|/s/}}: ''ljeb'' for ''hljeb'', ''njig'' for ''njih'', ''kava'' for ''kafa'', ''oras'' for ''orah'', ''stio'' for ''htio'', ''kujna'' for ''kuhinja'' etc. The sound {{IPA|/j/}} is also less used when occurs near the vowel {{IPA|/i/}} giving ''starii'' for ''stariji'', ''moi'' for ''moji'', ''Alin'' for ''Alijin'' (as in toponym [[Alin Potok]]) etc.
* Several [[sound changes]] such as [[Palatalization (sound change)|sibilarization]], [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]], [[metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]] or [[elision]] occur more frequently in the Užican dialect, whilst [[i-mutation]] usually occurs less frequently. Vowel groups ''ao'' and ''ae'' have merged into ''o'' and ''e'': ''rekao > reko'', ''posao > poso'', ''dvanaest > dvanes''.
* Short unaccented vowels {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, and {{IPA|/u/}} are being [[vowel reduction|reduced]] in common speech, a manner of articulation that is widespread in the related dialects of [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] and [[Herzegovina]].
* The dialect's [[lexis (linguistics)|lexis]] includes some regional and [[archaism|archaic]] expressions as well as many loans from [[Ottoman Turkish language|Turkish]].

== Phonetics ==
{{Bosniaks}}
{{Serbs}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Vowels
!
! [[front vowel|front]]
! [[central vowel|central]]
! [[back vowel|back]]
|-
! [[close vowel|close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[mid vowel|mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| ({{IPA link|ə|ə, ə̆}}) {{r|footnote1|group=decimal}}
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
|-
! [[open vowel|open]]
|
| {{IPA link|ä}} {{r|footnote2|group=decimal}}
|
|}
{{reflist |group=decimal |refs=
<ref name=footnote1>[[Schwa]] is an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/u/}} or {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, which are [[vowel reduction|reduced]] in mid-word position when not [[stress (linguistics)|stressed]].</ref>
<ref name=footnote2>The [[open back unrounded vowel]] may also occur as an allophone of {{IPA|/a/}}.</ref>
}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Consonants
!
![[labial consonant|labial]]
![[dental consonant|dental]] &<br>[[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
![[postalveolar consonant|post-<br>alveolar]]
![[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-<br>palatal]]
![[palatal consonant|palatal]]
![[velar consonant|velar]]
|-
! [[plosive consonant|plosive]]
|{{IPA link|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|d}} {{r|footnote1|group=decimal}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɲ}}
|({{IPA link|ŋ}}) {{r|footnote2|group=decimal}}
|-
! [[fricative consonant|fricative]]
|
|{{IPA link|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|z}} {{r|footnote1|group=decimal}}
|{{IPA link|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|ʒ}}
|{{IPA link|ɕ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;({{IPA link|ʑ}}) {{r|footnote3|group=decimal}}
|
|
|-
! [[affricate consonant|affricate]]
|
|{{IPA link|ts}} {{r|footnote1|group=decimal}}
|{{IPA link|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|dʒ}}
|{{IPA link|tɕ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|dʑ}}
|
|
|-
! [[trill consonant|trill]]
|
|{{IPA link|r}} {{r|footnote4|group=decimal}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[approximant]]
|{{IPA link|ʋ}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|-
! [[lateral consonant|lateral approximant]]
|
|{{IPA link|l}}&nbsp;&nbsp;({{IPA link|ɫ}}) {{r|footnote5|group=decimal}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ʎ}}
|
|}
{{reflist |group=decimal |refs=

<ref name=footnote1>Sounds {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, and {{IPA|/ts/}} are pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth rather than against the [[alveolar ridge]], thus being more [[dental consonant|dental]] than truly [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]].</ref>

<ref name=footnote2>The [[velar nasal]] is not a [[phoneme]], it only occurs as an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/n/}} before velar consonants, e.g. {{IPA|[ˈbraːŋko]}}.</ref>

<ref name=footnote3>The [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] [[fricative consonant|fricatives]] occur when {{IPA|/s/}} or {{IPA|/ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} or {{IPA|/ʒ/}} undergone [[iotation]]. The [[voiced alveolo-palatal fricative]] is much rarer because the iotation with {{IPA|/z/}} is usually omitted.</ref>

<ref name=footnote4>The [[alveolar trill]] can be syllabic in some words.</ref>

<ref name=footnote5>The [[alveolar lateral approximant]] is usually [[velarized alveolar lateral approximant|velarized]] in this dialect.</ref>
}}

== Literature ==
The significant portion of the Užican [[vernacular literature]] consists of local [[anecdote]]s and [[proverb]]s, as well as the [[epic poetry|epic]] and [[lyric poetry|lyric poems]], both of which are usually sung according to a common metric system consisting of ten units (ten syllables in a verse), and often performed with [[gusle]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The hero of all Užican anecdotes is called '''Ero''' (another name for [[Užicans]], also spelled ''Era''), who is portrayed as a most clever, witty, and hospitable person, although he is just a simple [[Zlatibor]]ian peasant. In these short anecdotes, he always succeeds to trick the others at the end, even though they hold a higher position in the society or are often considered smarter than him (priests, Ottoman and [[Serbian nobility]], the police, etc.).<ref>Bulletin of the Ethnographic Institute [[Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts|SASA]], vol XLVI, Belgrade 1997: Десанка Николић, „Анегдота{{spaced ndash}}израз ерског менталитета“</ref> Characters similar to smart and clever Ero are found in anecdotes across the [[Balkans]]: in the stories about [[Nasreddin|Nasredin Hodža]], of oriental origin, or [[Karagiozis]] in the Greek and Turkish literatures.<ref>Р. Ангелова, „Любими геори на хумористичните приказки и анегдотите у някои славянски и неславянски народи“, Език и литература XXVIII/3, София 1973, pp. 16–17</ref>

The written literature, on the other hand, usually stuck to the [[standard language]]; that is [[Old Church Slavonic]] and [[Church Slavonic]] in the [[Middle Ages]], and later the standard [[Serbian language]]. The first Užican printed book, ''[[Rujansko četvorojevanđelje]]'' (the Gospels of [[Rujno]]), was printed in Church Slavonic in 1537.<ref>Милисав Р. Ђенић, „Златибор у прошлости“, Титово Ужице 1983, p. 10</ref> Other Church Slavonic books printed in the Užice region include ''[[Psalter]]'' printed in [[Mileševa]] monastery in 1544, and ''[[Gospel|Evangelion]]'' and ''[[Pentecostarion]]'' printed in [[Mrkšina crkva|Mrkša’s Church]] in 1562 and 1566, respectively.<ref>Љубомир Симовић, „Ужице са вранама“, Београд 2002, pp. 44–47</ref> After the printing centres in Užican monasteries were demolished by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], a [[manuscript culture]] arose in the [[Rača monastery]]. The manuscripts produced in Rača were written in Church Slavonic, but they contained many elements of the Užican vernacular.<ref>Љубомир Симовић, „Ужице са вранама“, Београд 2002, pp. 53–57</ref> The first works compiled in the local dialect by literate Užicans appeared in the 19th century. They include Miladin Radović's chronicle ''[[Samouki rukopis]]'', and the ''[[Kremansko proročanstvo|Prophecy of Kremna]]'' which was told by [[Zechariah Zaharić]], the [[protopope]] of [[Kremna]].

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Incubator|prefix=Wp|code=sr-zlatb}}
* [http://slavistika.blogspot.com/2007/08/blog-post.html The history of the traditional dialect of Užice]
* [http://slavistika.blogspot.com/2007/08/kratka-istorija-starovlake-knjievnosti.html Kratka istorija starovlaške književnosti]

{{Shtokavian dialects}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Uzican Speech}}
[[Category:Užice]]
[[Category:Dialects by location]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 17th century]]