View source for Turkish people

{{Short description|Turkic ethnic group}}
{{distinguish|Turkic peoples}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Turks
| native_name      = {{native name|tr|Türkler}}
| image            = Map of the Turkish Diaspora in the World.svg
| caption          = Map of the Turkish people around the world
| native_name_lang = tr
| pop              = {{circa}} '''80 million'''
| popplace         = Turkey&nbsp; 60,000,000 to 65,000,000<ref name=Garibova2011>{{citation|last=Garibova|first=Jala|year=2011|chapter=A Pan-Turkic Dream: Language Unification of Turks|title=Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts|editor1-last=Fishman|editor1-first=Joshua|editor2-last=Garcia|editor-first2=Ofelia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&dq=60+million+ethnic+Turks+living+in+its+territories&pg=PA268|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=268|quote=Approximately 200 million people,... speak nearly 40 Turkic languages and dialects. Turkey is the largest Turkic state, with about 60 million ethnic Turks living in its territories.|isbn=9780199837991}}</ref><ref name=Hobbs2017>{{citation|last=Hobbs|first=Joseph J.|year=2017|title=Fundamentals of World Regional Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0rUaCgAAQBAJ&dq=The+greatest+are+the+65+million+Turks+of+Turkey&pg=PA223|publisher=[[Cengage]]|quote=The greatest are the 65 million Turks of Turkey, who speak Turkish, a Turkic language...|page=223|isbn=9781305854956}}</ref> <br /> Northern Cyprus&nbsp; 315,000{{smallsup|a}}<ref>{{cite web |title=KKTC 2011 NÜFUS VE KONUT SAYIMI |url=http://www.devplan.org/Nufus-2011/nufus%20son_.pdf |access-date=14 February 2014 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927104440/http://www.devplan.org/Nufus-2011/nufus%20son_.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref>
{{collapsed infobox section begin|Other countries}}
| region3          = '''[[Turkish diaspora]]:'''
| pop3             = &nbsp;<!-- needed to force display of the header -->
| region4          = {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop4             = 3,000,000 to over 7,000,000
| ref4             = <ref>{{cite book |last1=Orvis|first1=Stephen|last2=Drogus|first2=Carol Ann|year=2018|title=Introducing Comparative Politics: Concepts and Cases in Context |publisher=CQ Press|quote=Today, nearly three million ethnic Turks live in Germany, and many have raised children there.|isbn=978-1-5443-7444-4|page=305|language=en}}</ref><ref name=Engstrom2021>{{citation|last=Engstrom|first=Aineias|title=Turkish-German "dream team" behind first COVID-19 vaccine|url=https://psuvanguard.com/turkish-german-dream-team-behind-first-covid-19-vaccine/|journal=[[Portland State Vanguard]]|date=12 January 2021 |publisher=[[Portland State University]]|quote=The German census does not gather data on ethnicity, however according to estimates, somewhere between 4–7 million people with Turkish roots, or 5–9% of the population, live in Germany.|access-date=27 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210327134346/https://psuvanguard.com/turkish-german-dream-team-behind-first-covid-19-vaccine/|archive-date=27 March 2021}}</ref><ref name=Zestos&Cooke2020>{{citation|last1=Zestos|first1=George K.|last2=Cooke|first2=Rachel N.|year=2020|title=Challenges for the EU as Germany Approaches Recession |publisher=[[Levy Economics Institute]]|pages=22|url=http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp_948.pdf|quote=Presently (2020) more than seven million Turks live in Germany.}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=[[Tessa Szyszkowitz|Szyszkowitz, Tessa]]|year=2005|chapter=Germany|title=Europe Confronts Terrorism|editor-last=Von Hippel|editor-first=Karin|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|pages=53|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyx-DAAAQBAJ&q=It+is+a+little+late+to+start+the+debate+about+being+an+immigrant+country+now%2C+when+already+seven+million+Turks+live+in+Germany&pg=PA53|isbn=978-0230524590|quote=It is a little late to start the debate about being an immigrant country now, when already seven million Turks live in Germany.}}</ref>
| region5          = {{flagcountry|United States}}
| pop5             = 1,000,000–3,000,000
| ref5             = <ref name=Bryson>{{citation|author=[[John Bryson|Bryson, John]]|year=2012|title =Remarks by Commerce Secretary Bryson, April 5, 2012|journal=Foreign Policy Bulletin|volume=22|issue=3|page=137|quote=Here in the U.S., you can see our person-to-person relationships growing stronger each day. You can see it in the 13,000 Turkish students that are studying here in the U.S. You can see it in corporate leaders like Muhtar Kent, the CEO of Coca-Cola, and you can see it in more than one million Turkish-Americans who add to the rich culture and fabric of our country.|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}} The citation is also available on {{citation|year=2012|title =Remarks at Center for American Progress & Confederation of Businessmen and Industrialists of Turkey (TUSKON) Luncheon| url=https://2010-2014.commerce.gov/news/secretary-speeches/2012/04/05/remarks-center-american-progress-confederation-businessmen-and-in.html|publisher =[[U.S. Department of Commerce]]|access-date =13 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="Feldman2022">{{citation|author=[[Brian Feldman (politician)|Feldman, Brian]]|year=2022|url=https://www.facebook.com/BrianJeffreyFeldman/photos/a.205098992924823/3565112543590101/|publisher=[[Facebook]]|title=The District 15 Delegation will be making an appearance Thursday on a TV show which reaches over 2 million Turkish Americans as well as viewers in Turkey!|access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref><ref name=Şafak2009/><ref name="Lucena2022">{{citation|last=Lucena|first=Jorge|year=2022|title=MEET MURAD ISLAMOV: THE FOUNDER AND CEO OF MAYA BAGEL EXPRESS|url=https://flaunt.com/content/murad-islamov|publisher=Flaunt|quote=Over 3 million Turkish Americans live in various states across the united states. They have had a significant impact on the united states' culture, achievements, and history. |access-date=26 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326175348/https://flaunt.com/content/murad-islamov|archive-date=26 March 2022}}</ref>
| region7          = {{flagcountry|Netherlands}}
| pop7             = 500,000 to over 2,000,000
| ref7             = <ref name="Aalberseetal2019">{{citation|last1=Aalberse|first1=Suzanne|last2=Backus|first2=Ad|author3-link=:nl:Pieter Muysken|last3=Muysken, Pieter |year=2019|title=Heritage Languages: A language Contact Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ab-9DwAAQBAJ&q=the+Dutch+Turkish+community+over+the+years+must+have+numbered+half+a+million.&pg=PA90|page=90|publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]]|quote=the Dutch Turkish community... out of a population that over the years must have numbered half a million.|isbn=978-9027261762}}</ref><ref name="Tocci">{{citation|author-link=Nathalie Tocci|last=Tocci, Nathalie|year=2004|title=EU Accession Dynamics and Conflict Resolution: Catalysing Peace Or Consolidating Partition in Cyprus?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndWzAAAAIAAJ&q=%22two+million+Turks+in+Holland%22|page=130|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|quote=The Dutch government was concerned about Turkey's reaction to the European Council's conclusions on Cyprus, keeping in mind the presence of two million Turks in Holland and the strong business links with Turkey.|isbn=9780754643104}}</ref><ref name="vanVeen2007">{{citation|last=van Veen|first=Rita|year=2007|title='De koningin heeft oog voor andere culturen'|url=https://www.trouw.nl/nieuws/de-koningin-heeft-oog-voor-andere-culturen~be1cbe71/?referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F|publisher=[[Trouw]]|quote=Erol kan niet voor alle twee miljoen Turken in Nederland spreken, maar hij denkt dat Beatrix wel goed ligt bij veel van zijn landgenoten.|access-date=25 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412080206/https://www.trouw.nl/nieuws/de-koningin-heeft-oog-voor-andere-culturen~be1cbe71/?referrer=https://www.google.com/|archive-date=12 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="Baker2021">{{citation|last=Baker|first=Rauf|year=2021|title=The Netherlands: The EU's "New Britain"?|url=https://besacenter.org/netherlands-eu-gateway/|publisher=[[Begin–Sadat Center for Strategic Studies]], [[Bar-Ilan University]]|quote=The Netherlands, which has a total population of 17 million, contains around two million Turks,...}}</ref>
| region6          = {{flagcountry|France}}
| pop6             = over 1,000,000
| ref6             = <ref name=Hentz&Hasselmann2010>{{cite book|last1=Hentz|first1=Jean-Gustave|last2=Hasselmann|first2=Michel|year=2010|title=Transculturalité, religion, traditions autour de la mort en réanimation|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-2-287-99072-4_33|quote=La France d’aujourd’hui est une société multiculturelle et multiethnique riche de 4,9 millions de migrants représentant environ 8 % de la population du pays. L’immigration massive de populations du sud de l’Europe de culture catholique après la deuxième guerre mondiale a été suivie par l’arrivée de trois millions d’Africains du Nord, d’un million de Turcs et de contingents importants d’Afrique Noire et d’Asie qui ont implanté en France un islam majoritairement sunnite (Maghrébins et Africains de l’Ouest) mais aussi chiite (Pakistanais et Africains de l’Est).|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer-Verlag France]]|doi=10.1007/978-2-287-99072-4_33|isbn=978-2-287-99072-4}}</ref><ref name=Gallard&Nguyen2020>{{citation|last1=Gallard|first1= Joseph|last2=Nguyen|first2=Julien|year=2020|title="Il est temps que la France appelle à de véritables sanctions contre le jeu d'Erdogan"|url=https://www.marianne.net/agora/tribunes-libres/il-est-temps-que-la-france-appelle-a-de-veritables-sanctions-contre-le-jeu-derdogan|publisher=[[Marianne (magazine)|Marianne]]|quote=... et ce grâce à la nombreuse diaspora turque, en particulier en France et en Allemagne. Ils seraient environ un million dans l'Hexagone, si ce n’est plus...es raisons derrière ne sont pas difficiles à deviner : l’immense population turque en Allemagne, estimée par Merkel elle-même aux alentours de sept millions et qui ne manquerait pas de se faire entendre si l’Allemagne prenait des mesures allant à l’encontre de la Turquie. |access-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214154041/https://www.marianne.net/agora/tribunes-libres/il-est-temps-que-la-france-appelle-a-de-veritables-sanctions-contre-le-jeu-derdogan|archive-date=14 February 2021}}</ref><ref name=Garriaud-Maylam2021>{{citation|year=2021|title=Contrat d'objectifs et de moyens (COM) 2020-2022 de France Médias Monde: Mme Joëlle Garriaud-Maylam, co-rapporteur|url=http://www.senat.fr/rap/r20-308/r20-3087.html|quote=Enfin, comme vous l'avez dit au sujet de la Turquie, il est essentiel que la France investisse davantage dans les langues qui sont parlées sur le territoire national. On recense plus d'un million de Turcs en France. Ils ne partagent pas toujours nos objectifs et nos valeurs, parce qu'ils subissent l'influence d'une presse qui ne nous est pas toujours très favorable. Il est donc très utile de les prendre en compte dans le développement de nos médias.|publisher=[[Senate (France)|Sénat]]|access-date=7 May 2021}}</ref>
| region8          = {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| pop8             = 500,000{{smallsup|b}}
| ref8             = <ref>{{cite news|work=The Guardian |title=UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs|date=1 August 2011 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/aug/01/turkish-immigration-possibilities-assessed|access-date=1 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=[[Federation of Turkish Associations UK]]|title=Short history of the Federation of Turkish Associations in UK |url=http://www.turkishfederationuk.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=31|date=19 June 2008|access-date=13 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110204634/http://www.turkishfederationuk.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=31|archive-date=10 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| region9          = {{flagcountry|Austria}}
| pop9             = 360,000–500,000
| ref9             = <ref name="InitiativeMinderheiten">{{citation|year=2011|title=Warum die Türken?|url=https://homepage.univie.ac.at/sabine.strasser/stimme_78_editorial.pdf|publisher=[[:de:Initiative Minderheiten|Initiative Minderheiten]]|volume=78|quote=Was sind die Gründe für dieses massive Unbehagen angesichts von rund 360.000 Menschen türkischer Herkunft?|access-date=17 August 2021|archive-date=18 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118011455/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/sabine.strasser/stimme_78_editorial.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Mölzer">{{cite web|last=[[Andreas Mölzer|Mölzer, Andreas]]|title=In Österreich leben geschätzte 500.000 Türken, aber kaum mehr als 10–12.000 Slowenen|url=http://www.andreas-moelzer.at/index.php?id=24|access-date=30 October 2020|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225063611/http://www.andreas-moelzer.at/|archive-date=25 December 2018}}</ref>
| region10         = {{flagcountry|Belgium}}
| pop10            = 250,000–500,000
| ref10            = <ref>{{citation |last1=Manço|first1=Altay|last2=Taş|first2=Ertugrul|year=2019|title=Migrations Matrimoniales: Facteurs de Risque en Sante´ Mentale|page=444|url= |journal=[[The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry]]|volume=64|issue=6|publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]]|doi=10.1177/0706743718802800|pmid=30380909|pmc=6591757}}</ref><ref name="Debels2021">{{citation|author=[[:nl:Thierry Debels|Debels, Thierry]]|year=2021|title=Operatie Rebel: toen de Belgische heroïnehandel in Turkse handen was|work=PNWS |url=https://pnws.be/operatie-rebel-toen-de-belgische-heroinehandel-in-turkse-handen-was/|quote=Volgens diverse bronnen zouden eerst een half miljoen Turken die toen in Belgie verbleven – Belgen van Turkse afkomst en aanverwanten – gescreend zijn.|publisher=PMagazine|access-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816145656/https://pnws.be/operatie-rebel-toen-de-belgische-heroinehandel-in-turkse-handen-was/|archive-date=16 August 2021}}</ref>
| region11         = {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| pop11            = 320,000{{smallsup|c}}
| ref11            = <ref name=Lennie>{{cite web|last=Lennie|first=Soraya|year=2017|title=Turkish diaspora in Australia vote in referendum|url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish-diaspora-in-australia-vote-in-referendum-327290|publisher=[[TRT World]]|quote=An estimated 200,000 Turks live in Australia with most of them based in Melbourne's northern suburbs.|page=28|access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref><ref name=Vahdettinetal>{{citation|last1=Vahdettin|first1=Levent|last2=Aksoy|first2=Seçil|last3=Öz|first3=Ulaş|last4=Orhan|first4=Kaan|year=2016|title=Three-dimensional cephalometric norms of Turkish Cypriots using CBCT images reconstructed from a volumetric rendering program in vivo|publisher=[[Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey]]|quote=Recent estimates suggest that there are now 500,000 Turkish Cypriots living in Turkey, 300,000 in the United Kingdom, 120,000 in Australia, 5000 in the United States, 2000 in Germany, 1800 in Canada, and 1600 in New Zealand with a smaller community in South Africa.}}</ref>
| region12         = {{flagcountry|Kazakhstan}}
| pop12            = 250,000{{smallsup|d}}
| ref12            = <ref name="Karcı2018">{{citation|last=Karcı|first=Durmuş|year=2018|title=The Effects of Language Characters and Identity of Meskhetian Turkish in Kazakhstan|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1519899|journal=The Journal of Kesit Academy|volume=4|issue=13|pages=301–303}}</ref>
| region13         = {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
| pop13            = 185,000{{smallsup|e}}
| ref13            = <ref name="Sayıner">{{cite web|last=Sayıner|first=Arda|year=2018|title=Swedish touch in Turkey|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/history/2018/06/25/swedish-touch-in-turkey|publisher=[[Daily Sabah]]|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="Laczko">{{citation|last1= Laczko|first1= Frank|last2=Stacher|first2=Irene|last3=Klekowski von Koppenfels|first3=Amanda|year=2002|title= New challenges for Migration Policy in Central and Eastern Europe|page=187|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-90-6704-153-9 }}</ref><ref name="Widding">{{cite web|last=Widding|first=Lars|title=Historik|url=http://www.prespabirlik.se/f%C3%B6reningen/historik|publisher=KSF Prespa Birlik|access-date=17 November 2020}}</ref>
| region14         = {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| pop14            = 109,883–150,000
| ref14            = <ref name=Russian2010census>{{cite web |author=Демоскоп Weekly |script-title=ru:Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 г. Национальный состав населения Российской Федерации |url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_10.php |access-date=30 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521170119/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_10.php |archive-date=21 May 2012}}</ref>{{sfn|Ryazantsev|2009|p=172}}
| region15         = {{flagcountry|Azerbaijan}}
| pop15            = 130,000{{smallsup|d}}
| ref15            = <ref name="Karcı2018"/>
| region16         = {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
| pop16            = 120,000
| ref16            = <ref>{{citation|year=2009|title=Schweizer Nein könnte Europa-Skeptiker stärken|url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/tuerkei-schweizer-nein-koennte-europa-skeptiker-staerken/1836640.html|quote=Dabei erwarten Vertreter der rund 120.000 Türken in der Schweiz nach dem Referendum keine gravierenden Änderungen in ihrem Alltag.|publisher=[[Der Tagesspiegel]]|access-date=26 May 2021}}</ref>
| region17         = {{flagcountry|Canada}}
| pop17            = over 100,000
| ref17            = <ref name="Aytac2018">{{citation|last=Aytaç|first=Seyit Ahmet|year=2018|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/life/shared-issues-stronger-ties-canadas-envoy-to-turkey/1332258#|title=Shared issues, stronger ties: Canada's envoy to Turkey|quote=Turkish diaspora of some 100,000 Turks largely in Toronto is growing, says Canadian Ambassador Chris Cooter{{nbsp}}... We have a growing Turkish diaspora and they're doing very well in Canada. We think it's 100,000, largely in Toronto. We have several thousand Turkish students in Canada as well.|publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]]|access-date=7 February 2021}}</ref>
| region18         = {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
| pop18            = 70,000–75,000
| ref18            = <ref name=Larsen2008>{{citation|last=Larsen|first=Nick Aagaard|year=2008|title=Tyrkisk afstand fra Islamisk Trossamfund|url=https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/indland/tyrkisk-afstand-fra-islamisk-trossamfund|publisher=[[DR (broadcaster)|Danish Broadcasting Corporation]]|quote=Ud af cirka 200.000 muslimer i Danmark har 70.000 tyrkiske rødder, og de udgør dermed langt den største muslimske indvandrergruppe.|access-date=1 November 2020}}</ref><ref name=Milliyet2015>{{citation|last=|first=|year=2015|title=Türk kadınının derdi Danimarka'da da aynı|url=https://www.milliyet.com.tr/gundem/turk-kadininin-derdi-danimarka-da-da-ayni-2046656|publisher=[[Milliyet]]|quote=Danimarka’da yaşayan 75 bin Türk nüfusunda,...|access-date=7 September 2021}}</ref>
| region19         = {{flagcountry|Kyrgyzstan}}
| pop19            = 55,000{{smallsup|d}}
| ref19            = <ref name="Karcı2018"/>
| region20         = {{flagcountry|Italy}}
| pop20            = 50,000
| ref20            = <ref>{{citation|last=Seçkin|first=Barış|year=2020|title=İtalya'daki Türk vatandaşları Kovid-19 nedeniyle kayıp vermedi|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/italyadaki-turk-vatandaslari-kovid-19-nedeniyle-kayip-vermedi-/1813990|publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]]|quote=İtalya’da yaşayan 50 bin kadar Türk vatandaşının|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref>
| region21         = {{flagcountry|Uzbekistan}}
| pop21            = 25,000{{smallsup|d}}
| ref21            = <ref name="Karcı2018"/>
| region22         = {{flagcountry|Norway}}
| pop22            = 16,500
| ref22            = <ref>{{citation|year=2013|title=Norwegian-Turkish cooperation|url=https://www.royalcourt.no/nyhet.html?tid=118715|publisher=The Royal House of Norway|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref>
| region23         = {{flagcountry|Ukraine}}
| pop23            = 8,844–15,000
| ref23            = <ref name=census>{{cite web |author=State Statistics Service of Ukraine |title=Ukrainian Census (2001):The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue |url=http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/ |access-date=16 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501100907/http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/ |archive-date=1 May 2008}}</ref><ref name="Karcı2018"/>
| region24         = {{flagcountry|Turkmenistan}}
| pop24            = 13,000
| ref24            = <ref name=2012Turkmencensus>{{cite web|author=Asgabat|title=Национальный и религиозный состав населения Туркменистана сегодня|url=http://asgabat.net/stati/obschestvo/nacionalnyi-i-religioznyi-sostav-naselenija-turkmenistana-segodnja.html|access-date=27 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624062134/http://asgabat.net/stati/obschestvo/nacionalnyi-i-religioznyi-sostav-naselenija-turkmenistana-segodnja.html|archive-date=24 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| region25         = {{flagcountry|Finland}}
| pop25            = 10,000
| ref25            = <ref>{{citation|last=Kütük|first=Zeki|year=2010|title=Finlandiya'da Yabancı Düşmanlığı, Sosyal Dışlanma ve Türk Diasporası|url=https://tasam.org/tr-TR/Icerik/4448/finlandiyada_yabanci_dusmanligi_sosyal_dislanma_ve_turk_diasporasi|quote=Toplam sayılarının 10 000 civarında olduğu tahmin edilen Türklerin...|publisher=[[:tr:TASAM|Türk Asya Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi]]|access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref>
| region26         = {{flagcountry|Poland}}
| pop26            = 5,000
| ref26            = <ref>{{citation|last=Pawłowska-Salińska|first=Katarzyna|year=2013|title=Nie pytaj Turka o kebab i język arabski|url=https://wyborcza.pl/1,75398,13642657,Nie_pytaj_Turka_o_kebab_i_jezyk_arabski.html?disableRedirects=true|publisher=[[Gazeta Wyborcza]]|quote=Turków jest w Polsce ok. 5 tys. – wynika z danych opracowanych przez Instytut Spraw Publicznych. |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref>
| region27         = {{flagcountry|New Zealand}}
| pop27            = 3,600–4,600{{smallsup|f}}
| ref27            = <ref name=pif>{{cite web|url=http://pif.org.nz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73:question-how-many-turks-living-in-new-zealand-&catid=46:turkish-community&Itemid=79|title=How many Turks living in New Zealand?|publisher=Pearl of the Islands Foundation|access-date=29 October 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100513092537/http://pif.org.nz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73:question-how-many-turks-living-in-new-zealand-&catid=46:turkish-community&Itemid=79|archive-date=13 May 2010}}</ref><ref name=Vahdettinetal/>
| region28         = {{flagcountry|Ireland}}
| pop28            = 2,000–3,000
| ref28            = <ref>{{citation|last=Lacey|first=Jonathan|year=2007|url=http://www.translocations.ie/volume1issue2-8.pdf|title=Exploring the Transnational Engagements of a Turkic Religio-Cultural Community in Ireland|journal=Translocations: The Irish Migration, Race and Social Transformation Review|volume=1|issue=2|access-date=6 September 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721140752/http://www.translocations.ie/volume1issue2-8.pdf|archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref>
| region29         = {{flagcountry|Brazil}}
| pop29            = 2,000–6,300
| ref29            = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Imigrantes internacionais registrados no Brasil|url=https://www.nepo.unicamp.br/observatorio/bancointerativo/numeros-imigracao-internacional/sincre-sismigra/|access-date=20 August 2021|website=www.nepo.unicamp.br}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Imigrantes internacionais registrados no Brasil|url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/18274|access-date=7 July 2022}}</ref>
| region30         = {{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}}
| pop30            = 1,000
| ref30            = <ref>{{citation|year=2009|title=Bir masal ülkesinde yaşam öğretisi.|url=http://blog.milliyet.com.tr/bir-masal-ulkesinde-yasam-ogretisi/Blog/?BlogNo=166707|quote= Bu küçücük ülkede yaşayan 1000 Türk'ten...|publisher=[[Milliyet]]|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref>
| region31         = '''[[Turks in the Arab world]]:'''
| pop31            = &nbsp;<!-- needed to force display of the header -->
| region32         = {{flagcountry|Iraq}}
| pop32            = 3,000,000–5,000,000
| ref32            = <ref name="Triana2017">{{citation |last=Triana|first=María|year=2017|title=Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&dq=Iraqi+citizens+of+Turkish+origin&pg=PA168|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-42368-3|page=168 |quote=Turkmen, Iraqi citizens of Turkish origin, are the third largest ethnic group in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds and they are said to number about 3 million of Iraq's 34.7 million citizens according to the Iraqi Ministry of Planning.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Bassem|first=Wassim|year=2016|title=Iraq's Turkmens call for independent province|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/10/turkmens-iraq-mosul-tal-afar.html|publisher=[[Al-Monitor]]|quote=Turkmens are a mix of Sunnis and Shiites and are the third-largest ethnicity in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds, numbering about 3 million out of the total population of about 34.7 million, according to 2013 data from the Iraqi Ministry of Planning.|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017222707/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/10/turkmens-iraq-mosul-tal-afar.html|archive-date=17 October 2016}}</ref><ref name=Tastekin2018>{{cite web|last=Tastekin|first=Fehim|year=2018|title=Why Iraqi Turkmens are excluded from the new government|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/10/turkey-iraq-new-administration-excludes-turkmens.html|publisher=[[Al-Monitor]]|quote=Turkmens are said to be 10-13% of the overall Iraqi population [i.e. 4 to 5 million out of a total population of 40 million], but that ratio is not reflected in parliament.|access-date=12 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912125910/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/10/turkey-iraq-new-administration-excludes-turkmens.html|archive-date=12 September 2021}}</ref>
| region33         = {{flagcountry|Syria}}
| pop33            = 1,000,000–1,700,000{{smallsup|g}}
| ref33            = <ref name=Taef2005>{{cite journal |last=Taef |first=El-Azhari |year=2005 |title=The Turkmen Identity Crisis in the fifteenth-century Middle East: The Turkmen-Turkish Struggle for Supremacy |url=http://acta.bibl.u-szeged.hu/5799/1/chronica_005_097-107.pdf|quote=The Turkmen were always the forgotten minority in the area despite their large population. In the absence of official records, their numbers cannot be calculated, but it is widely accepted that they exceed three millions in Iraq, and one million in Syria and other countries.|journal=Chronica |volume=5 |access-date=9 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143728/http://acta.bibl.u-szeged.hu/5799/1/chronica_005_097-107.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Aikman">{{citation |last=Aikman|first=David|year=2014|title=The Mirage of Peace: Understand The Never-Ending Conflict in the Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIwXBQAAQBAJ&dq=There+is+also+about+1.7+million+Turks+in+Syria&pg=PT35|publisher=[[Baker Publishing Group]]|quote=There is also about 1.7 million Turks in Syria, and about 800,000 Druze,...|isbn=9781441223555}}</ref>
| region34         = {{flagcountry|Libya}}
| pop34            = 1,000,000–1,400,000{{smallsup|h}}
| ref34            = <ref>{{cite web|last=Rashad|first=Sarah|year=2020|title=Kouloughlis: Turkey's bridge to intervention in Libya|url=https://www.thereference-paris.com/9263|publisher=Centre d'Etudes Moyen-Orient (CEMO)|access-date=19 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Scipione|first=Alessandro|year=2019|title=Libia, la mappa dei combattenti stranieri|url=https://it.insideover.com/guerra/libia-la-mappa-dei-combattenti-stranieri.html|publisher=Inside Over|access-date=26 September 2019|quote=La Turchia peraltro può vantare in Livia una numerosa comunità dei “Koroglu” (i libici di discendenza turca) che conterrebbe ben 1,4 milioni di individui, concentrati soprattutto a Misurata, la “città-Stato” situata circa 180 chilometri a est di Tripoli: praticamente meno un libico su quattro in Libia ha origini turche.}}</ref>
| region35         = {{flagcountry|Egypt}}
| pop35            = 100,000–1,500,000
| ref35            = <ref>{{citation|last=Gamal|first=Gamal|title=Did the Turks sweeten Egypt's kitty? |publisher=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]]|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/16549.aspx|quote=Today, the number of ethnic Turks in Egypt varies considerably, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to 1,500,000. Most have intermingled in Egyptian society and are almost indistinguishable from non-Turkish Egyptians, even though a considerable number of Egyptians of Turkish origin are bilingual.|access-date=1 May 2018}}</ref>
| region36         = {{flagcountry|Lebanon}}
| pop36            = 280,000{{smallsup|i}}
| ref36            = <ref name=Al-Akhbar>
{{cite web|author=Al-Akhbar|title=Lebanese Turks Seek Political and Social Recognition|url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/lebanese-turks-seek-political-and-social-recognition|access-date=2 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620232105/https://english.al-akhbar.com/content/lebanese-turks-seek-political-and-social-recognition|publisher=[[Al Akhbar (Lebanon)|Al Akhbar]]|quote=Erdogan's envoys were surprised to find out that Turks who immigrated 100 years ago today number nearly 80,000.|archive-date=20 June 2018|url-status=dead}}
</ref><ref name=tbmm>{{cite web|year=2018|title=Suriye Türkmenlerinin sorunlarına ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması|url=https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/genel_kurul.cl_getir?pEid=68928|quote= Yaklaşık olarak 200 bin Türkmen'in Lübnan'da yaşadığı tahmin edilmektedir.|publisher=[[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]|access-date=17 December 2020}}</ref>
| region37         = {{flagcountry|Saudi Arabia}}
| pop37            = 270,000–350,000
| ref37            = {{sfn|Akar|1993|p=95}}{{sfn|Karpat|2004|p=12}}
| region38         = {{flagcountry|Yemen}}
| pop38            = 10,000–100,000
| ref38            = <ref name="NGOs">{{citation|publisher= Union of NGOs of The Islamic World|year=2014|title=Yemen Raporu|page=26|quote=Bu noktadan hareketle, bölgede yaklaşık 10 bin ila 100 bin arasında Türk asıllı vatandaş bulunduğu tahmin edilmektedir.}}</ref>
| region39         = {{flagcountry|Jordan}}
| pop39            = 50,000
| ref39            = <ref>{{cite web|last=Alaca|first=Mehmet |year=2019 |title='Ürdün'de Kadim Türk Varlığı ve Akraba Topluluklar' raporu tanıtıldı|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/urdunde-kadim-turk-varligi-ve-akraba-topluluklar-raporu-tanitildi/1515642|publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]]|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref>
| region40         = '''[[Turks in the Balkans]]:'''
| pop40            = &nbsp;<!-- needed to force display of the header -->
| region41         = {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}
| pop41            = 588,318–800,000
| ref41            = <ref>{{cite web|author=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria|year=2011|title=2011 Population Census in the Republic of Bulgaria (Final data)|publisher=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria |url=http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/PDOCS2/Census2011final_en.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Karakulaketal2018>{{citation|last1=Aydinli-Karakulak|first1=Arzu|last2=Baylar|first2=Ayben|last3=Keleş|first3=Seray Çağla|last4=Dimitrova|first4=Radosveta |year=2018|chapter=Positive Affect and School Related Outcomes: Feeling Good Facilitates School Engagement Among Turkish-Bulgarian Minority Adolescents|title=Well-Being of Youth and Emerging Adults across Cultures: Novel Approaches and Findings from Europe, Asia, Africa and America|editor1-last=Dimitrova|editor1-first=Radosveta|chapter-url=|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|page=149|quote=Turks in Bulgaria represent the largest ethnic minority group in the country, constituting almost 10% of Bulgaria's seven million total population,...|isbn=9783319683638}}</ref>{{sfn|Bokova|2010|p=170}}
| region42         = {{flagcountry|North Macedonia}}
| pop42            = 77,959–200,000
| ref42            = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.gov.mk/pdf/kniga_13.pdf|title=Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia, 2002|year=2005|publisher=Republic of Macedonia – State Statistical Office |access-date=12 December 2017}}</ref><ref name=Knowlton2020>{{citation|last1=Knowlton|first1=MaryLee|last2=Nevins|first2=Debbie|year=2020|title=North Macedonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7j0mEAAAQBAJ&dq=turks+in+macedonia+second+largest&pg=PA63|publisher=Cavendish Square Publishing|quote=The Turks are the second largest national minority in Macedonia. Like other ethnic groups, they claim higher numbers than the census shows, somewhere between 170,000 and 200,000.|isbn=9781502655905}}</ref>
| region43         = {{flagcountry|Greece}}
| pop43            = 49,000–130,000
| ref43            = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minelres.lv/reports/greece/greece_NGO.htm|title=GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR|website=Minelres.lv|access-date=12 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurfedling.org/Greece.htm|title=Demographics of Greece|work=European Union National Languages|access-date=19 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/g/greece/greece908.pdf|title=Destroying Ethnic Identity: The Turks of Greece|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/greece/Greec991-04.htm|title=Turks Of Western Thrace|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref>
| region44         = {{flagcountry|Romania}}
| pop44            = 28,226–80,000
| ref44            = <ref>{{citation|last=National Institute of Statistics|year=2011|url=http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf|title=Comunicat de presă privind rezultatele provizorii ale Recensământului Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor – 2011|publisher=Romania-National Institute of Statistics|page=10|access-date=14 May 2012|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802060014/http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Phinnemore |first=David|year=2006|title=The EU and Romania: accession and beyond |publisher=The Federal Trust for Education & Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HU1pAAAAMAAJ&q=Today,+there+are+around+55,000+Turks+living+in+Romania|quote=Today, there are around 55,000 Turks living in Romania and they are represented as a minority in parliament.|isbn= 978-1-903403-78-5|page=157}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Constantin |first1=Daniela L.|last2=Goschin |first2=Zizi|last3=Dragusin |first3=Mariana|year=2008|title=Ethnic entrepreneurship as an integration factor in civil society and a gate to religious tolerance. A spotlight on Turkish entrepreneurs in Romania|quote=The significant Turkish population living in Romania (nearly 80,000 members, including immigrants)...|journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies|volume=7 |issue=20|page=59}}</ref>
| region45         = {{flagcountry|Kosovo}}
| pop45            = 18,738–60,000
| ref45            = <ref>2011 census in the Republic of Kosovo.{{full citation needed|date=July 2021}}</ref><ref name=OSCE2010>{{citation |last=OSCE|year=2010|chapter-url=http://www.osce.org/kosovo/75450|chapter=Community Profile: Kosovo Turks|title=Kosovo Communities Profile|page=3|quote=Approximately 30,000 Kosovo Turks live in Kosovo today, while up to 250,000 people from different Kosovo communities speak or at least understand the Turkish language...The Turkish language has been granted official language status in the municipalities of Prizren and Vushtrri/ Vučitrn.|publisher=Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Kibaroğlu|first1= Mustafa|last2=Kibaroğlu|first2=Ayșegül|year=2009|title=Global Security Watch—Turkey: A Reference Handbook|url=|page=107|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|quote=Turks themselves are also an important ethnic minority in the region... In Kosovo, their number is estimated to be around 60,000... |isbn=9780313345609}}</ref>
| region46         = {{flagcountry|Bosnia}}
| pop46            = 1,108
| ref46            = <ref name="popis">"[http://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/knjige.php?id=2 1. Stanovništvo prema etničkoj/nacionalnoj pripadnosti – detaljna klasifikacija] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620181203/http://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/knjige.php?id=2 |date=20 June 2018 }}". ''Popis.gov.ba''.</ref>
| region47         = {{flagcountry|Serbia}}
| pop47            = 850
| ref47            = <ref name="2022Serbiancensus">{{Cite web |title=Population by ethnicity |url=https://data.stat.gov.rs/Home/Result/3104020102?languageCode=en-US |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia}}</ref>
| region48         = {{flagcountry|Albania}}
| pop48            = 714
| ref48            = <ref name="2011Albaniancensus">{{cite web|year=2012|title=Population and Housing Census 2011|url=http://www.instat.gov.al/media/177354/main_results__population_and_housing_census_2011.pdf|page=72|publisher=[[Institute of Statistics (Albania)]] |access-date=2 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114073838/http://www.instat.gov.al/media/177354/main_results__population_and_housing_census_2011.pdf |archive-date=14 November 2014 }}</ref>
| region49         = {{flagcountry|Croatia}}
| pop49            = 367
| ref49            = <ref>{{Croatian Census 2011 |url=http://web.dzs.hr/Hrv/censuses/census2011/results/htm/usp_03_HR.htm |title=Stanovništvo prema narodnosti, popisi 1971. – 2011. |access-date=22 November 2015}}</ref>
| region50         = {{flagcountry|Montenegro}}
| pop50            = 1,816
| ref50            = <ref name="2023MontenegroCensus">{{cite web |author=Statistical Office of Montenegro|title=Population of Montenegro by sex, type of settlement, etnicity<!--sic-->, religion and mother tongue, per municipalities|url= https://monstat.org/uploads/files/popis%202021/saopstenja/SAOPSTENJE_Popis%20stanovnistva%202023%20II_cg.pdf}}</ref>
{{collapsed infobox section end}}
| languages        = [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
| religions        = Predominantly [[Islam]]<ref name=Mayer2010/><br />([[Sunni Islam|Sunnism]], [[Alevism]], [[non-denominational Muslim|non-denominational]])<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/turkey/ | title=Turkey }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://turkeytravelplanner.com/Religion/index.html | title=Religion & Islam in Turkey }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://is.muni.cz/th/gmgyv/Sects_and_Meaning_in_the_Contemporary_Turkish_Society.docx?lang=cs;stahnout=1;dk=c4J9awIh | title=Sects and Meaning in the Contemporary Turkish Society Through the Eyes of Sect Members | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241104142318/https://is.muni.cz/th/gmgyv/Sects_and_Meaning_in_the_Contemporary_Turkish_Society.docx?lang=cs;stahnout=1;dk=c4J9awIh | archive-date=2024-11-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title=Here’s what you should know before attending a whirling dervish ceremony in Turkey - The Washington Post | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/travel/heres-what-you-should-know-before-attending-a-whirling-dervish-ceremony-in-turkey/2019/04/11/1af4bbac-57af-11e9-9136-f8e636f1f6df_story.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412124740/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/travel/heres-what-you-should-know-before-attending-a-whirling-dervish-ceremony-in-turkey/2019/04/11/1af4bbac-57af-11e9-9136-f8e636f1f6df_story.html | access-date=2025-05-28 | archive-date=2019-04-12}}</ref><br />Minority [[Irreligion]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Girit |first=Selin |date=10 May 2018 |title=Losing their religion: The young Turks rejecting Islam |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43981745 |url-status=live |work=[[BBC News]] |location=[[London]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206105549/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43981745 |archive-date=6 December 2021 |access-date=17 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=McKernan |first=Bethan |date=29 April 2020 |title=Turkish students increasingly resisting religion, study suggests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/29/turkish-students-increasingly-resisting-religion-study-suggests |url-status=live |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=[[London]] |issn=1756-3224 |oclc=60623878 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122171105/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/29/turkish-students-increasingly-resisting-religion-study-suggests |archive-date=22 November 2021 |access-date=17 January 2022}}</ref>
| footnotes        = {{smallsup|a}} Approximately 200,000 are [[Turkish Cypriots]] and the remainder are [[Turkish settlers in Northern Cyprus|Turkish settlers]].<ref name=Mayer2010/><br />{{smallsup|b}} Turkish Cypriots form 300,000<ref>{{citation|last1=Freeman|first1=Michael|last2=Ellena|first2=Katherine|last3=Kator-Mubarez|first3=Amina|year=2021|title=The Global Spread of Islamism and the Consequences for Terrorism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0uAMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|quote=there are now around 300,000 Turkish Cypriots in the United Kingdom.|page=83|publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]]|isbn=9781640124165}}</ref> to 400,000<ref>{{citation|last=Scott-Geddes|first=Arthur|year=2019|title=London's Turkish restaurants take a hit in uncertain times|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/europe/london-s-turkish-restaurants-take-a-hit-in-uncertain-times-1.930386|quote=Almost 90 per cent of the UK's Turkish population lives in London, including as many as 400,000 Turkish Cypriots concentrated in areas of north and north-east London including Hackney, Enfield and Haringey.|publisher=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]|access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref> of the [[British Turks|Turkish-British]] population. Mainland Turks are the next largest group, followed by [[Turkish Bulgarians]] and [[Turks in Romania|Turkish Romanians]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Home Affairs Committee|date=1 August 2011|title=Implications for the Justice and Home Affairs area of the accession of Turkey to the European Union|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmhaff/789/789.pdf|publisher=The Stationery Office|page=Ev 34|access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref> Turkish minorities have also settled from Iraq,<ref name="International Organization for Migration loc=5">{{cite web|author=International Organization for Migration|url=http://www.iomlondon.org/doc/mapping/IOM_IRAQ.pdf|title=Iraq: Mapping exercise|location=London|date=2007|access-date=3 July 2010|publisher=International Organization for Migration|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716163637/http://www.iomlondon.org/doc/mapping/IOM_IRAQ.pdf|archive-date=16 July 2011|page=5}}</ref> Greece,<ref name="ABTTF">{{citation|title=Avrupa'da Batı Trakya Batı Trakya Türkleri Gerçeği ve Avrupa Batı Trakya Türk Federasyonu|url=https://www.abttf.org/about.php?id=79|quote=Avustralya ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Kanada gibi uzak ülkelerin dışında aralarında Hollanda, İngiltere, İsveç, Fransa, Belçika ve Avusturya gibi ülkelerde de sayısı yadsınamayacak bir Batı Trakyalı Türk kitlesi yaşamaktadır.|publisher=Avrupa Batı Trakya Türk Federasyonu|access-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511122835/https://www.abttf.org/about.php?id=79|archive-date=11 May 2021}}</ref> etc.<br />{{smallsup|c}} [[Turkish Australians]] include 200,000 mainland Turks,<ref name=Lennie/> 120,000 Turkish Cypriots,<ref name=Vahdettinetal /> and smaller Turkish groups from Bulgaria,<ref name="Maeva2008">{{citation|last=Maeva|first=Mila|year=2008|chapter=Modern Migration Waves of Bulgarian Turks|title=Dynamics of National Identity and Transnational Identities in the Process of European Integration|editor-last=Marushiakova|editor-first=Elena|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|pages=227–229|isbn=9781847184719}}</ref> Greece,<ref name="Inglisetal">{{citation |last=Inglis|first=K. S.|year=2008|title=Sacred Places: War Memorials in the Australian Landscape|page=108|publisher=The Miegunyah Press|isbn=978-0-522-85479-4}}</ref> North Macedonia,<ref name="Inglisetal" /> Syria,<ref name="Crowe 2015">{{cite news |last=Crowe |first=David |year=2015 |title=First Syrian refugees here for Christmas: Tony Abbott |url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/in-depth/europes-migrant-crisis/first-syrian-refugees-here-for-christmas-tony-abbott/news-story/ea0107b2fe83cb96c9f8367457c99ffd |publisher=[[The Australian]] |access-date=15 July 2018}}</ref> and Western Europe.<ref name="Inglisetal" /><br />{{smallsup|d}} These figures only include [[Meskhetian Turks|Turkish Meskhetians]]. Official censuses are considered unreliable because many Turks have incorrectly been registered as "Azeri",<ref>{{citation |mode=cs1 |title=Meskhetian Turks: Solutions and Human Security |chapter=Chapter Two: Contemporary Conditions and Dilemmas |chapter-url=http://www.osi.hu/fmp/html/mesktwo.html |first=Arthur C. |last=Helton |publisher=Open Society Institute |year=1998 |access-date=17 January 2012|quote=An estimated 20,000 to 25,000 Meskhetian Turks settled in Azerbaijan between 1958 and 1962. The inflow continued over the years, although pinpointing precise numbers is difficult because many were officially registered as Azerbaijani. Vatan leaders in Azerbaijan asserted that close to 40,000 Meskhetian Turks were living in the republic in 1989, the time of the last Soviet census. Those numbers were then augmented by the more than 45,000 who arrived in Azerbaijan to escape the Uzbekistan troubles. Up to 5,000 more have come to Azerbaijan from Russia during the 1990s, according to some estimates.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415043834/http://www.osi.hu/fmp/html/mesktwo.html |archive-date=15 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=UNHCR|year=1999|title=Background Paper on Refugees and Asylum Seekers from Azerbaijan|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/3ae6a6504.pdf|publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|page=14}}</ref> "Kazakh",<ref name="Khazanov202">{{citation |last=Khazanov|first=Anatoly Michailovich|year=1995|title=After the USSR: Ethnicity, Nationalism and Politics in the Commonwealth of Independent States|quote=Because of the high birthrates their number is constantly increasing and, according to sources, has already reached 400,000. ... It is true that the last Soviet census of 1989 gives a lower figure – 207,369; however, one should take into account that far from all Meskhetian Turks have been registered as such. For years many were even denied the right to register their nationality in legal documents. Thus, by 1988 in Kazakhstan, only one third of them were recorded as Turks on their passports. The rest had been arbitrarily declared members of other ethnic groups.|page=202|publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]]|isbn=978-0-299-14894-2}}</ref> "Kyrgyz",<ref name="Aydıngün1">{{harvnb|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006}}: This figure, however, does not reflect the real population of Meskhetian Turks, because Soviet authorities recorded many of them as belonging to other nationalities such as Azeri, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and Uzbek."</ref> and "Uzbek".<ref name="Aydıngün1" /><br />{{smallsup|e}} The [[Turks in Sweden|Turkish Swedish]] community includes 150,000 mainland Turks,<ref name="Sayıner" /> 30,000 Turkish Bulgarians,<ref name="Laczko" /> 5,000 Turkish Macedonians,<ref name="Widding" /> and smaller groups from Iraq and Syria.<br />{{smallsup|f}} Including 2,000–3,000 mainland Turks<ref name=pif /> and 1,600 Turkish Cypriots.<ref name=Vahdettinetal/><br />{{smallsup|g}} This includes the Turkish-speaking minority only (i.e. 30% of [[Syrian Turkmen|Syrian Turks]]).<ref name=Khalifa2013 /> Estimates including the [[Arabized]] Turks range between 3.5 to 6 million.<ref name="Piccinin">{{citation |author=[[:fr:Pierre Piccinin da Prata|Piccinin, Pierre]]|year=2011|title=Après avoir été sur le terrain|publisher=[[La Libre Belgique]]|quote=Les Turcomans pratiquant exclusivement leur dialecte turc sont 1 500 000. L'ensemble des Turcomans de Syrie (y compris ceux qui ont adopté l'arabe comme langue usuelle), sont estimés entre 3,5 et 6 millions, soit de 15 à 20 % de la population. C'est le troisième groupe de population en importance.}}</ref><br />{{smallsup|h}} Includes the [[Kouloughlis]] who are descendants of the old Turkish ruling class.<ref name=Ahmida2011>{{citation|last=Ahmida|first= Ali Abdullatif|year=2011|title=The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, Second Edition|quote=The majority of the population came from Turkish, Arab Berber, or black backgrounds, in addition to the religious minorities... Some inhabitants, like the Cologhli, were descendants of the old Turkish ruling class...|page=44|publisher=[[State University of New York]]|isbn=9781438428932}}</ref><br />{{smallsup|i}} Includes 80,000 [[Turks in Lebanon|Turkish Lebanese]]<ref name=Al-Akhbar/> and 200,000 recent refugees from Syria.<ref name=tbmm />
| related          = [[Azerbaijanis]]<ref name=barthold>{{harvp|Barthold|1962}}""The book of my grandfather Korkut" ("Kitab-i dedem Korkut") is an outstanding monument of the medieval Oghuz heroic epic. Three modern Turkic-speaking peoples - Turkmens, Azerbaijanis and Turks - are ethnically and linguistically related to the medieval Oghuzes. For all these peoples, the epic legends deposited in the "Book of Korkut" represent an artistic reflection of their historical past."</ref><ref name=Lee_2023_p84>{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=84}}: "The modern Turks of Anatolia, the Azeris, and the Turkmens of Iran and Central Asia owe their origins to the Oghuz"</ref> and [[Turkmen|Turkmens]];<ref name="barthold"/><ref name=Lee_2023_p84/> other [[Turkic peoples]]<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=3}}: "The modern Turkic-speaking peoples are a very diverse entity, who are widely spread out across the Eurasian continent between Yakutia (the Republic of Sakha) in the east and Anatolia (the Republic of Turkey or Türkiye) in the west. Scholars tend to classify all Turkic-speaking peoples broadly as 'Turks,' virtually using the name Turk as a synonym for a Turkic speaker. Modern historians also tend to view the Turks as a single, unbroken ethnolinguistic entity that originated from the Türks of the Türk Qaghanate and spread to the wider Eurasian world during the medieval era, before diverging into the various modern Turkic peoples"</ref>}}

'''Turks''' ({{langx|tr|Türkler}}), or '''Turkish people''', are the largest [[Turkic peoples|Turkic ethnic group]], comprising the majority of the population of [[Turkey]] and [[Northern Cyprus]]. They generally speak the various [[Turkish dialects]]. In addition, centuries-old [[Turkish communities in the former Ottoman Empire|ethnic Turkish communities]] still exist across other former territories of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Article 66 of the [[Constitution of Turkey]] defines a ''Turk'' as anyone who is a citizen of the Turkish state.<ref>{{cite book |title=CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY |publisher=Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Department of Laws and Resolutions |date=May 2019 |access-date=20 February 2024 |url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/media/7258/anayasa_eng.pdf}}</ref> While the legal use of the term ''Turkish'' as it pertains to a citizen of Turkey is different from the term's ethnic definition,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Akgönül|first1=Samim|translator=Sila Okur|title=The minority concept in the Turkish context: practices and perceptions in Turkey, Greece, and France |date=2013|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden |isbn=978-9004222113|page=136|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a87kwv3fzicC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bayir|first1=Derya|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|isbn=978-1317095798 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_skFDAAAQBAJ|date=22 April 2016|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> the majority of the Turkish population (an estimated 70 to 75 percent) are of Turkish ethnicity.<ref name="CIATurkey">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey/|title=Turkey|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=12 December 2017|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110073821/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The vast majority of Turks are [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]], with a notable minority practicing [[Alevism]].<ref name="Mayer2010" />

The ethnic Turks can therefore be distinguished by a number of cultural and regional variants, but do not function as separate ethnic groups.<ref name="Nyropetal1973">{{citation|last1=Nyrop|first1=Richard F.|last2=Benderly|first2=Beryl Lieff |last3=Cover|first3=Willian W.|last4=Cutter|first4=Melissa J.|last5=Evin|first5=Ahmet Ö.|last6=Parker|first6=Newton B.|last7=Teleki|first7=Suzanne|year=1973|title=Area Handbook for the Republic of Turkey|journal=Pamphlet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHUsAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Anatolian+Turks%22+%22Rumelian+Turks%22+%22Black+Sea+Turks%22&pg=PA102|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office]]|quote=Among the Turks may be distinguished a number of regional variants that do not function as ethnic groups but merely reflect differing historical and ecological circumstances. To some extent, differences of accent, customs, and outlook distinguish the regions and are popularly expressed in regional stereotypes. Three of the most important of these variants are Anatolian Turks, the peasantry of central core of Asiatic Turkey, whose culture is said to underlie Turkish nationalism; Rumelian Turks, primarily immigrants from Balkan territories of the empire of their descendants; and central Asian Turks, the assorted Turkic tibesmen from Asia who have come to Turkey. Others, such as the Black Sea Turks, whose speech largely lacks the vowel harmony valued elsewhere and whose natural predilections are thought to be toward extremely devout religion and the sea, are also distinguished.|volume=550|issue=80|issn=0892-8541}}</ref><ref name="Mayer2010">{{citation|author=[[Ann Elizabeth Mayer|Mayer, Ann Elizabeth]]|year=2010|chapter=Turks|title=The Contemporary Middle East: A Westview Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHM7AQAAIAAJ&q=%22Turkish+Cypriots%22+%22rumelian+turks%22|publisher=[[Westview Press]]|quote=Generally, they speak Turkish as a primary language, are Muslims (90% are Sunni), claim a Turkish heritage... Four groups of Turks can be identified through cultural and geographic differences. First, the Anatolian Turks in Asia Minor...Second, the Rumelian Turks (from Rum, meaning "Roman", or European) are European Turks who remained in Europe after the Ottoman days... Third are descendants of Turks who stayed in various parts of the Middle East separated from the Ottoman Empire after World War I. Fourth are some 200,000 Turkish Cypriots...|page=27|isbn=9780813344652}}</ref> In particular, the culture of the Anatolian Turks in [[Asia Minor]] has underlain and influenced the [[Turkish nationalism|Turkish nationalist]] ideology.<ref name="Nyropetal1973" /> Other Turkish groups include the [[Balkan Turks|Rumelian Turks]] (also referred to as Balkan Turks) historically located in the [[Balkans]];<ref name="Mayer2010" /><ref name="Şimşir1989">{{citation|last=Şimşir|first=Bilal|year=1989|title=The Turks of Bulgaria, 1878–1985|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJM_wkv41icC&q=%22Balkan+Turks%22+%22Anatolian+Turks%22|journal=Turkish Quarterly Review Digest|volume=3|issue=15|quote=The Balkan Turks and the Anatolian Turks together constituted the core of the Ottoman Empire and its founding element.|page=6|publisher=[[:tr:Basın-Yayın ve Enformasyon Genel Müdürlüğü|Directorate General of Press and Information]]}}</ref> [[Turkish Cypriots]] on the island of Cyprus, [[Turkish Meskhetians|Meskhetian Turks]] originally based in [[Meskheti]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]];<ref name="Cornell2005">{{citation|last=Cornell|first=Svante E.|year=2005|title=Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_qQAgAAQBAJ&dq=Rather%2C+Turkey+wants+these+minority+groups%2C+perhaps+for+strategic+reasons%2C+to+remain+in+or+return+to+their+ancestral+lands.&pg=PA171|page=171|publisher=[[Routledge]]|quote=Many Georgians have advocated that the Meskhetian Turks should be sent to Turkey, 'where they belong'. The Turkish authorities have, nevertheless, been reluctant to accept them, probably as they are afraid of experiencing a massive migration of ethnic Turks from different parts of the Balkans, the Middle East and the CIS. Other examples are that Turks in Western Thrace and Bulgaria, as well as Turkish Cypriots, face difficulties in obtaining Turkish citizenship. Rather, Turkey wants these minority groups, perhaps for strategic reasons, to remain in or return to their ancestral lands.|isbn=9781135796693}}</ref> and ethnic Turkish people across the [[Middle East]],<ref name="Mayer2010" /> where they are also called Turkmen or Turkoman in the [[Levant]] (e.g. [[Iraqi Turkmen]], [[Syrian Turkmen]], [[Lebanese Turkmen]], etc.).<ref name="Saatçi 2018 loc=331">{{citation|last=Saatçi|first=Suphi|year=2018|chapter=The Turkman of Iraq|title=Linguistic Minorities in Turkey and Turkic-Speaking Minorities of the Periphery|editor1-last=Bulut|editor1-first=Christiane|page=331|publisher=[[Harrassowitz Verlag]]|isbn=978-3447107235}}</ref> Consequently, the Turks form the largest minority group in [[Bulgaria]],<ref name="Karakulaketal2018" /> the second largest minority group in [[Iraq]],<ref name="Triana2017"/> [[Libya]],<ref name="Pan 1949">{{citation |last=Pan|first=Chia-Lin|year=1949|title=The Population of Libya|journal=Population Studies|volume=3|issue=1|pages=100–125|doi=10.1080/00324728.1949.10416359}}</ref> [[North Macedonia]],<ref name="Knowlton2020" /> and [[Syria]],<ref name="Khalifa2013">{{citation|last=Khalifa|first=Mustafa|year=2013|title=The impossible partition of Syria|url=https://www.arab-reform.net/en/node/510|pages=3–5|journal=[[Arab Reform Initiative]]|quote=Turkmen are the third largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 4–5% of the population. Some estimations indicate that they are the second biggest group, outnumbering Kurds, drawing on the fact that Turkmen are divided into two groups: the rural Turkmen who make up 30% of the Turkmen in Syria and who have kept their mother tongue, and the urban Turkmen who have become Arabized and no longer speak their mother language.|access-date=27 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091448/https://www.arab-reform.net/en/node/510|archive-date=27 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and the third largest minority group in [[Kosovo]].<ref name="OSCE2010" /> They also form substantial communities in the [[Western Thrace]] region of [[Greece]], the [[Dobruja]] region of [[Romania]], the [[Akkar]] region in [[Lebanon]], as well as minority groups in other post-Ottoman Balkan and Middle Eastern countries. The mass immigration of Turks also led to them forming the largest ethnic minority group in [[Austria]],<ref>{{citation|year=2008|chapter=Austria|title=Annual Report on International Religious Freedom 2007, February 2008, 110–2 Report|page=253|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office]]|quote=By far the largest ethnic group is Turkish, of which 123,000 have Turkish citizenship, Many more ethnic Turks are Austrian citizens.}}</ref> [[Denmark]],<ref name="Liversage2013">{{citation|last=Liversage|first=Anika|year=2013|chapter=Transnational Families Breaking Up: Divorce among Turkish Immigrants in Denmark|editor-last=Charsley|editor-first=Katharine|title=Transnational Marriage: New Perspectives from Europe and Beyond|page=146|publisher=[[Routledge]]|quote=Turkish immigrants began arriving in Denmark in the late 1960s. After subsequent family migration, people of Turkish descent now make up the largest ethnic minority group in Denmark.|isbn=9781136279744}}</ref> [[Germany]],<ref name="Friedrichsetal2012">{{citation|last1=Friedrichs|first1=Jürgen|last2=Klöckner|first2=Jennifer|last3=Şen|first3=Mustafa|last4=de Witte|first4=Nynke|year=2012|chapter=Turkish Islamic Organisations: A Comparative Study in Germany, the Netherlands and Turkey|title=Faith-based Organisations and Exclusion in European Cities|editor1-last=Beaumon|editor1-first=Justin|editor2-last=Cloke|editor-first2=Paul J.|page=219|quote=Turks are the largest immigrant group in both Germany and the Netherlands.|publisher=[[Policy Press]]|isbn=9781847428349}}</ref> and the [[Netherlands]].<ref name="Friedrichsetal2012" /> There are also [[Turks in Europe|Turkish communities in other parts of Europe]] as well as in [[North America]], [[Australia]] and the [[Post-Soviet states]]. Turks are the 13th largest ethnic group in the world.

Turks from [[Central Asia]] settled in [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century, through the conquests of the [[Seljuk Turks]]. This began the transformation of the region, which had been a largely Greek-speaking region after previously being [[Hellenization|Hellenized]], into a Turkish Muslim one.<ref name="Davison2013">{{cite book |last1=Davison |first1=Roderic H. |title=Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774–1923: The Impact of the West |date=2013 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0292758940 |pages=3–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQvUAAAAQBAJ |access-date=22 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806173413/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQvUAAAAQBAJ |archive-date=6 August 2018 |url-status=live |quote=So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek.}}</ref><ref name="Leonard2006">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Turkey |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Developing World, Volume 3 |year=2006 |last=Leonard |first=Thomas M. |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781579583880 |page=1576 |quote=Turkey’s diversity is derived from its central location near the world’s earliest civilizations as well as a history replete with population movements and invasions. The Hattite culture was prominent during the Bronze Age prior to 2000 BCE, but was replaced by the Indo-European Hittites who conquered Anatolia by the second millennium ... Subsequently, Hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region}}</ref><ref name="Sahadeo_and_Zanca2007">{{cite book|last1=Sahadeo|first1=Jeff|last2=Zanca|first2=Russell|title=Everyday life in Central Asia : past and present|date=2007|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington |isbn=978-0253013538|pages=22–23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbnwAAAAQBAJ}}</ref> The Ottoman Empire expanded into parts of [[West Asia]], [[Southeast Europe]], and [[North Africa]] over the course of several centuries. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, [[persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction]] and [[Persecution_of_Muslims#Russian_Empire|in the Russian Empire]] resulted in large-scale loss of life and [[muhacir|mass migration]] into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, [[Caucasus]], and [[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]]; the immigrants were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, and overwhelmingly Muslim.<ref>
* {{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former “suppressors”. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"
* {{harvnb|Gibney|Hansen|2005|p=437}}: ‘Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, “only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land....Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease” (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of “Muslim migration.”’
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries."
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}}: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."
* {{harvnb|Pekesen|2012}}: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51"
* {{harvnb|Biondich|2011|p=93}}: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans"
* {{harvnb|Armour|2012|p=213}}: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."</ref> The empire lasted until the end of the First World War, when it was defeated by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] and [[Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|partitioned]]. Following the [[Turkish War of Independence]] that ended with the [[Turkish National Movement]] retaking much of the territory lost to the Allies, the Movement [[Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate|ended the Ottoman Empire]] on 1 November 1922 and proclaimed the [[Republic of Turkey]] on 29 October 1923.

==Etymology and definition==
{{see also|Turkic peoples#Etymology}}

===Etymology===
As an [[ethnonym]], the etymology of ''Turk'' is still unknown.<ref>{{harvnb|Tasar|Frank|Eden|2021|pp=6–7}}</ref> In [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] sources, ''Turk'' appears as ''Tujue'' ({{zh|c={{linktext|突|厥}}|w=T’u-chüe|mc=*duət̚ kɨut̚}}), which referred to the [[Göktürks]].{{sfn|Stokes|Gorman|2010a|p=707}}{{sfn|Findley|2005|p=21}} The earliest mention of ''Turk'' ({{lang|otk|𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜}}, {{transliteration|otk|türü̲k̲}}; or {{lang|otk|𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚}}, {{transliteration|otk|türk/tẄrk}}) in [[Turkic languages]] comes from the [[Second Turkic Khaganate]].<ref>{{harvnb|Tasar|Frank|Eden|2021|pp=9, 16}}</ref> In [[Orkhon inscriptions]], {{transliteration|otk|kök türü̲k̲}} ({{lang|otk|𐰚𐰇𐰚 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜}}) is also mentioned, potentially referring to "[[Ashina tribe|Ashina]]-led Turks" or "Ashinas and Turks".<ref>{{harvnb|Tasar|Frank|Eden|2021|p=10}}</ref>

There are several theories regarding the origin of the ethnonym {{lang|trk|Turk}}. There is a claim that it may be connected to [[Herodotus]]'s ({{Circa|484|425 BC}}) reference to ''Targitaos'', ({{lang|grc|Ταργιτάος}}), a king of the [[Scythians]];{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} however, [[Manfred Mayrhofer]] (apud Lincoln) assigned Iranian etymology for Targitaos: from [[Proto-Iranian language|Old Iranian]] *''darga-tavah'', meaning "he whose strength is long-lasting".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lincoln |first1=Bruce |title=Once again 'the Scythian' myth of origins (Herodotus 4.5–10) |journal=Nordlit |date=2014 |volume=33 |issue=33 |pages=19–34 |doi=10.7557/13.3188|doi-access=free}}</ref> During the first century A.D., [[Pomponius Mela]] refers to the ''Turcae'' in the forests north of the [[Sea of Azov]], and [[Pliny the Elder]] lists the ''Tyrcae'' among the people of the same area;{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} yet English archaeologist [[Ellis Minns]] contended that ''Tyrcae'' is "a false correction" for  ''Iurcae''/''Iurkai'' ({{lang|grc|Ἱύρκαι}}), a people who dwelt beyond the [[Thyssagetae]], according to Herodotus ([[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]], IV. 22)<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Iyrcae |page= 102 |volume= 15 |last= Minns|first= Ellis Hovell}}</ref> There are references to certain groups in antiquity whose names might have been foreign transcriptions of ''Tür(ü)k'' such as [[Togarmah#Turkic history|''Togarmah'']], ''Turukha''/''Turuška'', [[Turukkaeans|''Turukku'']] and so on; but according to American historian [[Peter Benjamin Golden|Peter B. Golden]], while any connection of some of these ancient peoples to Turks is possible, it is rather unlikely.<ref>{{cite book|title=An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples:Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East|page=116|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|location=Wiesbaden, Germany|year=1992}}</ref>

As a word in [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]]s, {{lang|trk|Türk}} may mean {{gloss|strong, strength, ripe}} or {{gloss|flourishing, in full strength}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Tasar|Frank|Eden|2021|p=30}}</ref> It may also mean ripe as for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person.<ref>{{harvnb|Clauson|1972|pp=542–543}}</ref> [[András Róna-Tas|Róna-Tas]] (1991) pointed to a [[Saka language|Khotanese-Saka]] word, {{lang|kho|tturakä}} {{gloss|lid}}, semantically stretchable to {{gloss|helmet}}, as a possible source for this folk etymology, yet Golden thinks this connection requires more data.<ref name="Golden2006">{{cite journal |last=Golden |first=Peter B. |title=Türks and Iranians: Aspects of Türk and Khazaro-Iranian Interaction |journal=Turcologica |issue=105 |page=25}}</ref>

===Definition===
In the 19th century Ottoman Empire, the word ''Türk'' referred to [[Anatolia]]n peasants. The Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]], not as Turks.{{sfn|Kushner|1997|p=219}}{{sfn|Meeker|1971|p=322}} However, they still claimed to be members of [[Kayı (tribe)|Kayi tribe]] of [[Oghuz Turks]] and direct descendants of [[Oghuz Khagan|Oghuz Khan]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Stanford |url=https://archive.org/details/historyottomanem00shaw |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey |date=1976 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyottomanem00shaw/page/n38 13] |url-access=limited}}</ref> In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of [[nationalism]], the term ''Türk'' took on a more positive connotation.{{sfn|Kushner|1997|pp=220–221}}

During Ottoman times, the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]]'' system defined communities on a religious basis. In the early 20th century, the [[Young Turks]] abandoned [[Ottoman nationalism]] in favor of [[Turkish nationalism]], while adopting the name ''Turks'', which was finally used in the name of the new Turkish Republic.

[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] defined the Turkish nation as the "people (''halk'') who established the Turkish republic". Further, "the natural and historical facts which effected the establishment (''teessüs'') of the Turkish nation" were "(a) unity in political existence, (b) unity in language, (c) unity in homeland, (d) unity in race and origin (''menşe''), (e) to be historically related and (f) to be morally related".<ref>{{cite book|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|page=110|author=Derya Bayir|year=2013}}</ref>

[[s:Constitution of the Republic of Turkey|Article 66]] of the [[Turkish Constitution]] defines a ''Turk'' as anyone who is "bound to the Turkish state through the bond of [[citizenship]]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/4a9d204d2.pdf |title=Turkish Citizenship Law |date=29 May 2009 |access-date=17 June 2012}}</ref>

==History==
{{see also|History of Turkey}}

===Prehistory, Ancient era, and Early Middle Ages===
{{further|Turkic peoples|Oghuz Turks|Anatolian peoples}} 
[[Anatolia]] was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the [[Paleolithic]] era, and  was inhabited by various civilizations such as [[Hattians]]<ref name="Leonard2006"/> and [[Anatolian peoples|ancient Anatolian peoples]].{{sfn|Stokes|Gorman|2010b|p=721}}{{Cref|a}} After [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquest in 334 BC, the area was culturally [[Hellenization|Hellenized]], and by the first century BC it is generally thought that the native [[Anatolian languages]], themselves earlier newcomers to the area, following the [[Indo-European migrations]], became extinct.<ref name="Davison2013"/><ref name="Leonard2006"/><ref name="Sahadeo_and_Zanca2007"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Theo van den Hout|title=The Elements of Hittite|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PA1|access-date=24 March 2013 |date=27 October 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-50178-1|page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Sharon R. Steadman|author2=Gregory McMahon |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000–323 BCE) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ND_CE9If3kC|access-date=23 March 2013|date=15 September 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-537614-2}}</ref>

According to historians and linguists, the [[Proto-Turkic language]] originated in Central-East Asia,<ref>{{harvnb|Uchiyama|Gillam|Savelyev|Ning|2020}}: "Most linguists and historians agree that Proto-Turkic, the common ancestor of all ancient and contemporary Turkic languages, must have been spoken somewhere in Central-East Asia (e.g. Róna-Tas, Reference Róna-Tas1991, p. 35; Golden, Reference Golden1992, pp. 124–127; Menges, Reference Menges1995, pp. 16–19)."</ref> potentially in [[Altai-Sayan region]], [[Mongolia]] or [[Tuva]].<ref name="Golden 2011">{{cite book | last=Golden | first=Peter B. | title=Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes | date=2011 | isbn=978-973-27-2152-0 | pages=37–38| publisher=Editura Academiei Române }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Uchiyama|Gillam|Savelyev|Ning|2020}}: "The ultimate Proto-Turkic homeland may have been located in a more compact area, most likely in Eastern Mongolia"</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lee|Kuang|2017}}: "The best candidate for the Turkic Urheimat would then be northern and western Mongolia and Tuva, where all these haplogroups could have intermingled, rather than eastern and southern Mongolia..."</ref> Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became [[nomadic]] [[Pastoralism|pastoralists]].<ref>{{harvnb|Uchiyama|Gillam|Savelyev|Ning|2020}}:"To sum up, the palaeolinguistic reconstruction points to a mixed subsistence strategy and complex economy of the Proto-Turkic-speaking community. It is likely that the subsistence of the Early Proto-Turkic speakers was based on a combination of hunting–gathering and agriculture, with a later shift to nomadic pastoralism as an economy basis, partly owing to the interaction of the Late Proto-Turkic groups with the Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe."</ref> Early and [[Post-classical history|medieval]] Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as [[Iranian peoples|Iranic]], [[Mongolic peoples|Mongolic]], [[Tocharians|Tocharian]], [[Uralic people|Uralic]] and [[Yeniseian people|Yeniseian]] peoples.<ref>
* {{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=4}}: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The “Turks” intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11"
* {{harvnb|Findley|2005|p=18}}: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages."
* {{Cite journal |last=Golden |first=Peter B. |date=25 July 2018|title=The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971945818775373 |journal=The Medieval History Journal |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=291–327 |doi=10.1177/0971945818775373 |s2cid=166026934 |issn=0971-9458|url-access=subscription }}"Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian [Saka] and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role."
* {{harvnb|Lee|Kuang|2017}}: "Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations"</ref> In Central Asia, the earliest surviving [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]] texts, found on the eighth-century [[Orkhon inscriptions|Orkhon inscription monuments]], were erected by the [[Göktürks]] in the sixth century CE, and include words not common to Turkic but found in unrelated Inner Asian languages.{{sfn|Findley|2005|p=39}} Although the ancient Turks were [[nomad]]ic, they traded wool, leather, carpets, and horses for grain, silk, wood, and vegetables, and also had large ironworking stations in the south of the [[Altai Mountains]] during the 600s CE. Most of the Turkic peoples were followers of [[Tengrism]], sharing the cult of the sky god [[Tengri]], although there were also adherents of [[Manichaeism]], [[Nestorianism|Nestorian Christianity]], and [[Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Frederik |last=Coene |title=The Caucasus-An Introduction |page=77 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009}}</ref>{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} However, during the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], the Turks entered the [[Muslim world]] proper as [[slavery|slaves]], the booty of Arab raids and conquests.{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} The Turks began converting to [[Islam]] after the [[Muslim conquest of Transoxiana]] through the efforts of [[missionaries]], [[Sufis]], and merchants. Although initiated by the [[Arabs]], the [[Conversion to Islam#Islamic missionary activities|conversion]] of the Turks to Islam was filtered through [[Persian people|Persian]] and Central Asian culture. Under the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]], most were domestic servants, whilst under the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], increasing numbers were trained as soldiers.{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the [[caliphs]]’ Turkish troops into battle. As the Abbasid Caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power by taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops.{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}}

===Seljuk era===
{{Main|Seljuk dynasty}}
{{See also|Seljuk Empire|Sultanate of Rum}}
[[File:Tugrul_bey.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tughril I]], the [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] chieftain who founded the [[Seljuk Empire]]]]
During the 11th century, the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk Turks]], who were influenced by Persian civilization in many ways, grew in strength and succeeded in taking the eastern province of the [[Abbasid Empire]]. By 1055, the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]] captured [[Baghdad]] and began to make their first incursions into [[Anatolia]].{{sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2012|p=192}} When they won the [[Battle of Manzikert]] against the [[Byzantine Empire]] in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks brought [[Turco-Persian tradition|Turco-Persian]] culture to Anatolia rather than just a purely Turkish one.{{sfn|Chaurasia|2005|p=181}}{{sfn|Bainbridge|2009|p=33}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pfeifer |first=Helen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySw1EAAAQBAJ&dq=turco-persian+Seljuk&pg=PA46 |title=Empire of Salons: Conquest and Community in Early Modern Ottoman Lands |date=2022-03-29 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-19523-0 |language=en |quote=The cultural influence of the Turco-Persian Seljuks long outlasted their political control of Anatolia, and the Turkish principalities that succeeded them starting in the late thirteenth century continued to look to that tradition for models of refinement and sociability}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mandelbaum |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hl-A3yTT8PYC&pg=PA79 |title=Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan |date=1994 |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |isbn=978-0-87609-167-8 |language=en |quote=Persianate zone (...) The rise of Persianized Turks to administrative control (...) The Turko-Persian tradition developed during the Seljuk period (1040–1118) (...) In the Persianate zone, Turkophones ruled and Iranians administered}}</ref> Nonetheless, the [[Turkish language]] and [[Islam]] were introduced and gradually spread over the region and the slow transition from a predominantly [[Christians|Christian]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking Anatolia to a predominantly [[Muslim]] and Turkish-speaking one was underway.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}}

In dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help, setting in motion the pleas that led to the [[First Crusade]].{{sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2012|p=193}} Once the [[Crusaders]] took [[Iznik]], the Seljuk Turks established the [[Sultanate of Rum]] from their new capital, [[Konya]], in 1097.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} By the 12th century, Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region {{lang|la|Turchia}} or ''Turkey'', the land of the Turks.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=574}} The Turkish society in Anatolia was divided into urban, rural and nomadic populations;{{sfn|Delibaşı|1994|p=7}} other [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] (Turkmen) tribes who had arrived into Anatolia at the same time as the Seljuks kept their nomadic ways.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} These tribes were more numerous than the Seljuks, and rejecting the sedentary lifestyle, adhered to an Islam impregnated with [[animism]] and [[shamanism]] from their [[Central Asia]]n steppeland origins, which then mixed with new Christian influences. From this popular and syncretist Islam, with its mystical and revolutionary aspects, sects such as the [[Alevis]] and [[Bektashis]] emerged.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} Furthermore, [[Transnational marriage|intermarriage]] between the Turks and local inhabitants, as well as the [[Religious conversion#Islam|conversion]] of many to Islam, also increased the Turkish-speaking Muslim population in Anatolia.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}}<ref>{{cite book|year=2004|title=Turkey Foreign Policy And Government Guide|publisher=International Business Publications|isbn=978-0739762820 |page=64}}</ref>

By 1243, at the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]], the [[Mongols]] defeated the Seljuk Turks and became the new rulers of Anatolia, and in 1256, the second Mongol invasion of Anatolia caused widespread destruction. Particularly after 1277, political stability within the Seljuk territories rapidly disintegrated, leading to the strengthening of Turkoman principalities in the western and southern parts of Anatolia called the "[[beyliks]]".{{sfn|Somel|2003|p=266}}

===Beyliks era===
{{Main|Anatolian beyliks}}

[[File:Anadolu Beylikleri.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of the independent [[beyliks]] in Anatolia during the early 1300s.]]
When the Mongols defeated the Seljuk Turks and [[Mongol conquest of Anatolia|conquered Anatolia]], the Turks became the [[vassal]]s of the [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhans]] who established their own empire in the vast area which stretched from present-day [[Afghanistan]] to present-day [[Turkey]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} As the Mongols occupied more lands in Asia Minor, the Turks moved further into western Anatolia and settled in the Seljuk-Byzantine frontier.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} By the last decades of the 13th century, the Ilkhans and their Seljuk vassals lost control over much of Anatolia to these [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman peoples]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} A number of Turkish lords managed to establish themselves as rulers of various [[principalities]], known as "[[Beyliks]]" or [[emirate]]s. Amongst these beyliks, along the [[Aegean Region|Aegean]] coast, from north to south, stretched the beyliks of [[Karasids|Karasi]], [[Sarukhanids|Saruhan]], [[Aydinids|Aydin]], [[Beylik of Menteşe|Menteşe]], and [[Beylik of Teke|Teke]]. Inland from Teke was [[Hamidids|Hamid]] and east of Karasi was the beylik of [[Germiyanids|Germiyan]].

To the northwest of Anatolia, around [[Söğüt]], was the small and, at this stage, insignificant, Ottoman beylik. It was hemmed into the east by other more substantial powers like [[Karamanids|Karaman]] on [[Iconium]], which ruled from the [[Kızılırmak River]] to the [[Mediterranean]]. Although the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] was only a small principality among the numerous Turkish beyliks, and thus posed the smallest threat to the Byzantine authority, their location in north-western Anatolia, in the former Byzantine province of [[Bithynia]], became a fortunate position for their future conquests. The [[Italic peoples|Latins]], who had conquered the city of [[Constantinople]] in 1204 during the [[Fourth Crusade]], established a [[Latin Empire]] (1204–1261), divided the former Byzantine territories in the [[Balkans]] and the [[Aegean Region|Aegean]] among themselves, and forced the Byzantine Emperors into exile at [[Nicaea]] (present-day [[Iznik]]). From 1261 onwards, the Byzantines were largely preoccupied with regaining their control in the Balkans.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} Toward the end of the 13th century, as Mongol power began to decline, the Turkoman chiefs assumed greater independence.{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=1}}

===Ottoman Empire===
{{Main|Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks}}

[[File:OttomanEmpireIn1683.png|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Ottoman Empire]] was a Turkish empire that lasted from 1299 to 1922.]]
[[File:West Thrace Republic, Turks in Kardzali.jpg|thumb|West Thrace Republic, Turks in Kardzali]]
Under its founder, [[Osman I]], the nomadic Ottoman beylik expanded along the [[Sakarya River]] and westward towards the [[Sea of Marmara]]. Thus, the population of western [[Asia Minor]] had largely become [[Turkish language|Turkish]]-speaking and [[Muslim]] in religion.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} It was under his son, [[Orhan I]], who had attacked and conquered the important urban center of [[Bursa]] in 1326, proclaiming it as the Ottoman capital, that the [[Ottoman Empire]] developed considerably. In 1354, the Ottomans crossed into [[Europe]] and established a foothold on the [[Gallipoli Peninsula]] while at the same time pushing east and taking [[Ankara]].{{sfn|Fleet|1999|p=5}}{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=2}} Many Turks from Anatolia began to settle in the region which had been abandoned by the inhabitants who had fled [[Thrace]] before the Ottoman invasion.{{sfn|Köprülü|1992|p=110}} However, the Byzantines were not the only ones to suffer from the Ottoman advance for, in the mid-1330s, Orhan annexed the Turkish beylik of [[Karasids|Karasi]]. This advancement was maintained by [[Murad I]] who more than tripled the territories under his direct rule, reaching some {{convert|100,000|sqmi}}, evenly distributed in [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxvi}} Gains in Anatolia were matched by those in Europe; once the Ottoman forces took [[Edirne]] ([[Adrianople]]), which became the capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1365, they opened their way into [[Bulgaria]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] in 1371 at the [[Battle of Maritsa]].{{sfn|Fleet|1999|p=6}} With the conquests of [[Thrace]], Macedonia, and Bulgaria, significant numbers of Turkish emigrants settled in these regions.{{sfn|Köprülü|1992|p=110}} This form of Ottoman-Turkish [[colonization]] became a very effective method to consolidate their position and power in the [[Balkans]]. The settlers consisted of soldiers, nomads, farmers, artisans and [[merchants]], [[dervishes]], [[preachers]] and other religious functionaries, and administrative personnel.{{sfn|Eminov|1997|p=27}}

In 1453, Ottoman armies, under Sultan [[Mehmed II]], conquered [[Constantinople]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxvi}} Mehmed reconstructed and repopulated the city, and made it the new Ottoman capital.{{sfn|Kermeli|2010|p=111}} After the [[Fall of Constantinople]], the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of [[Growth of the Ottoman Empire|conquest and expansion]] with its borders eventually going deep into [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]], and [[North Africa]].{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=5}} [[Selim I]] dramatically expanded the empire's eastern and southern frontiers in the [[Battle of Chaldiran]] and gained recognition as the guardian of the holy cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p=21}} His successor, [[Suleiman the Magnificent]], further expanded the conquests after capturing [[Belgrade]] in 1521 and using its territorial base to conquer [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], and other Central European territories, after his victory in the [[Battle of Mohács]] as well as also pushing the frontiers of the empire to the east.{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=6}} Following Suleiman's death, Ottoman victories continued, albeit less frequently than before. The island of [[Cyprus]] was conquered, in 1571, bolstering Ottoman dominance over the sea routes of the eastern [[Mediterranean]].{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p=24}} However, after its defeat at the [[Battle of Vienna]], in 1683, the Ottoman army was met by ambushes and further defeats; the 1699 [[Treaty of Karlowitz]], which granted Austria the provinces of Hungary and [[Transylvania]], marked the first time in history that the Ottoman Empire actually relinquished territory.{{sfn|Levine|2010|p=28}}

[[File:Muhajir.jpg|thumb|The loss of almost all [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] territories during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the establishment of the [[Republic of Turkey]], in 1923, produced waves of Turkish refugees, who were known as "[[Muhacir]]s", who fled from hostile regions of the [[Balkans]], the [[Black Sea]], the [[Aegean islands]], the island of [[Cyprus]], the [[Sanjak of Alexandretta]], the [[Middle East]], and the [[Soviet Union]] to migrate to [[Anatolia]] and [[Eastern Thrace]].]]

By the 19th century, the empire began to [[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|decline]] when [[Ethnic nationalism|ethno-nationalist]] uprisings occurred across the empire. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, [[persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction]] and [[Persecution_of_Muslims#Russian_Empire|in the Russian Empire]] resulted in estimated 5 million deaths,<ref>{{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Gibney|Hansen|2005|p=437}}</ref> with the casualties including Turks.<ref name="auto"/> Five to seven or seven to nine million [[Muhacir|refugees]] migrated into modern-day Turkey from the [[Balkans]], [[Caucasus]], [[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]], and [[Mediterranean]] islands,<ref>
* {{harvnb|Pekesen|2012}} 
* {{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}}</ref> shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=70}}</ref> In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as [[Circassians]] and [[Crimean Tatars]].<ref>{{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Armour|2012|p=213}}</ref> [[Paul Mojzes]] has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mojzes|first=Paul|date=November 2013|title=Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, why did it happen and could it happen again|url=https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|website=Cicero Foundation|access-date=23 February 2024|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240223191938/https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|archive-date=23 February 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> 

By 1913, the government of the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] started a program of forcible [[Turkification]] of non-Turkish minorities.<ref>{{cite book |title=Century of Genocide|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135245504|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EDZa0zZ-XCAC|editor=Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons|pages=118–124|quote=By 1913 the advocates of [[liberalism]] had lost out to radicals in the party who promoted a program of forcible Turkification.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jwaideh|first=Wadie|title=The Kurdish national movement: its origins and development|year=2006 |publisher=Syracuse Univ. Press|location=Syracuse, NY|isbn=978-0815630937|page=104|edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FCbspX-dGPYC|quote=With the crushing of opposition elements, the Young Turks simultaneously launched their program of forcible Turkification and the creation of a highly centralized administrative system."}}</ref> By 1914, the [[World War I]] broke out, and the Turks scored some success in [[Gallipoli]] during the [[Naval operations in the Dardanelles Campaign|Battle of the Dardanelles]] in 1915. During World War I, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress continued to implement its Turkification policies, which affected non-Turkish minorities, such as the [[Armenians]] during the [[Armenian genocide]] and the [[Greeks]] during [[Greek genocide|various campaigns of ethnic cleansing and expulsion]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Akçam|first=Taner|title=The Young Turks' crime against humanity: the Armenian genocide and ethnic cleansing in the Ottoman Empire|year=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, N.J.|isbn=978-0691153339|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdBKN1j-QhMC|page=29}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bjornlund|first=Matthias|s2cid=72975930|title=The 1914 cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a case of violent Turkification|journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=March 2008|volume=10|issue=1|pages=41–57 |issn=1462-3528|quote=In 1914, the aim of Turkification was not to exterminate but to expel as many Greeks of the Aegean region as possible as not only a "security measure," but as an extension of the policy of economic and cultural boycott, while at the same time creating living space for the muhadjirs that had been driven out of their homes under equally brutal circumstances.|doi=10.1080/14623520701850286}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Akçam |first=Taner|title=From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide|year=2005|publisher=Zed Books |location=London|isbn=9781842775271|page=115|author-link=Taner Akçam|quote=...the initial stages of the Turkification of the Empire, which affected by attacks on its very heterogeneous structure, thereby ushering in a relentless process of ethnic cleansing that eventually, through the exigencies and opportunities of the First World War, culminated in the Armenian Genocide.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rummel|first=Rudolph J.|title=Death By Government|year=1996|publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=9781412821292|page=235|author-link=Rudolph Rummel |quote=Through this genocide and the forced deportation of the Greeks, the nationalists completed the Young Turk's program-the Turkification of Turkey and the elimination of a pretext for Great Power meddling.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=America and the Armenian Genocide of 1915|editor=J.M. Winter|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York|isbn=9780511163821|page=60|quote=The devising of a scheme of a correlative Turkification of the Empire, or what was left of it, included the cardinal goal of the liquidation of that Empire's residual non-Turkish elements. Given their numbers, their concentration in geo-strategic locations, and the troublesome legacy of the Armenian Question, the Armenians were targeted as the prime object for such a liquidation.}}</ref> In 1918, the Ottoman Government agreed to the [[Mudros Armistice]] with the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]].

The [[Treaty of Sèvres]] —signed in 1920 by the government of [[Mehmet VI]]— dismantled the Ottoman Empire. The Turks, under Mustafa Kemal Pasha, rejected the treaty and fought the [[Turkish War of Independence]], resulting in the abortion of that text, never ratified,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lEFSI-qJHSEC&q=Treaty+S%C3%A8vres+was+never+ratified&pg=PA91|title=The Turkish Straits|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=978-9024734641 |last1=Rozakēs|first1=Chrēstos L|date=31 August 1987|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers }}</ref> and the [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|abolition of the Sultanate]]. Thus, the 623-year-old Ottoman Empire ended.{{sfn|Levine|2010|p=29}}

===Modern era===
{{See also|History of the Republic of Turkey}}
[[File:Anafartalar Boulevard, Köklü Office Building and shops, 1950s (16645159247).jpg|thumb|People on the Anafartalar Boulevard, [[Ankara]] in the 1950s]]
Once Mustafa Kemal led the [[Turkish War of Independence]] against the [[Allies of World War I|Allied forces]] that occupied the former [[Ottoman Empire]], he united the Turkish Muslim majority and successfully led them from 1919 to 1922 in overthrowing the occupying forces out of what the [[Turkish National Movement]] considered the Turkish homeland.{{sfn|Göcek|2011|p=22}} The Turkish identity became the unifying force when, in 1923, the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] was signed and the newly founded [[Republic of Turkey]] was formally established. Atatürk's presidency was marked by a series of [[Atatürk's Reforms|radical political and social reforms]] that transformed Turkey into a [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], modern republic with civil and political equality for sectarian minorities and women.{{sfn|Göcek|2011|p=23}}

Throughout the 1920s and the 1930s, Turks, as well as other [[Muslims]], from the [[Balkans]], the [[Black Sea]], the [[Aegean islands]], the island of [[Cyprus]], the [[Sanjak of Alexandretta]] ([[Hatay Province|Hatay]]), the [[Middle East]], and the [[Soviet Union]] continued to arrive in [[Turkey]], most of whom settled in urban north-western Anatolia.{{sfn|Çaǧaptay|2006|p=82}}{{sfn|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012|p=17}} The bulk of these immigrants, known as "[[Muhacir]]s", were the Balkan Turks who faced harassment and discrimination in their homelands.{{sfn|Çaǧaptay|2006|p=82}} However, there were still remnants of a Turkish population in many of these countries because the Turkish government wanted to preserve these communities so that the Turkish character of these neighbouring territories could be maintained.{{sfn|Çaǧaptay|2006|p=84}} One of the last stages of ethnic Turks immigrating to Turkey was between 1940 and 1990 when about 700,000 Turks arrived from Bulgaria. Today, between a third and a quarter of Turkey's population are the descendants of these immigrants.{{sfn|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012|p=17}}

==Geographic distribution==
{{main|Turkish population}}

===Traditional areas of Turkish settlement===

====Turkey====
[[File:Turkish in Turkey (1965).png|thumb|Percentage of people who speak Turkish as their first language by city, according to [[1965 Turkish census]]]]
The ethnic Turks are the largest ethnic group in [[Turkey]] and number approximately 60 million<ref name=Garibova2011/> to 65 million.<ref name=Hobbs2017/> Due to differing historical Turkish migrations to the region, dating from the Seljuk conquests in the 11th century to the continuous Turkish migrations which have persisted to the present day (especially Turkish refugees from neighboring countries), there are various accents and customs which can distinguish the ethnic Turks by geographic sub-groups.<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> For example, the most significant are the Anatolian Turks in the central core of [[Anatolia|Asiatic Turkey]] whose culture was influential in underlining the roots of the Turkish nationalist ideology.<ref name=Nyropetal1973 /> There are also nomadic Turkic tribes who descend directly from [[Central Asia]], such as the [[Yörüks]];<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> the [[Black Sea]] Turks in the north whose "speech largely lacks the vowel harmony valued elsewhere";<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> the descendants of ''[[muhacir]]s'' (Turkish refugees) who fled persecution from former Ottoman territories in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries;<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> and more recent refugees who have continued to flee discrimination and persecution since the mid-1900s.

Initially, ''muhacirs'' who arrived in [[Eastern Thrace]] and [[Anatolia]] came fleeing from former Ottoman territories which had been annexed by [[History of colonialism|European colonial powers]] (such as [[French colonial empire|France]] in [[Algeria]] or [[Russian Empire|Russia]] in [[Crimea]]); however, the largest waves of ethnic Turkish migration came from the [[Balkans]] during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the [[Balkan Wars]] led to most of the region becoming independent from Ottoman control.{{sfn|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012}} The largest waves of ''muhacirs'' came from the Balkans (especially [[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]], [[Romania]] and [[Yugoslavia]]); however, substantial numbers also came from Cyprus,<ref name=Cagaptay200682 /> the [[Sanjak of Alexandretta]],<ref name=Cagaptay200682 /> the [[Middle East]] (including [[Transjordan (region)|Trans-Jordan]]<ref name=Cagaptay200682 /> and [[Yemen]]<ref name=Cagaptay200682 />) [[North African]] (such as [[Algeria]]<ref name="Kateb 2001 loc=50-51">{{citation |last=Kateb|first=Kamel |year=2001 |title=Européens: "Indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830-1962) : Représentations et Réalités des Populations|publisher=[[INED]] |isbn=273320145X |pages=50–53}}</ref> and [[Libya]]<ref name=Tastekin>{{cite web|last=Tastekin|first=Fehim|year=2019|title=Are Libyan Turks Ankara's Trojan horse?|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/08/turkey-libya-are-libyan-turks-ankaras-trojan-horse.html|publisher=[[Al-Monitor]]|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref>) and the [[Soviet Union]] (especially from [[Meskheti]]).<ref name=Cagaptay200682>{{citation |last=Cagaptay|first=Soner|year=2011|title=Islam, Secularism and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is a Turk?|page=82 |publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781134174485}}</ref>

The Turks who remained in the former Ottoman territories continued to face discrimination and persecution thereafter leading many to seek refuge in Turkey, especially [[Turkish Meskhetians]] deported by [[Joseph Stalin]] in 1944; Turkish minorities in [[Yugoslavia]] (i.e., [[Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Turkish Bosnians]], [[Turks in Croatia|Turkish Croatians]], [[Turks in Kosovo|Turkish Kosovars]], [[Turks in North Macedonia|Turkish Macedonians]], [[Turks in Montenegro|Turkish Montenegrins]] and [[Turks in Serbia|Turkish Serbians]]) fleeing [[Josip Broz Tito]]'s regime in the 1950s;<ref>{{citation |last=Cohen|first=Robin|year=1995|title=The Cambridge Survey of World Migration|quote=During the 1950s some 300,000 ethnic Turks left Bosnia, Macedonia and other south-eastern parts of Yugoslavia for Turkey.|page=476|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521444057}}</ref> [[Turkish Cypriots]] fleeing the [[Cypriot intercommunal violence]] of 1955–74;<ref>{{citation |last=Bilge|first=Ali Suat|year=1961|title= Le Conflit de Chypre et les Chypriotes Turcs|page=5|publisher=Ajans Türk}}</ref> [[Iraqi Turkmen|Turkish Iraqis]] fleeing discrimination during the rise of Arab nationalism in the 1950s and 1970s followed by the [[Iran–Iraq War]] of 1980–88;<ref name="Çataloğlu&Bulut">{{citation|last1=Çataloğlu|first1=Seher|last2=Bulut|first2=Meryem|year=2016|chapter=Artificial Borders and Nationalism: Turkmen Migration from Iraq to Istanbul |title=Anthropological Perspectives on Transnational Encounters in Turkey: War, Migration and Experiences of Coexistence|editor1-last=Bulut|editor1-first=Meryem|editor2-last=Şahin|editor2-first=Kadriye|publisher=Transnational Press London|pages=21|isbn=9781912997268}}</ref> [[Turkish Bulgarians]] fleeing the [[Bulgarisation]] policies of the so-called "[[Revival Process]]" under the communist ruler [[Todor Zivkov]] in the 1980s;<ref name="Maeva2008"/> and [[Turks in Kosovo|Turkish Kosovars]] fleeing the [[Kosovo War]] of 1998–99.<ref>{{citation|last=Binet|first=Laurence|year=2014|title=Violence against Kosovar Albanians, NATO's intervention 1998-1999|url=https://www.msf.org/sites/msf.org/files/2019-04/SOCSKosovoEnglish.pdf|quote=UNHCR notes that a number of members of the Turkish Kosovar community – around 60,000 people before the war - left for Turkey. This community is under increasing pressure, notably from the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), who seek to ‘Albanianise’ them, and make them relinquish their language, stated the AFP.|publisher=[[Médecins Sans Frontières]]|pages=261}}</ref>

Today, approximately 15–20 million Turks living in Turkey are the descendants of refugees from the Balkans;<ref name=Reinkowski>{{citation |last=Reinkowski|first=Maurus|year=2011 |chapter=The Ottoman Empire and South Eastern Europe from a Turkish perspective|title=Images of Imperial Legacy: Modern Discourses on the Social and Cultural Impact of Ottoman and Habsburg Rule in Southeast Europe|page=27|publisher=[[LIT Verlag]]|isbn=978-3643108500|quote=Given the strong demographic growth in Turkey, today 15-20 million Turks could be descendants of immigrants from South East Europe.}}</ref> there are also 1.5 million descendants from [[Meskheti]]<ref>{{citation|year=2018|title=Bursa'da Ahıskalıların vatandaşlık kuyruğu!|url=https://www.bursadabugun.com/haber/bursa-da-ahiskalilarin-vatandaslik-kuyrugu-934666.html|publisher=Bursada Bugün|access-date=30 August 2021}}</ref> and over 600,000 descendants from [[Cyprus]].<ref name=Kanlı>{{cite web |last=Kanlı|first=Yusuf|year=2018|title=Bridging the population gap in Cyprus|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/yusuf-kanli/bridging-the-population-gap-in-cyprus-128756|work=[[Hurriyet Daily News]]|access-date=8 April 2018|quote=It is often said that if the descendants of those who migrated from Cyprus to Turkey back in 1931 are included, the number of Turkish Cypriots living in the "motherland" might exceed 600,000.}}</ref> The Republic of Turkey continues to be a land of migration for ethnic Turkish people fleeing persecution and wars. For example, there are approximately 1 million [[Syrian Turkmen]] living in Turkey due to the current [[Syrian civil war]].<ref name="VOA">{{Cite web |last=Erkılıç |first=Orhan |year=2020 |title=Türkiye'deki Suriyeli Türkmenler de Vatandaşlık İstiyor |url=https://www.amerikaninsesi.com/a/turkiyedeki-suriyeli-turkmenler-de-vatandaslik-istiyor/5536622.html |access-date=17 December 2020 |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |quote=1 Milyon Suriyeli Türkmen Vatandaşlık Hakkından Yararlanmak İstiyor.}}</ref>

====Cyprus====
{{see also|Turkish Cypriots|List of Turkish Cypriots}}
The [[Turkish Cypriots]] are the ethnic Turks whose Ottoman Turkish forebears colonized the island of [[Cyprus]] in 1571. About 30,000 Turkish soldiers were given land once they settled in Cyprus, which bequeathed a significant Turkish community. In 1960, a census by the new Republic's government revealed that the Turkish Cypriots formed 18.2% of the island's population.{{sfn|Hatay|2007|p=22}} However, once inter-communal fighting and ethnic tensions between 1963 and 1974 occurred between the Turkish and [[Greek Cypriots]], known as the "[[Cyprus conflict]]", the Greek Cypriot government conducted a census in 1973, albeit without the Turkish Cypriot populace. A year later, in 1974, the Cypriot government's Department of Statistics and Research estimated the Turkish Cypriot population was 118,000 (or 18.4%).{{sfn|Hatay|2007|p=23}} A [[coup d'état]] in Cyprus on [[1974 Cypriot coup d'état|15 July 1974]] by Greeks and Greek Cypriots favoring union with [[Greece]] (also known as "[[Enosis]]") was followed by [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus|military intervention]] by [[Turkey]] whose troops established Turkish Cypriot control over the northern part of the island.<ref>{{cite web |work=United Nations|title=UNFICYP: United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unficyp/background.shtml}}</ref> Hence, census's conducted by the Republic of Cyprus have excluded the Turkish Cypriot population that had settled in the unrecognized [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]].{{sfn|Hatay|2007|p=23}} Between 1975 and 1981, [[Turkey]] encouraged its own citizens to settle in Northern Cyprus; a report by [[CIA]] suggests that 200,000 of the residents of Cyprus are Turkish.

====Balkans====
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Ela speaking Turkish.webm|thumb|A [[Turks in Kosovo|Turkish Kosovar]] speaking standard Turkish]]

Ethnic Turks continue to inhabit certain regions of [[Greece]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Kosovo]], [[Romania]], and [[Bulgaria]] since they first settled there during the Ottoman period. As of 2019, the Turkish population in the Balkans is over 1 million.<ref name="Dursun-Özkanca">{{citation |last=Dursun-Özkanca|first=Oya|year=2019|title=Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-alliance Opposition|page=40|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1108488624|quote=One-fifth of the Turkish population is estimated to have Balkan origins. Additionally, more than one million Turks live in Balkan countries, constituting a bridge between these countries and Turkey.}}</ref> Majority of Balkan Turks were killed or deported in the [[Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction|Muslim Persecution during Ottoman Contraction]] and arrived to Turkey as [[Muhacir]]s.<ref name="Northumberland Press">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KttAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Turks+were+massacred%22|title=The Middle East, Abstracts and Index|date=1999|publisher=Northumberland Press|language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|Biondich|2011}}</ref>

The majority of the Rumelian/Balkan Turks are the descendants of Ottoman settlers. However, the first significant wave of Anatolian Turkish settlement to the Balkans dates back to the mass migration of sedentary and nomadic subjects of the Seljuk sultan [[Kaykaus II]] (b. 1237 – d. 1279/80) who had fled to the court of [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] in 1262.<ref>{{citation |last=Shukurov|first=Rustam |year=2016|title=The Byzantine Turks, 1204-1461|page=99|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=9789004307759}}</ref>

=====Albania=====
The Turkish Albanians are one of the smallest Turkish communities in the Balkans. Once [[Albania under the Ottoman Empire|Albania came under Ottoman rule]], Turkish colonization was scarce there; however, some Anatolian Turkish settlers did arrive in 1415–30 and were given ''[[timar]]'' estates.<ref>{{citation |last=Madgearu|first=Alexandru|year=2008|title=The Wars of the Balkan Peninsula: Their Medieval Origins|page=38|publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]]|isbn=9780810858466}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, the [[Turkish language]] was the sixth most spoken language in the country (after [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Romani language|Romani]], and [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]]).<ref name="2011Albaniancensus"/>

=====Bosnia and Herzegovina=====
{{see also|Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
The [[Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Turkish Bosnians]] have lived in the region since the [[Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina|Ottoman rule of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. Thus, the Turks form the oldest [[Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina|ethnic minority]] in the country.<ref name=coe>{{cite web|author=Council of Europe|title=European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages: Bosnia and HerzegovinaLANGUAGES|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/minlang/report/PeriodicalReports/Bosnia%20and%20HerzegovinaPR1_en.pdf|access-date=16 October 2011}}</ref> The Turkish Bosnian community decreased dramatically due to mass emigration to [[Turkey]] when Bosnia and Herzegovina came under [[Austro-Hungarian]] rule.<ref name=coe/>

In 2003 the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted the "Law on the Protection of Rights of Members of National Minorities" which officially protected the Turkish minority's cultural, religious, educational, social, economic, and political freedoms.<ref>{{cite web|author=OSCE|title=National Minorities in BiH|url=http://www.oscebih.org/default.aspx?id=53&lang=EN|access-date=29 December 2013|archive-date=11 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711214038/http://www.oscebih.org/Default.aspx?id=53&lang=EN|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=====Bulgaria=====
{{see also|Turks in Bulgaria|List of Bulgarian Turks}}
[[File:Percentage of Ethnic Turks in Bulgaria by Province (2011).png|thumb|Percentage of ethnic Turks in Bulgaria by province (2011)]]
The [[Bulgarian Turks|Turks of Bulgaria]] form the largest Turkish community in the Balkans as well as the largest ethnic minority group in [[Bulgaria]]. According to the 2011 census, they form a majority in the [[Kardzhali Province]] (66.2%) and the [[Razgrad Province]] (50.02%), as well as substantial communities in the [[Silistra Province]] (36.09%), the [[Targovishte Province]] (35.80%), and the [[Shumen Province]] (30.29%). They were ethnically cleansed during the [[Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction|Muslim Persecution during Ottoman Contraction]] and subsequently targeted during the [[Revival Process]] that aimed to assimilate them into a Bulgarian identity.<ref name="Northumberland Press"/><ref name="auto1"/>

=====Croatia=====
{{see also|Turks in Croatia|Turkish Croatia}}
The [[Turks in Croatia|Turkish Croatians]] began to settle in the region during the various [[Croatian–Ottoman wars]]. Despite being a small minority, the Turks are among the 22 officially recognized national minorities in Croatia.<ref>{{citation |last=Farley|first=Brigit|year=2013|chapter=Croatia|title=Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities|editor-last=Skutsch|editor-first=Carl|volume=1|page=344|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135193881}}</ref>

=====Greece=====
{{see also|Turks in Greece|Turks of Western Thrace|Turks of the Dodecanese|Cretan Turks}}

=====Kosovo=====
{{see also|Turks in Kosovo}}
The [[Turks in Kosovo|Turkish Kosovars]] are the third largest ethnic minority in Kosovo (after the [[Kosovo Serbs|Serbs]] and [[Bosniaks in Kosovo|Bosniaks]]). They form a majority in the town and municipality of [[Mamuša]].

=====Montenegro=====
{{see also|Turks in Montenegro}}
The [[Turks in Montenegro|Turkish Montenegrins]] form the smallest Turkish minority group in the Balkans. They began to settle in the region following the [[Ottoman Montenegro|Ottoman rule of Montenegro]]. A historical event took place in 1707 which involved the killing of the Turks in Montenegro as well as the murder of all Muslims. This early example of ethnic cleaning features in the epic poem ''[[The Mountain Wreath]]'' (1846).<ref>{{citation |last=Larsen|first=Mogens Trolle|year=2014|title=The Conquest of Assyria: Excavations in an Antique Land|page=42|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781317949954}}</ref> After the Ottoman withdrawal, the majority of the remaining Turks emigrated to [[Istanbul]] and [[İzmir]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2011|title=Adriyatik'te unutulan Türkler|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/adriyatik-te-unutulan-turkler-gundem-1441439/|publisher=[[Milliyet]]|access-date=25 November 2017}}</ref> Today, the remaining Turkish Montenegrins predominantly live in the coastal town of [[Bar, Montenegro|Bar]].

=====North Macedonia=====
{{see also|Turks in North Macedonia|List of Macedonian Turks}}
[[File:Flag of Centar Župa Municipality, North Macedonia.svg|thumb|upright|The flag of the [[Centar Župa Municipality]] in [[North Macedonia]] is labelled with [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] and Turkish writing in its central banner]]

The [[Turks in North Macedonia|Turkish Macedonians]] form the second largest Turkish community in the Balkans as well as the second largest minority ethnic group in [[North Macedonia]]. They form a majority in the [[Centar Župa Municipality]] and the [[Plasnica Municipality]] as well as substantial communities in the [[Mavrovo and Rostuša Municipality]], the [[Studeničani Municipality]], the [[Dolneni Municipality]], the [[Karbinci Municipality]], and the [[Vasilevo Municipality]].

=====Romania=====
{{see also|Turks of Romania|Ada Kaleh}}
The [[Turks of Romania|Turkish Romanians]] are centered in the [[Northern Dobruja]] region. The only settlement which still has a Turkish majority population is in [[Dobromir, Constanța|Dobromir]] located in the [[Constanța County]]. Historically, Turkish Romanians also formed a majority in other regions, such as the island of [[Ada Kaleh]] which was destroyed and flooded by the Romanian government for the construction of the [[Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station]].

=====Serbia=====
{{see also|Turks in Serbia}}
The [[Turks in Serbia|Turkish Serbians]] have lived in Serbia since the [[Ottoman Serbia|Ottoman conquests in the region]]. They have traditionally lived in the urban areas of Serbia. In 1830, when the [[Principality of Serbia]] was granted autonomy, most Turks emigrated as "[[muhacir]]s" (refugees) to [[Ottoman Turkey]], and by 1862 almost all of the remaining Turks left [[Central Serbia]], including 3,000 from [[Belgrade]].<ref name="Vuletić">{{citation |last=Vuletić|first=Aleksandra|year=2012|url=http://www.demogr.mpg.de/papers/working/wp-2012-018.pdf|title=Censuses in 19th century Serbia: inventory of preserved microdata|publisher=Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research|page=7}}</ref> Today, the remaining community mostly live in [[Belgrade]] and [[Sandžak]].

====Caucasus====
=====Azerbaijan=====
{{see also|Turks in Azerbaijan}}
The [[Turks in Azerbaijan|Turkish Azerbaijanis]] began to settle in the region during the Ottoman rule, which lasted between 1578 and 1603. By 1615, the Safavid ruler, [[Shah Abbas I]], solidified control of the region and then deported thousands of people from Azerbaijan.<ref name="Kaeter">{{citation|last=Kaeter|first=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Caucasian Republics|publisher=Infobase Publishing|page=15|isbn=9780816052684}}</ref> In 1998, there was still approximately 19,000 Turks living in Azerbaijan who descended from the original Ottoman settlers; they are distinguishable from the rest of Azeri society because they practice Sunni Islam (rather than the dominant Shia sect in the country).<ref name="Minahan">{{citation |last=Minahan|first=James|year=1998|title=Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0313306109|page=19}}</ref>

Since the [[Second World War]], the Turkish Azerbaijani community has increased significantly due to the mass wave of [[Meskhetian Turks|Turkish Meskhetian]] refugees who arrived during the [[Soviet Union|Soviet rule]].

=====Georgia=====

======Abkhazia======
{{see also|Turks in Abkhazia}}
The Turkish Abkhazians began to live in [[Abkhazia]] during the sixteenth century under Ottoman rule.<ref name=TodaysZaman>{{cite web|author=Today's Zaman|title=Abkhazian President Bagapsh in Ankara|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/columnist-240558-abkhazian-president-bagapsh-in-ankara.html|access-date=6 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410205847/http://www.todayszaman.com/columnist-240558-abkhazian-president-bagapsh-in-ankara.html|archive-date=10 April 2011}}</ref> Today, there are still Turks who continue to live in the region.<ref name="Gogia2011">{{cite book|last=Gogia|first=Giorgi|url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/georgia0711LR.pdf|title=Georgia/Abkhazia: Living in Limbo – The Rights of Ethnic Georgian Returnees to the Gali District of Abkhazia|publisher=Human Rights Watch|location=New York, NY|year=2011|access-date=29 November 2016|isbn=978-1-56432-790-1|page=9|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017202339/https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/georgia0711LR.pdf|archive-date=17 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

======Meskheti======
{{see also|Meskhetian Turks}}
Prior to the Ottoman conquest of [[Meskheti]] in Georgia, hundreds of thousands of Turkic invaders had settled in the region from the thirteenth century.<ref name=Tomlinson2005p110>{{citation|last=Tomlinson|first=Kathryn|year=2005|chapter=Living Yesterday in Today and Tomorrow: Meskhetian Turks in Southern Russia|title=Writing History, Constructing Religion|editor1-last=Crossley|editor1-first=James G.|editor2-last=Karner|editor2-first=Christian |pages=110–111|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781351142748}}</ref> At this time, the main town, [[Akhaltsikhe]], was mentioned in sources by the Turkish name "Ak-sika", or "White Fortress". Thus, this accounts for the present day Turkish designation of the region as "Ahıska".<ref name=Tomlinson2005p110/> Local leaders were given the Turkish title "Atabek" from which came the fifteenth century name of one of the four kingdoms of what had been Georgia, [[Samtskhe-Saatabago]], "the land of the Atabek called Samtskhe [Meskhetia]".<ref name=Tomlinson2005p110/> In 1555 the Ottomans gained the western part of Meskheti after the [[Peace of Amasya]] treaty, whilst the [[Safavids]] took the eastern part.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|title=Historical Dictionary of Georgia|date=2015|page=|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442241466|edition=2}}</ref> Then in 1578 the Ottomans attacked the Safavid controlled area which initiated the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590)]]. Meskheti was fully secured into the Ottoman Empire in 1639 after a treaty signed with Iran brought an end to Iranian attempts to take the region. With the arrival of more Turkish colonizers, the [[Meskhetian Turks|Turkish Meskhetian]] community increased significantly.<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019>{{citation|last=Pirtskhalava|first=Ekaterine|year=2019|chapter=The Reshaping Identity of Deported people in a New Environment|title=Bridging Differences: Understanding Cultural Interaction in Our Globalized World|editor1-last=Johnson|editor1-first=Newtona (Tina) |editor2-last=Simpson|editor2-first=Shawn|page=|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9781848883680}}</ref>

However, once the Ottomans lost control of the region in 1883, many Turkish Meskhetians migrated from Georgia to Turkey. Migrations to Turkey continued after the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]] followed by the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] (1917), and then after Georgia was incorporated into the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019/> During this period, some members of the community also relocated to other Soviet borders, and those who remained in Georgia were targeted by the [[Sovietisation]] campaigns.<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019/> Thereafter, during [[World War II]], the Soviet administration initiated a mass deportation of the remaining 115,000 Turkish Meskhetians in 1944,{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} forcing them to resettle in the Caucasus and the Central Asian Soviet republics.<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019/>

Thus, today hundreds of thousands of Turkish Meskhetians are scattered throughout the [[Post Soviet states]] (especially in [[Kazakhstan]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Russia]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Ukraine]]). Moreover, many have settled in Turkey and the [[United States]]. Attempts to repatriate them back to Georgia saw Georgian authorities receive applications covering 9,350 individuals within the two-year application period (up until 1 January 2010).<ref>{{citation|last=|first=|year=2015|title=The repatriation question of the Meskhetian Turks to their homeland in Georgia|url=https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1236549/1930_1443084042_g1520228.pdf|page=2|publisher=[[United Nations Human Rights Council]]|access-date=8 September 2021}}</ref>

====Levant and the Middle East====

=====Iraq=====
{{see also|Iraqi Turkmen|Turkmeneli}}
[[File:Iraqi Turkmen girl in traditional Turkish costume.jpg|thumb|200px|right|An [[Iraqi Turkmen]] girl in traditional Turkish costume.]]
Commonly referred to as the [[Iraqi Turkmens]], the Turks are the second largest ethnic minority group in [[Iraq]] (i.e. after the [[Kurds]]). The majority are the descendants of Ottoman settlers (e.g. soldiers, traders and civil servants) who were brought into Iraq from [[Anatolia]].<ref name="Taylor 2004">{{citation |last=Taylor|first=Scott|year=2004|title=Among the Others: Encounters with the Forgotten Turkmen of Iraq|publisher=[[Esprit de Corps (magazine)|Esprit de Corps]]|isbn=1-895896-26-6|pages=31–32}}</ref> Today, most Iraqi Turkmen live in a region they refer to as "[[Turkmeneli]]" which stretches from the northwest to the east at the middle of Iraq with [[Kirkuk]] placed as their cultural capital.

Historically, Turkic migrations to Iraq date back to the 7th century when Turks were recruited in the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] armies of [[Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad]] followed by thousands more Turkmen warriors arriving under the [[Abbasid]] rule. However, most of these Turks became assimilated into the local Arab population.<ref name="Taylor 2004"/> The next large scale migration occurred under the [[Great Seljuq Empire]] after Sultan [[Toğrül|Tuğrul Bey]]'s invasion in 1055.<ref name="Taylor 2004"/> For the next 150 years, the Seljuk Turks placed large Turkmen communities along the most valuable routes of northern Iraq.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009">{{citation |last1=Anderson|first1=Liam D.|last2=Stansfield|first2=Gareth R. V.|year=2009|title=Crisis in Kirkuk: The Ethnopolitics of Conflict and Compromise|pages=16–17|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-4176-1}}</ref> Yet, the largest wave of Turkish migrations occurred under the four centuries of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule (1535–1919).<ref name="Taylor 2004"/><ref name="Stansfield 2007">{{citation|last=Stansfield|first=Gareth R. V.|year=2007|title=Iraq: People, History, Politics|pages=70–72|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-3227-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/iraqpeoplehistor0000stan}}</ref> In 1534, [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] secured [[Mosul]] within the Ottoman Empire and it became the chief province ([[eyalet]]) responsible for administrative districts in the region. The Ottomans encouraged migration from Anatolia and the settlement of Turks along northern Iraq.<ref>{{citation|last1=Fattah|first1=Hala|last2=Caso|first2=Frank|year=2009|chapter=Turkish Tribal Migrations and the Early Ottoman State|title=A Brief History of Iraq|page=116|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-5767-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofir0000fatt}}</ref> After 89 years of peace, the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639)]] saw [[Murad IV]] recapturing [[Baghdad]] and taking permanent control over Iraq which resulted in the influx of continuous Turkish settlers until Ottoman rule came to an end in 1919.<ref name="Stansfield 2007"/><ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009"/><ref>{{citation |last=Talabany|first=Nouri|year=2007|title=Who Owns Kirkuk? The Kurdish Case|journal=Middle East Quarterly|url=http://www.meforum.org/1075/who-owns-kirkuk-the-kurdish-case|publisher=Middle East Quarterly, Winter 2007|page=75}}</ref>

After the establishment of the [[Republic of Turkey]] in 1923, the Iraqi Turkmens initially sought for Turkey to annex the [[Mosul Vilayet]].<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /> However, they participated in elections for the [[Constituent Assembly]] with the condition of preserving the Turkish character in Kirkuk's administration and the recognition of [[Turkish language|Turkish]] as the liwa's official language.<ref>{{citation |last=Lukitz|first=Liora|year=1995|title=Iraq: The Search for National Identity|page=41|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-7146-4550-8}}</ref> Although they were recognized as a constitutive entity of Iraq, alongside the [[Arabs]] and [[Kurds]], in the constitution of 1925, the Iraqi Turkmen were later denied this status.<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /> Thereafter, the Iraqi Turkmen found themselves increasingly discriminated against from the policies of successive regimes, such as the Kirkuk Massacre of 1923, 1947, 1959 and in 1979 when the [[Ba'th Party]] discriminated against the community.<ref name="Stansfield 2007" />

Thus, the position of the Iraqi Turkmens has changed from historically being administrative and business classes of the Ottoman Empire to an increasingly discriminated minority.<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /> [[Arabization]] and [[Kurdification]] policies have seen Iraqi Turkmens pushed out of their homeland and thus various degrees of suppression and assimilation have ranged from political persecution and exile to terror and [[ethnic cleansing]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=62}}.</ref> Many Iraqi Turkmen have consequently sought refuge in Turkey whilst there has also been increasing migration to Western Europe (especially [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]] and the [[United Kingdom]]) as well as [[Canada]], the [[United States]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].

=====Egypt=====
{{see also|Turks in Egypt}}
The [[Turks in Egypt|Turkish Egyptians]] are mostly the descendants of Turkish settlers who arrived during the Ottoman rule of Egypt (1517–1867 and 1867–1914). However, with the exception of the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] rule of Egypt, the region was ruled from the [[Tulunid]] period (868–905) until 1952 by a succession of individuals who were either of Turkish origin or who had been raised according to the traditions of the Turkish state.<ref name="İhsanoğlu 2012">{{citation|last=İhsanoğlu|first=Ekmeleddin|year=2012|title=The Turks in Egypt and Their Cultural Legacy|translator-last=Davies|translator-first=Humphrey|page=1|publisher=[[American University in Cairo Press]]|isbn=9789774163975}}</ref> Hence, during the [[Mamluk Sultanate]], Arabic sources show that the [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri]] period referred to its dynasty as the State of the Turks ({{langx|ar|دولة الاتراك}}, ''Dawlat al-Atrāk''; {{lang|ar|دولة الترك}}, ''Dawlat al-Turk'') or the State of Turkey ({{lang|ar|الدولة التركية}}, ''al-Dawla al-Turkiyya'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nicolle|first1=David|year=2014|title=Mamluk 'Askari 1250–1517|page=4|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=9781782009290}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Petry|first1=Carl F.|editor1-last=Petry|editor1-first=Carl F.|title=The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517|date=1998|page=250|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521068857|chapter=The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamluk Period}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Ottoman legacy has been the most significance in the preservation of the Turkish culture in Egypt which still remains visible today.<ref name="Eren 2012">{{citation|last=Eren|first=Halit|year=2012|chapter=Foreword|title=The Turks in Egypt and Their Cultural Legacy|translator-last=Davies|translator-first=Humphrey|page=xv|publisher=[[American University in Cairo Press]]|isbn=9789774163975}}</ref>

=====Jordan=====
{{see also|Turks in Jordan}}

=====Lebanon=====
{{see also|Turks in Lebanon}}
The [[Turks in Lebanon|Lebanese Turkmen]] are the ethnic Turks who constitute one of the ethnic groups in [[Lebanon]]. The historic rule of several Turkic dynasties in the region saw continuous Turkish migration waves to Lebanon during the [[Tulunids|Tulunid]] rule (868–905), [[Ikhshidid dynasty|Ikhshidid]] rule (935–969), [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] rule (1037–1194), [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] rule (1291–1515), and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule (1516–1918). Today, most of the Turkish Lebanese community are the descendants of the Ottoman Turkish settlers to Lebanon from [[Anatolia]]. However, with the declining territories of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, ethnic [[Turkish minorities]] from other parts of the former Ottoman territories found refuge in Ottoman Lebanon, especially [[Algerian Turks]] after the [[French North Africa|French colonization of North Africa]] in 1830,<ref name="Kateb 2001 loc=50-51" /> and [[Cretan Turks]] in 1897 due to unrest in Greece.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=The Cretan Rebellion of 1897 and the Emigration of the Cretan Muslims |url=https://refugeehistory.org/blog/2017/7/20/the-cretan-rebellion-of-1897-and-the-emigration-of-the-cretan-muslims |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=Refugee History. |language=en-US}}</ref>

=====Palestine=====
{{see also|Turks in Palestine|Israeli Turkmen}}
Palestine was under Ottoman rule for over four centuries, from 1517 until 1922. Consequently, many Palestinian families have Turkish origins.<ref name="Al Gherbawi 2022">{{citation |last=Al Gherbawi|first=Hadeel|year=2022|title=Palestinian, Turkish ethnic mixture persists over times|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/01/palestinian-turkish-ethnic-mixture-persists-over-times|publisher=[[Al-Monitor]]|access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> However, Turkish migration did not simply come to a halt after the Ottoman period. Rather, during the British rule of Cyprus (1878-1960), many [[Turkish Cypriot]] families struggling during the [[Great Depression]] and its aftermath were forced to marry off their daughters to [[Arabs]] in [[Mandatory Palestine|British Palestine]] with hopes that they would have a better life there.<ref name="Andreou 2018">{{cite web|last1=Andreou|first1=Evie|access-date=2019-09-10|title=Searching for the missing brides of Cyprus|work=Cyprus Mail |url=https://cyprus-mail.com/2018/07/29/searching-for-the-missing-brides-of-cyprus/|date=29 July 2018}}</ref> Thousands of Turkish Cypriot women and girls were thus sent to Palestine until the late 1950s.<ref name="Sabah">{{cite web |author=Sabah|title=Küçük adanın talihsiz kızları|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/fotohaber/yasam/kucuk_adanin_talihsiz_kizlari/28151|access-date=26 October 2015}}</ref>

Turkish family surnames in Palestine often end with the letter's "ji" (e.g., al-Batniji and al-Shorbaji) whilst other common names include al-Gharbawi, Tarzi, Turk, Birkdar, Jukmadar, Radwan, Jasir and al-Jamasi.<ref name="Al Gherbawi 2022"/>

As of 2022, there are still thousands of Palestinian families in [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]] who are of Turkish origin.<ref name="Al Gherbawi 2022"/>

===== Saudi Arabia =====
{{Main articles|Turks in Saudi Arabia}}
As of today, the total estimate of ethnic Turks in Saudi Arabia numbered up to 270,000-350,000.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Akar, Metin (1993), "Fas Arapçasında Osmanlı Türkçesinden Alınmış Kelimeler", Türklük Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7: 94–95}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Harzig, Juteau & Schmitt 2006, 67}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Koslowski 2004, 41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Karpat 2004, 12}}</ref> After waves of [[Ottoman Turks|Ottoman Turkish]] migration to the Saudi states, the Turks have made themselves one of the largest ethnic minorities in the country.

=====Syria=====
{{see also|Syrian Turkmen|Turkmen Mountain}}
The Turkish-speaking [[Syrian Turkmen]] form the second largest ethnic minority group in Syria (i.e., after the [[Kurds]]);<ref name=Khalifa2013 /> however, some estimates indicated that if [[Arabized]] Turks who no longer speaking Turkish are taken into account then they collectively form the largest ethnic minority in the country.<ref name=Khalifa2013 /> The majority of Syrian Turkmen are the descendants of Anatolian Turkish settlers who arrived in the region during the Ottoman rule (1516–1918). Today, they mostly live near the [[Syria–Turkey border]], stretching from the northwestern governorates of [[Idlib]] and [[Aleppo]] to the [[Raqqa Governorate]]. Many also reside in the [[Turkmen Mountain]] near [[Latakia]], the city of [[Homs]] and its vicinity until [[Hama]], [[Damascus]], and the southwestern governorates of [[Dera'a]] (bordering [[Jordan]]) and [[Quneitra]] (bordering [[Israel]]).<ref name=Khalifa2013 />

Turkic migrations to Syria began in the 11th century, especially after the [[Seljuk Turks]] opened the way for mass migration of Turkish nomads once they entered northern Syria in 1071 and after they took [[Damascus]] in 1078 and Aleppo in 1086.<ref>{{cite book |last=Commins |first=David Dean |year=2004 |title=Historical Dictionary of Syria|page=231 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0-8108-4934-1}}</ref> By the 12th century the Turkic [[Zengid dynasty]] continued to settle Turkmes in [[Aleppo]] to confront attacks from the [[Crusades|Crusaders]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ziadeh |first=Nicola A. |year=1953 |title=Urban life in Syria under the early Mamlūks|page=45|publisher=[[American University of Beirut]] |isbn=978-0-8371-3162-7}}</ref> Further migrations occurred once the Mamluks entered Syria in 1260. However, the largest Turkmen migrations occurred after the Ottoman sultan [[Selim I]] conquered Syria in 1516. Turkish migration from [[Anatolia]] to [[Ottoman Syria]] was continuous for almost 400 years, until Ottoman rule ended in 1918.<ref>{{citation|last1=Öztürkmen|first1=Ali|last2=Duman|first2=Bilgay|last3=Orhan|first3=Oytun|year=2015|title=Suriye'de Değişimin Ortaya Çıkardığı Toplum: Suriye Türkmenleri|url=http://suriyeturkmenmeclisi.org/files/file1.pdf|journal=Ortadoğu Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi (ORSAM)|page=5|volume=83|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616202939/http://suriyeturkmenmeclisi.org/files/file1.pdf|archive-date=16 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1921 the [[Treaty of Ankara (1921)|Treaty of Ankara]] established [[Alexandretta]] (present-day [[Hatay]]) under an autonomous regime under [[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate of Syria]]. Article 7 declared that the [[Turkish language]] would be an officially recognized language.<ref>{{citation|year=1921|title=Franco-Turkish Agreement signed at Angora on October 20, 1921|url=http://www.hri.org/docs/FT1921/Franco-Turkish_Pact_1921.pdf|pages=6–7|publisher=[[The Stationery Office]]|access-date=16 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116200547/http://www.hri.org/docs/FT1921/Franco-Turkish_Pact_1921.pdf|archive-date=16 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> However, once France announced that it would grant full independence to Syria, Mustafa Kemal demanded that Alexandretta be given its independence. Consequently, the [[Hatay State]] was established in 1938 and then petitioned for [[Ankara]] to unify Hatay with the Republic of Turkey. France agreed to the Turkish annexation on 23 July 1939.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Stanford J. |last2=Shaw |first2=Ezel Kural |year=1977 |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808–1975|page=377 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-29166-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan}}</ref>

Thereafter, [[Arabization]] policies saw the names of Turkish villages in Syria renamed with Arabic names and some Turkmen lands were nationalized and resettled with Arabs near the Turkish border.<ref name="Y2015">{{citation|last=Yılmaz|first=Meşküre|year=2015|title=Suriye Türkleri|url=https://21yyte.org/tr/suriye/suriye-turkleri-2|publisher=21. Yüzyıl Türkiye Enstitüsü}}</ref> A mass exodus of Syrian Turkmen took place between 1945 and 1953, many of which settled in southern Turkey.<ref name="enabbaladi2019">{{citation|year=2019|title=Complex nationalities: the stories of Syria's Turkmen|url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2019/11/complex-nationalities-the-stories-of-syrias-turkmen/|publisher=[[Enab Baladi]]}}</ref> Since the [[Syrian Civil War]] (2011–present), many Syrian Turkmen have been internally displaced and many have sought asylum in [[Turkey]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]] and northern [[Iraq]],<ref>{{citation|last1=Wahby|first1=Sarah |last2=Ahmadzadeh|first2=Hashem|last3=Çorabatır|first3=Metin|last4=Hashem|first4=Leen|last5=Al Husseini|first5=Jalal|year=2014 |title=Ensuring quality education for you refugees from Syria (12-25 year): a mapping exercise|url=https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/publications/ensuring-quality-education-for-young-refugees-from-syria-12-25-years-a-mapping-exercise-executive-summary|publisher=[[Refugee Studies Centre]], [[University of Oxford]] |access-date=25 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425184330/https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/publications/ensuring-quality-education-for-young-refugees-from-syria-12-25-years-a-mapping-exercise-executive-summary|archive-date=25 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as several [[Western Europe]]an countries<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hatahet |first1=Sinan |last2=Aldassouky |first2=Ayman |year=2017 |title=Forced Demographic Changes in Syria |work=Sharq Forum |url=http://www.sharqforum.org/2017/09/26/forced-demographic-changes-in-syria/ |publisher=[[Al Sharq Forum]] |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141648/http://www.sharqforum.org/2017/09/26/forced-demographic-changes-in-syria/ |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Australia]].<ref name="Crowe 2015" />

====Maghreb====
{{see also|Ottoman Algeria|Ottoman Tunisia|Ottoman Tripolitania|Kouloughlis}}
The Ottomans took control of Algeria in 1515 and Tunisia in 1534 (but took full control of the latter in 1574) which lead to the settlement of Turks in the region, particularly around the coastal towns. Once these regions came under [[French colonialism]], the French classified the populations under their rule as either "Arab" or "Berber", despite the fact that these countries had diverse populations, which were also composed of ethnic Turks and [[Kouloughlis]] (i.e., people of partial Turkish origin). Jane E Goodman has said that:

{{blockquote|From early on, the French viewed North Africa through a Manichean lens. Arab and Berber became the primary ethnic categories through which the French classified the population (Lorcin 1995: 2). This occurred despite the fact that a diverse and fragmented populace comprised not only various Arab and Berber tribal groups but also Turks, Andalusians (descended from Moors exiled from Spain during the Crusades), Kouloughlis (offspring of Turkish men and North African women), blacks (mostly slaves or former slaves), and Jews.<ref>{{citation |last=Goodman|first=Jane E.|year=2005|title=Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|isbn=0253111455|page=7}}</ref>}}

=====Algeria=====
{{see also|Turks in Algeria}}
According to the [[U.S. Department of State]] "Algeria's population, [is] a mixture of Arab, Berber, and Turkish in origin";<ref name=US>{{citation |year=1984|title=Algeria: Post Report, Foreign Service Series 256|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sslkr1dMV78C&pg=PA1|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]] (9209)|page=1|quote=Algeria's population, a mixture of Arab, Berber, and Turkish in origin, numbers nearly 21 million and is almost totally Moslem.}}</ref> meanwhile, [[Department of Foreign Affairs (Australia)|Australia's Department of Foreign Affairs]] has reported that the demographics of Algeria (as well as that of [[Tunisia]]) includes a "strong Turkish admixture".<ref name=Australia>{{citation |year=1954|title=Current Notes on International Affairs|publisher=[[Department of Foreign Affairs (Australia)]]|volume=25|issue=7–12|page=613|quote=In Algeria and Tunisia, however, the Arab and Berber elements have become thoroughly mixed, with an added strong Turkish admixture.}}</ref>

Today, Turkish descended families in Algeria continue to practice the [[Hanafi school]] of [[Islam]] (in contrast to the ethnic [[Arabs]] and [[Berbers]] who practice the [[Maliki school]]); moreover, many retain their [[Turks in Algeria#Common surnames|Turkish-origin surnames]] — which mostly expresses a provenance or ethnic Turkish origin from Anatolia.<ref name=Parzymies1985>{{citation |last=Parzymies|first=Anna|year=1985|title=Anthroponymie Algérienne: Noms de Famille Modernes d'origine Turque|publisher=Éditions scientifiques de Pologne|page=109|isbn=83-01-03434-3|quote=Parmi les noms de famille d'origine turque, les plus nombreux sont ceux qui expriment une provenance ou une origine ethnique, c.-à-d., les noms qui sont dérivés de toponymes ou d'ethnonymes turcs.}}</ref><ref name=Amari2012>{{citation|last=Amari|first=Chawki|year=2012|title=Que reste-t-il des Turcs et des Français en Algérie?|url=http://www.slateafrique.com/81641/turcs-francais-algerie-colonisation-histoire|publisher=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate Afrique]]|quote=Les Turcs ou leurs descendants en Algérie sont bien considérés, ont même une association (Association des Turcs algériens), sont souvent des lettrés se fondant naturellement dans la société...Les Kouloughlis (kulughlis en Turc) sont des descendants de Turcs ayant épousé des autochtones pendant la colonisation (la régence) au XVIème et XVIIème siècle...Ce qu'il reste des Turcs en Algérie? De nombreux éléments culturels, culinaires ou architecturaux, de la musique,... Des mots et du vocabulaire, des noms patronymiques comme Othmani ou Osmane (de l'empire Ottoman), Stambouli (d'Istambul), Torki (Turc) ou des noms de métiers ou de fonctions, qui sont devenus des noms de famille avec le temps.}}</ref>

=====Libya=====
{{see also|Turks in Libya}}
The [[Turks in Libya|Turkish Libyans]] form the second largest ethnic minority group in [[Libya]] (i.e. after the [[Berbers]]) and mostly live in [[Misrata]], [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], [[Zawiya, Libya|Zawiya]], [[Benghazi]] and [[Derna, Libya|Derna]].<ref name="Pan 1949"/> Some Turkish Libyans also live in more remote areas of the country, such as the Turkish neighborhood of Hay al-Atrak in the town of [[Awbari]].<ref>{{cite web|year=2015|title=REPORT ON THE HUMAN RIGHTS SITUATION IN LIBYA|url=https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/LY/UNSMIL_OHCHRJointly_report_Libya_16.11.15.pdf|publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|access-date=27 September 2019|page=13}}</ref> They are the descendants of Turkish settlers who were encouraged to migrate from Anatolia to Libya during the Ottoman rule which lasted between 1555 and 1911.<ref>{{citation |last1=Malcolm|first1=Peter|last2=Losleben|first2=Elizabeth|year=2004|title=Libya|page=62|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=0-7614-1702-8}}</ref>

Today, the city of [[Misrata]] is considered to be the "main center of the Turkish-origin community in Libya";<ref>{{cite web|last=De Giovannangeli|first= Umberto|year=2019|title=Al-Sarraj vola a Milano per incontrare Salvini, l'uomo forte d'Italia|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.it/entry/al-sarraj-vola-a-milano-per-incontrare-salvini-luomo-forte-in-italia_it_5d19fac3e4b082e5536cafc1|publisher=Huffington Post|access-date=26 September 2019|quote= ... Misurata (centro principale della comunità di origine turca in Libia e città-chiave nella determinazione dei nuovi equilibri di potere nel Paese)}}</ref> in total, the Turks form approximately two-thirds (est. 270,000<ref name=Rossi/>) of Misrata's 400,000 inhabitants.<ref name=Rossi>{{cite web|last=Rossi|first= David |year=2019|title=PERCHÉ NESSUNO PARLA DELLA LIBIA?|url=http://www.difesaonline.it/evidenza/editoriale/perché-nessuno-parla-della-libia|publisher=Difesa Online|access-date=26 September 2019|quote=Chi conosce appena la situazione demografica di quella parte di Libia sa che Misurata con i suoi 270.000 abitanti (su 400.000) di origine turca e tuttora turcofoni non perderà mai il sostegno di Ankara e non cesserà un attimo di resistere, con o senza Sarraj.}}</ref> Consequently, since the [[Libyan Civil War (2011)|Libyan Civil War]] erupted in 2011, Misrata became "the bastion of resistance" and Turkish Libyans figured prominently in the war.<ref name=Tastekin /> In 2014 a former [[Muammar Gaddafi|Gaddafi]] officer reported to the ''[[New York Times]]'' that the civil war was now an "ethnic struggle" between Arab tribes (like the [[Zintan Brigades|Zintanis]]) against those of Turkish ancestry (like the Misuratis), as well as against the Berbers and Circassians.<ref name=Kirkpatrick>{{cite web|last=Kirkpatrick|first=David D.|year=2014 |title=Strife in Libya Could Presage Long Civil War|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/25/world/africa/libyan-unrest.html|work=[[New York Times]]|access-date=18 September 2019}}</ref>

=====Tunisia=====
{{see also|Turks in Tunisia}}
Tunisia's population is made up "mostly of people of Arab, Berber, and Turkish descent".<ref name="Rotarian">{{citation|last=|first=|year=1969|title=Focus on Tunisia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA56|page=56|quote=The population of more than 4.6 million is made up mostly of people of Arab, Berber, and Turkish descent.|volume=December (1969)|work=[[The Rotarian]]}}</ref> The [[Turks in Tunisia|Turkish Tunisians]] began to settle in the region in 1534, with about 10,000 Turkish soldiers, when the [[Ottoman Empire]] answered the calls of Tunisia's inhabitants who sought the help of the Turks due to fears that the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] would invade the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|UNESCO|2009|loc=12}}.</ref> During the Ottoman rule, the Turkish community dominated the political life of the region for centuries; as a result, the ethnic mix of Tunisia changed considerably with the continuous migration of Turks from [[Anatolia]], as well as other parts of the Ottoman territories, for over 300 years. In addition, some Turks intermarried with the local population and their male offspring were called "[[Kouloughlis]]".<ref>{{cite web|author=Tunisia Today|title=Vient de paraître "Tribus : des origines à la dislocation"|url=http://www.tunisia-today.com/archives/21374|access-date=18 April 2012|archive-date=7 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407192019/http://www.tunisia-today.com/archives/21374|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Modern diaspora===
{{main|Turkish diaspora}}

====Europe====
{{see also|Turks in Europe}}
Modern immigration of Turks to [[Western Europe]] began with [[Turkish Cypriots]] migrating to the [[United Kingdom]] in the early 1920s when the [[British Empire]] annexed [[Cyprus]] in 1914 and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown. However, Turkish Cypriot migration increased significantly in the 1940s and 1950s due to the [[Cyprus conflict]]. Conversely, in 1944, Turks who were forcefully deported from [[Meskheti]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] during the [[Second World War]], known as the [[Meskhetian Turks]], settled in [[Eastern Europe]] (especially in [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]]). By the early 1960s, migration to Western and [[Northern Europe]] increased significantly from [[Turkey]] when Turkish "[[guest workers]]" arrived under a "Labour Export Agreement" with [[Germany]] in 1961, followed by a similar agreement with the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]] and [[Austria]] in 1964; [[France]] in 1965; and [[Sweden]] in 1967.{{sfn|Akgündüz|2008|p=61}}{{sfn|Kasaba|2008|p=192}}{{sfn|Twigg|Schaefer|Austin|Parker|2005|p=33}} More recently, [[Bulgarian Turks]], [[Romanian Turks]], and [[Western Thrace Turks]] have also migrated to [[Western Europe]].

In 1997 Professor Servet Bayram and Professor Barbara Seels said that there was 10 million Turks living in Western Europe and the Balkans (excluding Cyprus and Turkey).<ref>{{citation|last1=Bayram|first1=Servet|last2=Seels|first2=Barbara|year=1997|title=The Utilization of Instructional Technology in Turkey|journal=Educational Technology Research and Development|volume=45|issue=1|page=112|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]]|doi=10.1007/BF02299617|s2cid=62176630|quote=There are about 10 million Turks living in the Balkan area of southeastern Europe and in western Europe at present.}}</ref> By 2010, Boris Kharkovsky from the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies said that there was up to 15 million Turks living in the [[European Union]].<ref>{{citation|year=2010|title=52% of Europeans say no to Turkey's EU membership|url=https://www.aysor.am/en/news/2010/02/02/turkey-europe/106730?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=5cadc325e9d6de274da7044b445bd172c7b2029e-1604753955-0-AVhYEz2aOybvH-qEPBsvvTpaib38A35FbqAgn6teGWuWeh48U9WebMfgeB7pDyti835gLNeS-jECj7JcmXfoYgHhsVqp5x66C2BKTSFGiVGxiw5PqhftOHz7nsSSjTFeaTP0PCXi7AWAmZmQvPS_UAXOWa5sA89tJ0mQObkZjZs3YvMe4mPkL3GRVgW7lkY67Wbd2ObEVwY8WkH8mjSEmlh2nN0XPKt9uF4ez2dmVArsQ-OEeET6EbYl19R6K6OB_o1zllMxypQhTFvwELlCScPf432jttv_ho4iUHZPKOqyXiG_TqKXWttoh6QAbveQgyOmNvsevk84nDkqw_NQhUo|publisher=[[Aysor]]|quote=This is not all of a sudden, says expert at the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies, Boris Kharkovsky. “These days, up to 15 million Turks live in the EU countries...|access-date=7 November 2020}}</ref> According to Dr Araks Pashayan 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in [[Germany]], [[France]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] in 2012.<ref name=Pashayan>{{citation |last=Pashayan|first=Araks|year=2012|chapter=Integration of Muslims in Europe and the Gülen|title=European Muslims, Civility and Public Life: Perspectives On and From the Gülen Movement|editor1-last=Weller|editor1-first=Paul|editor2-last=Ihsan|editor2-first=Yilmaz|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtMmIs4NmqIC&q=There+are+around+10+million+Euro-Turks+living+in+the+European+Union+countries+of+Germany%2C+France%2C+the+Netherlands+and+Belgium.&pg=PA82|publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]]|isbn=978-1-4411-0207-2|quote=There are around 10 million Euro-Turks living in the European Union countries of Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium.}}</ref> Yet, there are also significant Turkish communities living in [[Austria]], the [[UK]], [[Switzerland]], [[Italy]], [[Liechtenstein]], the [[Scandinavia]]n countries, and the [[Post-Soviet states]].

====North America====
{{Main|Turkish Americans|Turkish Canadians}}

In the [[2000 United States Census]] 117,575 Americans voluntarily declared their ethnicity as Turkish.<ref>{{cite web|author=United States Census Bureau|title=Ancestry: 2000|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|access-date=16 May 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040920132346/http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|archive-date=20 September 2004}}</ref> However, the actual number of [[Turkish Americans]] is considerably larger with most choosing not to declare their ethnicity. Thus, Turkish Americans have been considered to be a "hard to count" community.<ref name=WashingtonDiplomat>{{cite web |author=The Washington Diplomat|title=Census Takes Aim to Tally'Hard to Count' Populations|url=http://www.washdiplomat.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6036:census-takes-aim-to-tallyhard-to-count-populations-&catid=205:april-2010&Itemid=239|access-date=5 May 2011}}</ref> In 1996 Professor John J. Grabowski had estimated the number of Turks to be 500,000.<ref name=Grabowski1996>{{citation|first=John J.|last=Grabowski|year=1996|editor-last1=Van Tassel|editor-first1=David Dirck|editor-last2=Grabowski|editor-first2=John J.|chapter=Turks in Cleveland|title=Encyclopedia of Cleveland History|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|quote=Currently, the Turkish population of northeast Ohio is estimated at about 1,000 (an estimated 500,000 Turks live in the United States).|isbn=0253330564}}</ref> By 2009, official institutions placed the number between 850,000 and 900,000; however, Turkish non-governmental organizations in the USA had claimed at least 3 million Turks in the USA.<ref name=Şafak2009>{{citation|first=Şafak|last=Erdal|year=2009|title=ABD'de kaç Türk var?|url=https://www.sabah.com.tr/yazarlar/safak/2009/05/08/abdde_kac_turk_var|publisher=[[Sabah (newspaper)|Sabah]]|quote=Biraz bilmece gibi mi oldu; açalım. Resmi kurumlarımıza göre ABD'de "Tahmini" 850 ile 900 bin arası Türk yaşıyor. Bu sayı öğrenci trafiğine göre her yıl ya biriki bin kişi artıyor veya bir o kadar eksiliyor. Buna karşılık ABD'deki Türk sivil toplum örgütlerinin Yeni Dünya'daki varlığımız üstüne yaptıkları araştırmalardan elde ettikleri sonuçlar, resmi kurumların verilerinin çok ama çok üstünde. Onlara göre, ABD'de halen en az 3 milyon Türk var. Okuyan, çalışan veya yaşayan.|access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> More recently, in 2012, the [[United States Secretary of Commerce|US Commerce Secretary]], [[John Bryson]], stated that the Turkish American community was over 1,000,000.<ref name=Bryson/> Meanwhile, in 2021, Senator [[Brian Feldman (politician)|Brian Feldman]] said that there was "over 2 million Turkish Americans".<ref name="Feldman2022"/> The largest concentration of Turkish Americans are in [[New York City]], and [[Rochester, New York]]; [[Washington, D.C.]]; and [[Detroit, Michigan]]. In addition, the [[Turks of South Carolina]], are an Anglicized and isolated community identifying as Turkish in [[Sumter County, South Carolina|Sumter County]] were they have lived for over 200 years.<ref>{{citation|last1=Ognibene|first1=Terri Ann|last2=Browder|first2=Glen|year=2018|title=South Carolina's Turkish People: A History and Ethnology|publisher=[[University of South Carolina]]|page=103|isbn=9781611178593}}</ref>

Regarding the [[Turkish Canadian]] community, [[Statistics Canada]] reports that 63,955 Canadians in the 2016 census listed ''Turk'' as an ethnic origin, including those who listed more than one origin.<ref name="statcan1">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D|title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables |date=25 October 2017 |publisher=statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> However, the Canadian Ambassador to Turkey, Chris Cooter, said that there was over 100,000 Turkish Canadians in 2018.<ref name="Aytac2018" /> The majority live in [[Ontario]], mostly in [[Toronto]], and there is also a sizable Turkish community in [[Montreal, Quebec]].

====Oceania====
{{See also|Turkish Australian}}
A notable scale of Turkish migration to [[Australia]] began in the late 1940s when [[Turkish Cypriots]] began to leave the island of [[Cyprus]] for economic reasons, and then, during the [[Cyprus conflict]], for political reasons, marking the beginning of a Turkish Cypriot immigration trend to Australia.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=17}} The Turkish Cypriot community were the only [[Muslims]] acceptable under the [[White Australia Policy]];{{sfn|Cleland|2001|p=24}} many of these early immigrants found jobs working in factories, out in the fields, or building national infrastructure.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=19}} In 1967, the governments of Australia and Turkey signed an agreement to allow Turkish citizens to immigrate to Australia.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=196}} Prior to this recruitment agreement, there were fewer than 3,000 people of Turkish origin in Australia.{{sfn|Hopkins|2011|p=116}} According to the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]], nearly 19,000 Turkish immigrants arrived from 1968 to 1974.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=196}} They came largely from [[rural]] areas of Turkey, approximately 30% were skilled and 70% were unskilled workers.{{sfn|Saeed|2003|p=9}} However, this changed in the 1980s when the number of skilled Turks applying to enter Australia had increased considerably.{{sfn|Saeed|2003|p=9}} Over the next 35 years the Turkish population rose to almost 100,000.{{sfn|Hopkins|2011|p=116}} More than half of the Turkish community settled in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], mostly in the north-western suburbs of [[Melbourne]].{{sfn|Hopkins|2011|p=116}} According to the [[2006 Australian Census]], 59,402 people claimed Turkish ancestry;<ref>{{cite web|author=Australian Bureau of Statistics |title=20680-Ancestry (full classification list) by Sex Australia |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?breadcrumb=POLTD&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&subaction=-1&issue=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&documentproductno=0&textversion=false&documenttype=Details&collection=Census&javascript=true&topic=Ancestry&action=404&productlabel=Ancestry%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&order=1&period=2006&tabname=Details&areacode=0&navmapdisplayed=true&|access-date=13 July 2011}}</ref> however, this does not show a true reflection of the [[Turkish Australian]] community as it is estimated that between 40,000 and 120,000 Turkish Cypriots<ref>{{cite web|author=TRNC Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Briefing Notes on the Cyprus Issue |url=http://www.trncinfo.com/tanitma/en/index.asp?sayfa=cms&dmid=0&cmsid=214&ssid=556095671|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927002327/http://www.trncinfo.com/tanitma/en/index.asp?sayfa=cms&dmid=0&cmsid=214&ssid=556095671|url-status=usurped|archive-date=27 September 2011|access-date=3 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Kibris Gazetesi|title=Avustralya'daki Kıbrıslı Türkler ve Temsilcilik... |url=http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/printa.php?col=119&art=9711|access-date=31 May 2011|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721144320/http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/printa.php?col=119&art=9711 |archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=BRT|title=AVUSTURALYA'DA KIBRS TÜRKÜNÜN SESİ |url=http://www.brtk.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=31316:avusturalyada-kibrs-tuerkuenuen-ses&catid=1:kktc&Itemid=3 |access-date=18 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=Star Kıbrıs|title=Sözünüzü Tutun |url=http://www.starkibris.net/index.asp?haberID=125704|access-date=10 September 2012}}</ref> and 150,000 to 200,000 mainland Turks<ref>{{cite news|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|title=Old foes, new friends|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/World/Old-foes-new-friends/2005/04/22/1114152326767.html |access-date=26 December 2008 |date=23 April 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=Milliyet |title=Avustralyalı Türkler'den, TRT Türk'e tepki |url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/Dunya/SonDakika.aspx?aType=SonDakika&ArticleID=1094744&Date=14.05.2009&Kategori=dunya&b=Avustralyali%20Turklerden,%20TRT%20Turke%20tepki|access-date=16 May 2012}}</ref> live in Australia. Furthermore, there has also been ethnic Turks who have migrated to Australia from [[Bulgaria]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Department of Immigration and Citizenship|year=2006|title=Community Information Summary:Bulgaria|publisher=Australian Government|page=2|url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/bulgaria.pdf|access-date=16 May 2012|archive-date=16 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316054847/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/bulgaria.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Greece]],<ref name=2006AustralianCensusEMP>{{cite web|author=Australian Bureau of Statistics|title=2006 Census Ethnic Media Package |date=27 June 2007 |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/2914.0.55.0022006?OpenDocument|access-date=13 July 2011}}</ref> [[Iraq]],<ref>{{cite web |author=Department of Immigration and Citizenship |year=2006 |title=Community Information Summary:Iraq |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/iraq.pdf |publisher=Australian Government |page=1 |access-date=16 May 2012 |archive-date=13 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213070534/https://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/iraq.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[North Macedonia]].<ref name=2006AustralianCensusEMP />

====Post-Soviet states====
Due to the ordered deportation of over 115,000 [[Meskhetian Turks]] from their homeland in 1944, during the [[Second World War]], the majority were settled in the [[Post-Soviet states]] in the [[Caucasus]] and [[Central Asia]].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} According to the [[Soviet Census (1989)|1989 Soviet Census]], which was the last Soviet Census, 106,000 Meskhetian Turks lived in [[Uzbekistan]], 50,000 in [[Kazakhstan]], and 21,000 in [[Kyrgyzstan]].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} However, in 1989, the Meshetian Turks who had settled in Uzbekistan became the target of a [[pogrom]] in the [[Fergana valley]], which was the principal destination for Meskhetian Turkish deportees, after an uprising of nationalism by the [[Uzbeks]].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} The riots had left hundreds of Turks dead or injured and nearly 1,000 properties were destroyed; thus, thousands of Meskhetian Turks were forced into renewed [[exile]].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} Soviet authorities recorded many Meskhetian Turks as belonging to other nationalities such as "[[Azerbaijani people|Azeri]]", "[[Kazakhs|Kazakh]]", "[[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]]", and "[[Uzbeks|Uzbek]]".{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}}{{sfn|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006|p=1}}

==Culture==
{{Further|Culture of Turkey|Turkey#Culture}}

===Language===
{{Main|Turkish language}}
[[File:Ataturk-September 20, 1928.jpg|thumb|Mustafa Kemal introducing the modern [[Turkish alphabet]] to the people of [[Kayseri]] in 1928]]

Based on geographic variants, the ethnic Turks speak [[Turkish dialects|various dialects]] of the [[Turkish language]]. As of 2021, Turkish remains "the largest and most vigorous [[Turkic language]], spoken by over 80 million people".<ref name=Johanson2021>{{citation|author=[[Lars Johanson|Johanson, Lars]]|year=2021|title=Turkic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huk9EAAAQBAJ&dq=Turkish+is+the+largest+and+most+vigorous+Turkic+language%2C+spoken+by+over+80+million+people&pg=PT134 |quote=Turkish is the largest and most vigorous Turkic language, spoken by over 80 million people, a third of the total number of Turkic-speakers... Turkish is a recognized regional minority language in North Macedonia, Kosovo, Romania, and Iraq.|pages=98–99|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781009038218}}</ref>

Historically, [[Ottoman Turkish]] was the official language and ''[[lingua franca]]'' throughout the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] territories and the [[Ottoman Turkish alphabet]] used the Perso-Arabic script. However, Turkish intellectuals sought to simplify the written language during the rise of Turkish nationalism in the nineteenth century.<ref>{{citation|last=Kushner|first=David|year=1977|title=The Rise of Turkish Nationalism, 1876–1908|publisher=Cass|isbn=9780714630755}}</ref>

By the twentieth century, intensive language reforms were thoroughly practiced; most importantly, Mustafa Kemal changed the written script to a [[Latin alphabet|Latin]]-based modern [[Turkish alphabet]] in 1928.<ref>{{citation|last=Lewis|first=Geoffrey|year=1999|title=The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780191583223}}</ref> Since then, the regulatory body leading the reform activities has been the [[Turkish Language Association]] which was founded in 1932.<ref name=Johanson2021/>

The modern standard Turkish is based on the dialect of [[Istanbul]].<ref>{{cite book|author=George L. Campbell|title=Concise Compendium of the World's Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A_BIVmjpzmYC&pg=PA547|access-date=28 July 2013|date=1 September 2003 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-11392-2|pages=547–}}</ref> However, dialectal variation persists, in spite of the [[Dialect levelling|levelling]] influence of the standard used in mass media and the [[Education in Turkey|Turkish education system]] since the 1930s.{{sfn|Johanson|2001|p=16}} The terms ''ağız'' or ''şive'' often refer to the different types of Turkish dialects.

[[File:Map of Turkish Language.svg|thumb|{{legend|#004DFF|Countries where Turkish is an official language}}{{legend|#88C4FF|Countries where it is recognised as a minority language}}{{legend|#AFEEEE|Countries where it is recognised as a minority language and co-official in at least one municipality}}]]

====Official status====
Today, the modern Turkish language is used as the official language of [[Turkey]] and [[Northern Cyprus]]. It is also an official language in the [[Republic of Cyprus]] (alongside [[Greek language|Greek]]).<ref>{{cite web|author=Presidency of the Republic of Cyprus|title=The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus|url=http://www.presidency.gov.cy/presidency/presidency.nsf/all/1003AEDD83EED9C7C225756F0023C6AD/$file/CY_Constitution.pdf|access-date=26 April 2016|quote=Article 1...the Greek and the Turkish Communities of Cyprus respectively...Article 3 (4) Judicial proceedings shall be conducted or made and judgements shall be drawn up in the Greek language if the parties are Greek, in the Turkish language if the parties are Turkish, and in both the Greek and the Turkish languages if the parties are Greek and Turkish. The official language or languages to be used for such purposes in all other cases shall be specified by the Rules of Court made by the High Court under Article 163.|archive-date=3 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001544/http://www.presidency.gov.cy/presidency/presidency.nsf/all/1003AEDD83EED9C7C225756F0023C6AD/$file/CY_Constitution.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In [[Kosovo]], Turkish is recognized as an official language in the municipalities of [[Prizren]], [[Mamusha]], [[Gjilan]], [[Mitrovica, Kosovo|Mitrovica]], [[Pristina]], and [[Vushtrri]],<ref>{{citation|year=2014|title=Municipal language compliance in Kosovo|page=10|quote=The Turkish language is currently official in Prizren and Mamuşa/Mamushë/Mamuša municipalities. In 2007 and 2008, the municipalities of Gjilan/Gnjilane, southern Mitrovicë/Mitrovica, Prishtinë/Priština and Vushtrri/Vučitrn also recognized Turkish asa language in official use. |publisher=[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]]}}</ref> whilst elsewhere in the country it is recognized as a [[minority language]].<ref name=Johanson2021/> Similarly, in [[North Macedonia]] Turkish is an official language where they form at least 20% of the population (which includes the [[Plasnica Municipality]], the [[Centar Župa Municipality]], and the [[Mavrovo and Rostuša Municipality]]),<ref>{{citation |last=Dzankic|first=Jelena|year=2016|title=Citizenship in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro: Effects of Statehood and Identity Challenges|page=81|quote=With the 2001 amendments, in those municipalities where minorities constituted 20 per cent of the overall population, minority languages became official|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317165798}}</ref> whilst elsewhere in the country it remains a minority language only.<ref name=Johanson2021/> [[Iraq]] recognizes Turkish as an official language in all regions where Turks constitute the majority of the population,<ref>{{citation|year=2017|title=History and Legal Dimension of Turkish Education in Iraq|url=https://www.orsam.org.tr/en/history-and-legal-dimension-of-turkish-education-in-iraq/|publisher=[[Center for Middle Eastern Strategic Studies]]|access-date=25 August 2021}}</ref> and as a minority language elsewhere.<ref name=Johanson2021/> In several countries, Turkish is officially recognized as a [[minority language]] only, including in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]],<ref>{{citation|year=2010|chapter=Bosnia and Herzegovina|title=The European Charter for Regional Or Minority Languages: Collected Texts|pages=107–108|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|isbn=9789287166715}}</ref> [[Croatia]],<ref>{{citation|year=2012|chapter=The Croatian Language in the European Information Society|title=The Croatian Language in the Digital Age|editor1-last=Rehm|editor1-first=Georg|editor2-last=Uszkoreit|editor2-first=Hans|page=51|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|isbn=9783642308826}}</ref><ref name="Franceschini546">{{cite book|last=Franceschini|first=Rita|chapter=Italy and the Italian-Speaking Regions|editor-last=Fäcke|editor-first=Christiane|title=Manual of Language Acquisition|year=2014|quote=In Croatia, Albanian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Czech, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Romany, Rusyn, Russian, Montenegrin, Slovak, Slovenian, Serbian, Turkish, and Ukrainian are recognized (EACEA 2012, 18, 50s) |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH|isbn=9783110394146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zM_mBQAAQBAJ&q=Croatia+Albanian&pg=PA1|pages=546}}</ref> and [[Romania]].<ref name=Johanson2021/><ref>{{citation|year=2010|chapter=Romania|title=The European Charter for Regional Or Minority Languages: Collected Texts|pages=135–136|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|isbn=9789287166715}}</ref> However, in [[Greece]] the right to use the Turkish language is only recognized in [[Western Thrace]]; the sizable and longstanding minorities elsewhere in the country (i.e. [[Rhodes]] and [[Kos]]) do not benefit from this same recognition.<ref>{{citation |last1=Trudgill|first1=Peter|last2=Schreier|first2=Daniel|year=2006|chapter=Greece and Cyprus / Griechenland und Zypern|title=Sociolinguistics / Soziolinguistik|editor-last=Ulrich|editor-first=Ammon|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|quote=Hundreds of thousands of Turkish speakers left Greece in the period 1821–1923. In the Peloponnese, they had constituted more than 10 % of the population in 1820 (Clogg 1979, 35). Today most Turkish speakers in Greece are in western (Greek) Thrace (SellaMazi 1992). Here, alone of all Greek minorities, they have protected status, with rights to practise their religion and to use their language, including in the education system, as a result of the Treaty of Lausanne. They also elect members to the national parliament in Athens. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between Turks and the Slavic-speaking Pomaks, who tend to be able to speak Turkish as well. Census returns give figures for native Turkish speakers of 190000 in 1928, 230000 in 1940, and 180000 in 1951. They look to Istanbul rather than Athens for many purposes, and young people go there to study rather than to universities in Greece. There are also sizeable and longstanding but officially unrecognised communities of Moslem Turkish-speakers on the islands of Rhodes and Kos.|isbn=3110199874|pages=1885–1886}}</ref>

There are also several post-Ottoman nations which do not officially recognize the Turkish language but give rights to Turkish minorities to study in their own language (alongside the compulsory study of the official language of the country); this is practiced in [[Bulgaria]]<ref>{{citation |last=Schwartz|first=Herman|year=2002|title=The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=0226741966|page=184}}</ref> and [[Tunisia]].<ref>{{citation |last=Benrabah|first=Mohamed|year=2013 |title=Language Conflict in Algeria: From Colonialism to Post-Independence|quote=As a result of this, the Tunisian authorities decreed in June 2012 the introduction of the Turkish language in all Tunisian secondary schools, as of September 2012. |page=186|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=978-1847699664}}</ref>

Various variants of Turkish are also used by millions of Turkish immigrants and their descendants in [[Western Europe]], however, there is no official recognition in these countries.<ref name=Johanson2021 />

====Turkish dialects====
{{see also|Turkish dialects|Cypriot Turkish}}
{{listen 
| filename    = Kibrisim-cropped.ogg
| title       = Kıbrısım 
| description = An example of folk music in the Cypriot Turkish dialect.
| format      = [[Ogg]]
}}

There are three major Anatolian Turkish dialect groups spoken in [[Turkey]]: the West Anatolian dialect (roughly to the west of the [[Euphrates]]), the East Anatolian dialect (to the east of the Euphrates), and the North East Anatolian group, which comprises the dialects of the Eastern Black Sea coast, such as [[Trabzon]], [[Rize]], and the littoral districts of [[Artvin]].{{sfn|Brendemoen|2002|p=27}}{{sfn|Brendemoen|2006|p=227}}

The Balkan Turkish dialects, also called the Rumelian Turkish dialects, are divided into two main groups: "Western Rumelian Turkish" and "Eastern Rumelian Turkish".<ref name=Johanson2021dialects>{{citation|author=[[Lars Johanson|Johanson, Lars]]|year=2021|chapter=4.3.1.1 Turkish Dialect Areas|title=Turkic|pages=44–49|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781009038218}}</ref> The Western dialects are spoken in [[North Macedonia]], [[Kosovo]], western [[Bulgaria]], northern [[Romania]], [[Bosnia]] and [[Albania]]. The Eastern dialects are spoken in [[Greece]], northeastern/southern Bulgaria and southeastern Romania.<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /> This division roughly follows through a borderline between west and east Bulgaria, which starts east of [[Lom, Bulgaria|Lom]] and proceeds southwards to the east of [[Vratsa]], [[Sofia]] and [[Samokov]], and turns west reaching south of [[Kyustendil]] close to the borders with Serbia and North Macedonia.<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /> The eastern dialects lacks some of the phonetic peculiarities found in the western area; thus, its dialects are close to the central Anatolian dialects. The Turkish dialects spoken near the western [[Black Sea]] region (e.g., [[Ludogorie]], [[Dobruja]], and [[Bessarabia]]) show analogies with northeastern Anatolian Black Sea dialects.<ref name=Johanson2021dialects />

The [[Cypriot Turkish|Cypriot Turkish dialect]] maintained features of the respective local varieties of the Ottoman settlers who mostly came from the Konya-Antalya-Adana region;<ref name=Johanson2021dialects/> furthermore, Cypriot Turkish was also influenced by [[Cypriot Greek]].<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /> Today, the varieties spoken in Northern Cyprus are increasingly influenced by standard Turkish.The Cypriot Turkish dialect is being exposed to increasing standard Turkish through immigration from [[Turkey]], new mass media, and new educational institutions.{{sfn|Johanson|2011|p=738}}

[[File:Welcome sign to the village of Çardağlı.jpg|thumb|150px|A bilingual road sign (Turkish and Arabic) in [[Iraq]]]]
The [[Iraqi Turkmen#Language|Iraqi Turkish dialects]] have similarities with certain [[Southeastern Anatolia]]n dialects around the region of [[Urfa]] and [[Diyarbakır]].<ref>{{citation|last=Bulut|first=Christiane|year=1999|title=Klassifikatorische Merkmale des Iraktürkischen|pages=5–27|journal=Orientalia Suecana|volume=48}}</ref> Some linguists have described the Iraqi Turkish dialects as an "[[Anatolia]]n"<ref name="Gülensoy 1981 loc=7">{{citation|last=Gülensoy|first=Tuncer|year=1981|title=Anadolu ve Rumeli Ağızları Bibliyografyası: Anadolu, Kıbrıs, Suriye, Irak, Bulgaristan, Yunanistan, ve Romanya Türk Ağızları|page=7|publisher=Kültür Bakanlığı}}</ref> or an "[[Eastern Anatolia]]n dialect".<ref>{{citation|last=Brendemon|first=Bernt|year=2005|chapter=Consonant Assimilations: A possible Parameter for the Classification of Turkish dialects|title=Turkic Languages|editor1-last=Johanson|editor1-first=Lars|page=178|volume=9|publisher=[[Harrassowitz Verlag]]|title-link=Turkic Languages (journal)}}</ref> Historically, Iraqi Turkish was influenced by [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] and neighboring [[Azeri Turkic|Azerbaijani Turkic]].<ref name="Bulut 2007 loc=167">{{citation|last=Bulut|first=Christiane|year=2007|chapter=Iraqi Turkman|title=Languages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern|chapter-url=http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf|editor1-last=Postgate|editor1-first=J.N.|page=167|publisher=[[British School of Archaeology in Iraq]]|isbn=978-0903472210|access-date=24 August 2021|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802015917/http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, [[Turkish language|Istanbul Turkish]] is now a [[prestige language]] which exerts a profound influence on their dialects.{{sfn|Johanson|2001}} The [[syntax]] in Iraqi Turkish therefore ''differs sharply'' from neighboring Irano-Turkic varieties,{{sfn|Johanson|2001}} and shares characteristics which are similar with Turkish dialects in Turkey.<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=Heidi|year=2010|chapter=Optativ versus Voluntativ-Imperativ in irantürkischen Texten |title=Turcology in Mainz|editor1-last=Boeschoten|editor1-first=Hendrik|author-link1=Hendrik Boeschoten|editor2-last=Rentzsch|editor2-first=Julian |author-link2=Julian Rentzsch|page=244|publisher=[[Otto Harrassowitz Verlag]]|isbn=978-3447061131|quote=Damit weist das Iraktürkische hier - wie auch bei einigen anderen Merkmalen - eine großere Nähe zum Türkeitürkischen auf.}}</ref> Collectively, the Iraqi Turkish dialects also show similarities with [[Cypriot Turkish]] and Balkan Turkish regarding [[Linguistic modality|modality]].<ref>{{citation|last=Johanson|first=Lars|year=2009|chapter=Modals in Turkic|title=Modals in the Languages of Europe: A Reference Work|editor1-last=Hansen|editor1-first=Björn|editor2-last=de Haan|editor2-first= Ferdinand|pages=502–504|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|isbn=978-3110219203}}</ref> The written language of the Iraqi Turkmen is based on Istanbul Turkish using the modern [[Turkish alphabet]].<ref>{{citation|last=Bulut|first=Christiane|year=2018|chapter=Iraq-Turkic|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Western Asia: An Areal Perspective|editor1-last=Haig|editor1-first=Geoffrey|editor2-last=Khan|editor2-first=Geoffrey|page=357|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|isbn=978-3110421682}}</ref>

The Meskhetian Turkish dialect was originally spoken in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] until the [[Meskhetian Turks|Turkish Meskhetian]] community were forcefully deported and then dispersed throughout Turkey, [[Russia]], [[Central Asia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Ukraine]], and the [[United States]].<ref>{{citation|last1=Dobrushina|first1=Nina|last2=Daniel|first2=Michael|last3=Koryakov|first3=Yuri|year=2020|chapter=Language and Sociolinguistics of the Caucasus |title=The Oxford Handbook of Languages of the Caucasus|editor-last=Polinsky|editor-first=Maria|page=33|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780190690694}}</ref> They speak an [[Eastern Anatolia Region|Eastern Anatolian]] dialect of Turkish, which hails from the regions of [[Kars Province|Kars]], [[Ardahan]], and [[Artvin]].{{sfn|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006|p=23}} The Meskhetian Turkish dialect has also borrowed from other languages (including [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]), which the Meskhetian Turks have been in contact with during the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] rule.{{sfn|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006|p=23}}

The [[Syrian Turkmen#Language|Syrian Turkish dialects]] are spoken throughout the country. In [[Aleppo]], [[Tell Abyad]], [[Raqqa]] and [[Bayırbucak]] they speak Southeastern Anatolian dialects (comparable to [[Kilis]], [[Antep]], [[Urfa]], [[Hatay]] and [[Yayladağı]]).<ref name="ORSAMpage3">{{citation|year=2015|title=Abdurrahman Mustafa: Turkmens' Survival Can Be Ensured by Syria's Territorial Integrity|url=http://www.orsam.org.tr/files/Soylesiler/16/16eng.pdf|page=3|publisher=ORSAM|access-date=10 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010215636/http://www.orsam.org.tr/files/Soylesiler/16/16eng.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Damascus]] they speak Turkish language with a [[Yörük]] dialect.<ref name="ORSAMpage3" /> Currently, Turkish is the third most widely used language in Syria (after [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Behnstedt |first=Peter |year=2008 |chapter=Syria |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-last=Versteegh |editor1-first=Kees |editor2-last=Eid |editor2-first=Mushira |editor3-last=Elgibali |editor3-first=Alaa |editor4-last=Woidich |editor4-first=Manfred |editor5-last=Zaborski |editor5-first=Andrzej |volume=4|page=402|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-14476-7}}</ref>

===Religion===
[[File:Sultan Ahmed Mosque Istanbul Turkey retouched.jpg|thumb|The [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque|Blue Mosque]] in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], is an example of Ottoman imperial architecture.]]
[[File:Larnaca 01-2017 img30 Salt Lake.jpg|thumb|The [[Hala Sultan Tekke]] in [[Larnaca]], [[Cyprus]], is an example of Ottoman provincial architecture. As the resting place of [[Umm Haram]], it is one of the holiest sites in Islam and an important pilgrimage site for the largely secular [[Turkish Cypriots|Turkish Cypriot]] community.]]
Most ethnic Turkish people are either practicing or non-practicing Muslims who follow the teachings of the [[Hanafi school]] of [[Sunni Islam]].<ref name=Mayer2010/> They form the largest Muslim community in [[Turkey]] and [[Northern Cyprus]] as well as the largest Muslim groups in [[Austria]],<ref name=Rabasa&Benard>{{citation|last1=Rabasa|first1=Angel|last2=Benard|first2=Cheryl|year=2015|title=Eurojihad|pages=20–21|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781107078932}}</ref> [[Bulgaria]],<ref>{{citation|last=Zhelyazkova|first=Antonina|year=2015|chapter=Bulgaria|title=The Oxford Handbook of European Islam|editor-last=Cesari|editor-first=Jocelyne|page=574|quote=Turks are the largest Muslim community. They are furthermore the most strongly consolidated community in the state with a very clear and unambiguous understanding of its ethnic identity. The only differences stem from affiliation to various Islamic movements. Some of in-group competition exist between Sunni Turks and Alevi/Kızılbashi/Bektashi. The Kızılbashi, a minority within a minority, have freely practiced their specific rituals with no visible confrontation with the Sunni Turks. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780199607976}}</ref> [[Czech Republic]],<ref name=Lucie2020>{{citation|last=Tungul|first=Lucie|year=2020|title=Turkish Community in the Czech Republic: A Diaspora in the Making? |page=499|journal=Politics in Central Europe|volume=16|issue=2|doi=10.2478/pce-2020-0025|s2cid=229051057|quote=...the position of Turkish migrants, the single largest Muslim community in the Czech Republic, in the specific context of the Czech Republic.|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Denmark]],<ref>{{citation|last=Jacobsen|first=Brian Arly|year=2012|chapter=Muslims in Denmark: A Critical Evaluation of Estimations|title=Islam in Denmark: The Challenge of Diversity|editor-last=Nielsen|editor-first=Jørgen S.|page=47|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|isbn=9780739150924}}</ref> [[Germany]],<ref name=Arab2021>{{citation|last=Arab|first=Pooyan Tamimi |year=2021|chapter=Strict Neutrality Reconsidered: Religion and Political Belonging in the Netherlands |title=Religion, Secularism, and Political Belonging|editor1-last=Medovoi|editor1-first=Leerom|editor2-last=Bentley|editor2-first=Elizabeth|page=56|quote=The construction of mosques by citizens with a Turkish migration background, the larges Muslim constituents in the Netherlands and in Germany, is well suited to clarify the idea of disentangling political and cultural or religious belonging|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|isbn=9781478012986}}</ref> [[Liechtenstein]],<ref>{{citation|last=Schmidinger|first=Thomas|year=2010|chapter=Liechtenstein|title=Yearbook of Muslims in Europe|editor1-last=Nielsen|editor1-first=Jørgen|editor2-last=Akgönül|editor-first2=Samim|editor3-last=Alibašić|editor3-first=Ahmet|editor4-last=Maréchal|editor4-first=Brigitte|editor5-last=Moe|editor5-first=Christian|volume=2|pages=311–17|quote=|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=9789004184763}}</ref> the [[Netherlands]],<ref name=Arab2021/> [[Romania]]<ref>{{citation|last=Cupcea|first=Adriana|chapter=The Turkish Diyanet and its Activities in the Muslim Community in Dobruja (Romania)|title=Religious Education: Between Radicalism and Tolerance|date=6 June 2018|editor-last1=Aslan|editor-first1=Ednan|editor-last2=Rausch|editor-first2=Margaret|page=292|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=9783658216771}}</ref> and [[Switzerland]].<ref name=Rabasa&Benard/> In addition to Sunni Turks, there are [[Alevism|Alevi]] Turks whose local Islamic traditions have been based in [[Anatolia]], as well as the [[Bektashi Order|Bektashis]] traditionally centered in Anatolia and the [[Balkans]].<ref>{{citation|last=Poulton|first=Hugh |year=1997 |title=Muslim Identity and the Balkan State|publisher=[[C. Hurst & Co.]]|isbn=9781850652762}}</ref>

In general, "Turkish Islam" is considered to be "more moderate and pluralistic" than in other Middle Eastern-Islamic societies.<ref name=Rabasa&Larrabee/> Historically, Turkish Sufi movements promoted liberal forms of Islam;<ref name=Cagaptay2014>{{citation|last=Cagaptay|first=Soner|year=2014|title=The Rise of Turkey: The Twenty-First Century's First Muslim Power|page=85|publisher=[[Potomac Books]]|isbn=9781612346519}}</ref> for example, Turkish humanist groups and thinkers, such as the [[Mevlevi Order|Mevlevis]] ([[whirling dervishes]] who follow [[Rumi]]), the Bektashis, and [[Yunus Emre]] emphasized faith over practicing Islam.<ref name=Cagaptay2014 /> During this tolerant environment under the Seljuk Turks, more Turkish tribes arriving in Anatolia during the 13th century found the liberal Sufi version of Islam closer to their [[Shamanism|shamanists]] traditions and chose to preserve some of their culture (such as dance and music).<ref name=Cagaptay2014 /> During the late Ottoman period, the [[Tanzimat]] policies introduced by the Ottoman intelligentsia fused Islam with modernization reforms; this was followed by [[Atatürk's reforms|Atatürk's secularist reforms]] in the 20th century.<ref name=Rabasa&Larrabee>{{citation|last1=Rabasa|first1=Angel|last2=Larrabee|first2=F. Stephen|year=2008|title=The Rise of Political Islam in Turkey|publisher=[[RAND Corporation]]|page=96|isbn=9780833044570}}</ref>

Consequently, there are also many non-practicing Turkish Muslims who tend to be politically [[secular]]. For example, in Cyprus, the [[Turkish Cypriots]] are generally very secular and only attend mosques on special occasions (such as for weddings, funerals, and community gatherings).<ref>{{citation|last=Henry Dodd|first=Clement|year=1993|title=The Political, Social and Economic Development of Northern Cyprus|publisher=Eothen Press|page=266|isbn=9780906719183}}</ref> Even so, the [[Hala Sultan Tekke]] in [[Larnaca]], which is the resting place of [[Umm Haram]], is considered to be one of the holiest sites in Islam and remains an important pilgrimage site for the secular Turkish Cypriot community too.<ref>{{citation|year=1991|title=Muslim Places of Worship in Cyprus|page=7|publisher=Association of Cypriot Archaeologists|isbn=9789963380565}}</ref> Similarly, in other urban areas of the [[Levant]], such as in [[Iraq]], the [[Iraqi Turkmen|Turkish minority]] are mainly secular, having internalized the secularist interpretation of state–religion affairs practiced in the [[Republic of Turkey]] since its foundation in 1923.<ref name="Oğuzlu313">{{citation|last=Oğuzlu|first=Tarik H.|year=2004|title=Endangered community:The Turkoman identity in Iraq|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24 |issue=2|publisher=[[Routledge]]|page=313|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296681|hdl=11693/49129|s2cid=56385519 |url=http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/11693/49129/1/Endangered_community_the_Turkoman_identity_in_Iraq.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

[[File:Westermoskee - Amsterdam (26579109769).jpg|thumb|right|The neo-Ottoman [[Westermoskee]] in [[Amsterdam]] is the largest mosque in the [[Netherlands]], and mostly serves the [[Turks in the Netherlands|Turkish Dutch]] community.]]
In [[North Africa]], the Turkish minorities have traditionally differentiated themselves from the Arab-Berber population who follow the [[Maliki school]]; this is because the Turks have continued to follow the teaching of the Hanafi school which was brought to the region by their ancestors during the Ottoman rule.<ref name=Gordon>{{citation |last1=Gordon|first1=Louis A.|last2=Oxnevad|first2=Ian|year=2016|title=Middle East Politics for the New Millennium: A Constructivist Approach|page=72|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|quote=An Ottoman military class that separated itself from the general Algerian population through language, dress and religious affiliation... Unlike the Maliki Algerian masses, the Ottoman-Algerians remained affiliated with the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, and went to great lengths to replenish their ranks with Ottoman Turks from Anatolia...|isbn=978-0739196984}}</ref> Indeed, the Ottoman-Turkish mosques in the region are often distinguishable by pencil-like and octagonal minarets which were built in accordance with the traditions of the Hanafi rite.<ref>{{citation |last1=Cantone|first1=Cleo|year=2002|title=Making and Remaking Mosques in Senegal|quote=Octagonal minarets are generally an anomaly in the Maliki world associated with the square tower. Algeria, on other hand had Ottoman influence...|page=174|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]]|isbn=9004203370}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Migeon|first1=Gaston |last2=Saladin|first2=Henri|year=2012|title=Art of Islam|quote=It was not until the 16th century, when the protectorate of the Grand Master appointed Turkish governors to the regencies of Algiers and Tunis, that some of them constructed mosques according to the Hanefit example. The resulting structures had octagonal minarets... |page=28|publisher=Parkstone International|isbn=978-1780429939}}</ref>

The tradition of building mosques in the Ottoman-style (i.e. either in the imperial style based on [[Istanbul]] mosques or the provincial styles) has continued into the present day, both in traditional areas of settlement (e.g. in Turkey, the Balkans, Cyprus, and other parts of the Levant) as well as in [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]] where there are substantial immigrant communities.<ref>{{citation|last=Rizvi|first=Kishwar|year=2015|title=The Transnational Mosque: Architecture and Historical Memory in the Contemporary Middle East|publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]]|pages=33–68|isbn=9781469621173}}</ref>

Since the 1960s, "Turkish" was even seen as synonymous with "[[Muslim]]" in countries like Germany because Islam was considered to have a specific "Turkish character" and visual architectural style.<ref>{{citation |last1=Byrnes|first1=Timothy|last2=Katzenstein|first2=Peter|year=2006|title=Religion in an Expanding Europe|page=211|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85926-4}}</ref>

===Arts and architecture===
{{Further|Turkish arts|Turkish literature|Poetry of Turkey|Music of Turkey|Turkish folk music|Architecture of Turkey}}
{{See also|Ottoman architecture}}

[[File:Eskisehir Odunpazarı tour in 2018 8523.jpg|thumb|With its traditional Turkish architecture, [[Odunpazarı]] district in [[Eskişehir]] is a [[Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey|tentative UNESCO World Heritage site]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5733/ |title=Odunpazari Historical Urban Site |website=[[UNESCO]] |date=13 April 2012}}</ref>]]

Turkish architecture reached its peak during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period. [[Ottoman architecture]], influenced by [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuk]], [[Byzantine]] and [[Islamic architecture]], came to develop a style all of its own.<ref name=muqarnas12>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtbeBrAHhxgC&q=Ottoman+Architecture&pg=PA60|title=Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 12|last=Necipoğlu|first=Gülru|oclc=33228759|year=1995|publisher=Leiden: E.J. Brill|access-date= 7 July 2008|page=60|isbn=9789004103146}}</ref> Overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as a synthesis of the architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xu_L_FJRvUIC&q=Ottoman+Architecture&pg=PA92 |title=Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 3|last=Grabar |first=Oleg |isbn=978-9004076112| year=1985 |publisher=Leiden : E.J. Brill|access-date=7 July 2008}}</ref>

As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-based former Ottoman Empire into a modern nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, an increase in the modes of artistic expression followed. During the first years of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into fine arts; such as museums, theatres, opera houses and architecture. Diverse historical factors play important roles in defining the modern Turkish identity. Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values.<ref name="TR_culture">{{cite book|author=Ibrahim Kaya|title=Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience|url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheorylate0000kaya|url-access=registration|access-date=12 June 2013|year=2004|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=978-0-85323-898-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/socialtheorylate0000kaya/page/57 57]–58}}</ref> The mix of cultural influences is dramatized, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures" enacted in the works of [[Orhan Pamuk]], recipient of the 2006 [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6044192.stm|title=Pamuk wins Nobel Literature prize|publisher=BBC|access-date=12 December 2006|date=12 October 2006}}</ref>
Traditional Turkish music include [[Turkish folk music]] (Halk müziği), [[Fasıl]] and [[Ottoman classical music]] (Sanat müziği) that originates from the Ottoman court.<ref name="DunfordRichardson2013">{{cite book|author1=Martin Dunford|author2=Terry Richardson|title=The Rough Guide to Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPAPeby7JTgC&pg=PA647|access-date=25 July 2013|date=3 June 2013|publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=978-1-4093-4005-8|pages=647–}}</ref> [[Turkish music#Popular music|Contemporary Turkish music]] include [[Turkish pop music]], rock, and [[Turkish hip hop]] genres.<ref name="DunfordRichardson2013" />

===Science===
{{Main|Science and technology in Turkey}}
{{Seealso|List of Turkish philosophers and scientists}}
Turkey's spending on [[research and development]] as a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |doi=10.1787/d8b068b4-en |author=OECD |title=Gross domestic spending on R&D (indicator) |year=2024 |access-date=16 May 2024}}</ref> [[List of countries by number of scientific and technical journal articles|Turkey ranks 16th in the world]] in terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th in [[Nature Index]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IP.JRN.ARTC.SC?most_recent_value_desc=true | title=Scientific and technical journal articles |website=The World Bank |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nature.com/nature-index/country-outputs/generate/all/global |title=Nature Index &#124; Country/Territory tables |website=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref> Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally, [[World Intellectual Property Indicators#Latest filing trends by country of origin|Turkish residents rank 21st for overall patent applications]].<ref name="WIPO_Türkiye">{{Cite web |ref={{harvid|WIPO Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye|2023}} |author=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) |year=2023 |title=Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/statistics-country-profile/en/tr.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328212456/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/statistics-country-profile/en/tr.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, Turkey ranked 39th in the world and 4th among its upper-middle income group in the [[Global Innovation Index]].<ref>{{harvnb|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|2023|p=19}}</ref> It was one of the countries with a notable increase in the past decade.<ref>{{harvnb|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|2023|p=50}}</ref>

Contemporary Turkish scientists include [[Aziz Sancar]], who won the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for his work on how cells repair damaged DNA.<ref>{{cite news |last=Broad |first=William J. |title=Nobel Prize in Chemistry Awarded to Tomas Lindahl, Paul Modrich and Aziz Sancar for DNA Studies |date=7 October 2015 |website=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/08/science/tomas-lindahl-paul-modrich-aziz-sancarn-nobel-chemistry.html |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> He is one of [[List of Nobel laureates by country#Turkey|two Turkish Nobel laureates]] and the first in the sciences. Immunologists [[Uğur Şahin]] and [[Özlem Türeci]] founded [[BioNTech]], which is the company that developed [[RNA vaccine|one of the first efficacious vaccines]] against [[COVID-19]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Gelles |first=David |title=The Husband-and-Wife Team Behind the Leading Vaccine to Solve Covid-19 |date=10 November 2020 |website=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/10/business/biontech-covid-vaccine.html |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> [[Erdal Arıkan]] invented [[Polar code (coding theory)|polar codes]],<ref>{{harvnb|Gibson|2017|p=128}}</ref> which is a key component of [[5G]] technologies.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Levy |first=Steven |title=Huawei, 5G, and the Man Who Conquered Noise |magazine=Wired |date=16 November 2020 |url=https://www.wired.com/story/huawei-5g-polar-codes-data-breakthrough/ |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Sin |first=Ben |title=The Key For Huawei, And China, In 5G Race Is A Turkish Professor |date=27 July 2018 |website=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/bensin/2018/07/27/the-key-for-huawei-and-china-in-5g-race-against-the-u-s-is-a-turkish-professor/ |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> Mathematician [[Cahit Arf]] is known for [[Hasse–Arf theorem]] and [[Arf invariant]].<ref>{{harvnb|Heper|Öztürk-Tunçel|Criss|2018|loc=Arf, Cahit}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00591-010-0072-8 |title=On the Arf invariant in historical perspective |date=2010 |last1=Lorenz |first1=Falko |last2=Roquette |first2=Peter |journal=Mathematische Semesterberichte |volume=57 |pages=73–102 }}</ref> Physician [[Hulusi Behçet]] discovered [[Behçet's disease]].<ref>{{harvnb|Law|Martin|2020|loc=Behçet’s syndrome}}</ref> Other contemporary scientists include neurologist [[Gazi Yaşargil]],<ref>{{harvnb|Heper|Öztürk-Tunçel|Criss|2018|loc=Yaşargil, M. Gazi}}</ref> physicists [[Feza Gürsey]]<ref>{{harvnb|Heper|Öztürk-Tunçel|Criss|2018|loc=Gürsey, Feza}}</ref> and  [[Behram Kurşunoğlu]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Nagourney |first=Eric |title=B. N. Kursunoglu, 81, Physicist Who Led Noted Research Center |date=3 November 2003 |website=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/03/us/b-n-kursunoglu-81-physicist-who-led-noted-research-center.html |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> and astrophysicists [[Burçin Mutlu-Pakdil]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Zakeer |first=Fehmida |title=Meet the woman who discovered a whole new type of galaxy |date=21 November 2018 |website=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/meet-woman-discovered-new-type-galaxy-burcin-mutlu-pakdil-astrophysics |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> and [[Feryal Özel]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Canikligil |first=Razi |title=Turkish woman professor among scientists who revealed first photo of black hole |date=11 April 2019  |website=Hürriyet Daily News |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-woman-professor-among-scientists-who-revealed-first-photo-of-black-hole-142584 |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref>

==Genetics==
{{further|Genetic studies on Turkish people}}
Turkish genomic variation, along with several other [[Western Asian]] populations, looks most similar to genomic variation of [[South Europe]]an populations such as southern Italians.<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taskent RO, Gokcumen O |title=The Multiple Histories of Western Asia: Perspectives from Ancient and Modern Genomes |journal=Hum Biol |year=2017 |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=107–117 |pmid=29299965 |doi=10.13110/humanbiology.89.2.01 |s2cid=6871226 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29299965}}</ref> Data from ancient DNA – covering the [[Paleolithic]], the [[Neolithic]], and the [[Bronze Age]] periods – showed that Western Asian genomes, including Turkish ones, have been greatly influenced by early agricultural populations in the area; later population movements, such as those of Turkic speakers, also contributed.<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017" />

A 2014 [[whole genome sequencing]] study of Turkish genetics (on 16 individuals) concluded that the Turkish population forms a cluster with Southern European/Mediterranean populations, and the predicted contribution from ancestral [[East Asian]] populations (presumably [[Central Asian]]) is 21.7%.<ref name=Alkan>{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/1471-2164-15-963|pmid=25376095|pmc=4236450|title=Whole genome sequencing of Turkish genomes reveals functional private alleles and impact of genetic interactions with Europe, Asia and Africa|journal=BMC Genomics|volume=15|pages=963|year=2014|last1=Alkan |first1=Can |last2=Kavak|first2=Pinar|last3=Somel|first3=Mehmet|last4=Gokcumen |first4=Omer|last5=Ugurlu |first5=Serkan |last6=Saygi|first6=Ceren |last7=Dal|first7=Elif|last8=Bugra|first8=Kuyas|last9=Güngör|first9=Tunga |last10=Sahinalp|first10=S. |last11=Özören|first11=Nesrin |last12=Bekpen|first12=Cemalettin|issue=1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, that is not a direct estimate of a migration rate, due to reasons such as unknown original contributing populations.<ref name=Alkan /> Moreover, the genetic variation of various populations in Central Asia "has been poorly characterized"; Western Asian populations may also be "closely related to populations in the east".<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017" /> Meanwhile, Central Asia is home to numerous populations that "demonstrate an array of mixed anthropological features of East Eurasians (EEA) and West Eurasians (WEA)"; two studies showed [[Uyghurs]] have 40-53% ancestry classified as East Asian, with the rest being classified as European.<ref name="pmid23166524">{{cite journal| author=Xu S| title=Human population admixture in Asia. | journal=Genomics Inform | year= 2012 | volume= 10 | issue= 3 | pages= 133–44 | pmid=23166524 | doi=10.5808/GI.2012.10.3.133 | pmc=3492649 }}</ref>  A 2006 study suggested that the true Central Asian contributions to Anatolia was 13% for males and 22% for females (with wide ranges of [[confidence interval]]s), and the language replacement in Turkey and Azerbaijan might not have been in accordance with the elite dominance model.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Berkman |first=Ceren Caner |date=September 2006 |title=Comparative Analyses For The Central Asian Contribution To Anatolian Gene Pool With Reference To Balkans |type=PhD |url=http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12607764/index.pdf |access-date=30 October 2020}}</ref>

Another study in 2021, which looked at whole-genomes and [[Exome sequencing|whole-exomes]] of 3,362 unrelated Turkish samples, resulted in establishing the first Turkish [[variome]]. The study found mixing between peoples from the Caucasus, Middle East, and Southeast Europe and other parts of Europe in line with the history of Turkey.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Kars |first1=M. Ece |last2=Başak |first2=A. Nazlı |last3=Onat |first3=O. Emre |last4=Bilguvar |first4=Kaya |last5=Choi |first5=Jungmin |last6=Itan |first6=Yuval |last7=Çağlar |first7=Caner |last8=Palvadeau |first8=Robin |last9=Casanova |first9=Jean-Laurent |last10=Cooper |first10=David N. |last11=Stenson |first11=Peter D. |last12=Yavuz |first12=Alper |last13=Buluş |first13=Hakan |last14=Günel |first14=Murat |last15=Friedman |first15=Jeffrey M. |date=2021-09-07 |title=The genetic structure of the Turkish population reveals high levels of variation and admixture |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=118 |issue=36 |pages=e2026076118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026076118 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8433500 |pmid=34426522 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826076K |doi-access=free }}</ref> Moreover, significant number of rare genome and exome variants were unique to modern-day Turkish population.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> Neighbouring populations in East and West, and Tuscan people in Italy were closest to Turkish population in terms of genetic similarity.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> Central Asian contribution to maternal, paternal, and autosomal genes were detected, consistent with the historical migration and expansion of [[Oghuz Turks]] from Central Asia.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> The authors speculated that the genetic similarity of the modern-day Turkish population with modern-day European populations might be due to [[Early European Farmers|spread of neolithic Anatolian farmers into Europe]], which impacted the genetic makeup of modern-day European populations.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> Moreover, the study found no clear genetic separation between different regions of Turkey, leading authors to suggest that recent migration events within Turkey resulted in genetic homogenization.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> 

A 2022 study, which looked at modern-day populations and more than 700 ancient genomes from Southern Europe and West Asia covering a period of 11,000 years, found that Turkish people carry the genetic legacy of "both ancient people who lived in Anatolia for thousands of years covered by our study and people coming from Central Asia bearing Turkic languages."<ref name="Lazaridis2022">{{cite journal| author=Lazaridis I, Alpaslan-Roodenberg S, Acar A, Açıkkol A, Agelarakis A, Aghikyan L | display-authors=etal| title=A genetic probe into the ancient and medieval history of Southern Europe and West Asia. | journal=Science | year= 2022 | volume= 377 | issue= 6609 | pages= 940–951 | pmid=36007020 | doi=10.1126/science.abq0755 | pmc=10019558 | bibcode=2022Sci...377..940L}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Turkey}}
* [[Gagauz people]]
* [[Turkmens]]
* [[Azerbaijanis]]
* [[Meskhetian Turks]]
* [[Tahtacı]]
*[[Yörüks]]
*[[Turkophilia]]
*[[Anti-Turkish sentiment]]
*[[Turquerie]]
*[[Demographics of Turkey]]

==Notes==
{{refbegin|30em}}
{{Cnote|a|"The history of Turkey encompasses, first, the history of Anatolia before the coming of the Turks and of the civilizations—Hittite, Thracian, Hellenistic, and Byzantine—of which the Turkish nation is the heir by assimilation or example. Second, it includes the history of the Turkish peoples, including the Seljuks, who brought Islam and the Turkish language to Anatolia. Third, it is the history of the Ottoman Empire, a vast, cosmopolitan, pan-Islamic state that developed from a small Turkish amirate in Anatolia and that for centuries was a world power."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/2.htm |title=Turkey: Country Studies |author=Steven A. Glazer |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=15 June 2013}}</ref>}}
{{refend}}

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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |title=Cezayir Ülke Raporu 2008 |publisher=Algeria Embassy Trade Consultancy |url=http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr/altdetay.cfm?AltAlanID=368&dil=TR&ulke=DZ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929205227/http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr/altdetay.cfm?AltAlanID=368&dil=TR&ulke=DZ |archive-date=29 September 2013 }}.
* {{citation|date=8 February 2011|chapter=Community Profile: Kosovo Turks|title=Kosovo Communities Profile 2010|publisher=Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|chapter-url=http://www.osce.org/kosovo/75450}}.
* {{cite press release |title=COMUNICAT DE PRESĂ – privind rezultatele provizorii ale Recensământului Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor – 2011 |language=ro |trans-title=PRESS RELEASE – on the provisional results of the Population and Housing Census – 2011 |date=2 February 2012 |place=Romania |publisher=Central Commission for the Census of Population and Housing |url=http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf |access-date=14 May 2012 |archive-date=2 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802060014/http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite report |title=Cyprus: Bridging the Property Divide |series=Europe Report N°210 |date=9 December 2010 |publisher=International Crisis Group |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/turkey-cyprus/cyprus/210%20Cyprus%20-%20Bridging%20the%20Property%20Divide.ashx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103083632/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/turkey-cyprus/cyprus/210%20Cyprus%20-%20Bridging%20the%20Property%20Divide.ashx |archive-date=3 November 2011 }}
* {{cite report |title=Turkey and the Iraqi Kurds: Conflict or Cooperation? |series=Middle East Report N°81 |date=13 November 2008 |publisher=International Crisis Group |url-status=dead |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Iraq/81Turkey%20and%20Iraqi%20Kurds%20Conflict%20or%20Cooperation.ashx |archive-date=12 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112131324/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Iraq/81Turkey%20and%20Iraqi%20Kurds%20Conflict%20or%20Cooperation.ashx }}
* {{citation|year=2002|title=Population by ethnic groups, regions, counties and areas|place=Romania|publisher=National Institute of Statistics|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/RPL2002INS/vol5/tables/t16.pdf}}
* {{citation |year=2008|title=The Report: Algeria 2008|publisher=Oxford Business Group|isbn=978-1-902339-09-2}}.
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{commons category-inline|People of Turkey}}

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[[Category:Turkish people| ]]
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[[Category:Ethnic groups in Cyprus]]
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