View source for Tropospheric scatter

{{Redirect|SEVER|other uses|Sever (disambiguation){{!}}Sever}}
{{Short description|Method of communicating with microwave radio signals over considerable distances}}
[[File:Tropospheric scatter.jpg|thumb|220px|A tropospheric scatter system can bridge large distances ''(white)'' while a [[microwave relay]] system ''(lines below)'' requires multiple relay stations due to its [[line-of-sight propagation|line of sight]] limitation. ]]
[[File:White Alice Site, Tropospheric Antennas HAER AK-21-A-2.jpg|thumb|[[Valdez-Cordova Census Area, Alaska|Boswell Bay, Alaska]] White Alice Site, Tropospheric scatter antenna and feeder.]]
[[File:Pacific Scatter.jpg|thumb|Pacific Scatter System]]

'''Tropospheric scatter''', also known as '''troposcatter''', is a method of communicating with [[microwave radio]] signals over considerable distances – often up to {{convert|500|km|mi}} and further depending on frequency of operation, equipment type, terrain, and climate factors. This method of propagation uses the tropospheric scatter phenomenon, where radio waves at [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] and [[Super high frequency|SHF]] [[Frequency|frequencies]] are randomly scattered as they pass through the upper layers of the [[troposphere]]. Radio signals are transmitted in a narrow beam aimed just above the horizon in the direction of the receiver station. As the signals pass through the troposphere, some of the energy is scattered back toward the Earth, allowing the receiver station to pick up the signal.<ref>{{cite tech report |url= https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/other/t.pdf |url-access= |title= Telecommunications: Glossary of Telecommunication Terms - tropospheric scatter | date = 2000-08-23 | page = T-21 | number = FED-STD-1037C | institution = [[National Telecommunications and Information Administration]] | language= en-us | format = pdf | access-date = 2021-07-13 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161225065408/https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/other/t.pdf | archive-date = 2016-12-25 | df = dmy-all}}</ref>

Normally, signals in the microwave frequency range travel in straight lines, and so are limited to ''[[Line-of-sight propagation|line-of-sight]]'' applications, in which the receiver can be 'seen' by the transmitter. Communication distances are limited by the [[horizon|visual horizon]] to around {{convert|30|-|40|mi|order=flip}}. Troposcatter allows microwave communication beyond the horizon. It was developed in the 1950s and used for military communications until [[communications satellite]]s largely replaced it in the 1970s.

Because the troposphere is turbulent and has a high proportion of moisture, the tropospheric scatter radio signals are [[refracted]] and consequently only a tiny proportion of the transmitted radio energy is collected by the receiving antennas. Frequencies of transmission around {{frequency|2|GHz}} are best suited for tropospheric scatter systems as at this frequency the wavelength of the signal interacts well with the moist, turbulent areas of the troposphere, improving [[signal-to-noise ratio]]s.

==Overview==
===Discovery===
Prior to [[World War II]], prevailing radio physics theory predicted a relationship between frequency and diffraction that suggested radio signals would follow the curvature of the Earth, but that the strength of the effect would fall off rapidly and especially at higher frequencies. In spite of this widespread belief, during the war there were numerous incidents in which high-frequency radar signals were able to detect targets at ranges far beyond the theoretical calculations. In spite of these repeated instances of anomalous range, the matter was never seriously studied.{{sfn|Stecker|1960}}

In the immediate post-war era, the limitation on [[television]] construction was lifted in the United States and millions of sets were sold. This drove an equally rapid expansion of new television stations. Based on the same calculations used during the war, the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) arranged frequency allocations for the new VHF and UHF channels to avoid interference between stations. To everyone's surprise, interference was common, even between widely separated<!--in distance, or frequency?--> stations. As a result, licenses for new stations were put on hold in what is known as the "television freeze" of 1948.{{sfn|Stecker|1960}}

[[Bell Labs]] was among the many organizations that began studying this effect, and concluded it was a previously unknown type of reflection off the [[tropopause]]. This was limited to higher frequencies, in the UHF and microwave bands, which is why it had not been seen prior to the war when these frequencies were beyond the ability of existing electronics. Although the vast majority of the signal went through the troposphere and on to space, the tiny amount that was reflected was useful if combined with powerful transmitters and very sensitive receivers. In 1952, Bell began experiments with [[Lincoln Labs]], the MIT-affiliated [[radar]] research lab. Using Lincoln's powerful microwave transmitters and Bell's sensitive receivers, they built several experimental systems to test a variety of frequencies and weather effects. When [[Bell Canada]] heard of the system they felt it might be useful for a new communications network in [[Labrador]] and took one of the systems there for cold weather testing.{{sfn|Stecker|1960}}

In 1954 the results from both test series were complete and construction began on the first troposcatter system, the [[Pole Vault (communications system)|Pole Vault]] system that linked [[Pinetree Line]] radar systems along the coast of [[Labrador]]. Using troposcatter reduced the number of stations from 50 [[microwave relay]]s scattered through the wilderness to only 10, all located at the radar stations. In spite of their higher unit costs, the new network cost half as much to build as a relay system. Pole Vault was quickly followed by similar systems like [[White Alice Communications System|White Alice]], relays on the [[Mid-Canada Line]] and the [[DEW Line]], and during the 1960s, across the Atlantic Ocean and Europe as part of [[NATO]]'s [[ACE High]] system.

===Use===
[[File:Tropo Scatter communications.jpg|thumb|Pole Vault used circular parabolic antennas; later systems generally used squared-off versions sometimes known as "billboards".]] 
The [[Path loss|propagation loss]]es are very high; only about one [[trillionth]] ({{scinote|fn=eng|0.00000000001}}) of the transmit power is available at the receiver. This demands the use of antennas with extremely large [[antenna gain]]. The original Pole Vault system used large [[parabolic reflector]] [[Dish antenna|dish]] antennas, but these were soon replaced by [[billboard antenna]]s which were somewhat more robust, an important quality given that these systems were often found in harsh locales. Paths were established at distances over {{convert|1000|km|mi}}. They required antennas ranging from {{convert|9|to|36|m}} and amplifiers ranging from {{val|1|u=kW}} to {{val|50|u=kW}}. These were analogue systems which were capable of transmitting a few voice channels.

Troposcatter systems have evolved over the years. With [[communication satellite]]s used for long-distance communication links, current troposcatter systems are employed over shorter distances than previous systems, use smaller antennas and amplifiers, and have much higher bandwidth capabilities. Typical distances are between {{convert|50|and|250|km}}, though greater distances can be achieved depending on the climate, terrain, and data rate required. Typical antenna sizes range from {{convert|1.2|to|12|m}} while typical amplifier sizes range from {{val|10|u=W}} to {{val|2|u=kW}}. Data rates over {{val|20|u=Mbit/s}} can be achieved with today's technology.

Tropospheric scatter is a fairly secure method of propagation as dish alignment is critical, making it extremely difficult to intercept the signals, especially if transmitted across open water, making them highly attractive to military users. Military systems have tended to be ‘thin-line’ tropo – so called because only a narrow [[Bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] ‘information’ channel was carried on the tropo system; generally up to 32 analogue ({{frequency|4|kHz}} bandwidth) channels. Modern military systems are "wideband" as they operate 4-16&nbsp;Mbit/s digital data channels.

Civilian troposcatter systems, such as the [[British Telecom]] (BT) [[North Sea]] oil communications network, required higher capacity ‘information’ channels than were available using HF (high frequency – {{frequency|3|MHz}} to {{frequency|30|MHz}}) radio signals, before satellite technology was available. The BT systems, based at [[Scousburgh]] in the [[Shetland Islands]], [[Mormond Hill]] in [[Aberdeenshire]] and Row Brow near [[Scarborough, North Yorkshire|Scarborough]], were capable of transmitting and receiving 156 analogue ({{frequency|4|kHz}} bandwidth) channels of data and telephony to / from North Sea oil production platforms, using [[frequency-division multiplexing]] (FDMX) to combine the channels.
  
Because of the nature of the turbulence in the troposphere, quadruple [[Antenna diversity|diversity propagation]] paths were used to ensure {{percentage|9998|10000|2}} reliability of the service, equating to about 3 minutes of downtime due to propagation drop out per month. The quadruple space and polarisation diversity systems needed two separate dish antennas (spaced several metres apart) and two differently [[Polarization (waves)|polarised]] [[feed horn]]s – one using vertical polarisation, the other using horizontal polarisation. This ensured that at least one signal path was open at any one time. The signals from the four different paths were recombined in the receiver where a phase corrector removed the [[phase difference]]s of each signal. Phase differences were caused by the different path lengths of each signal from transmitter to receiver. Once phase corrected, the four signals could be combined additively.

[[File:Atmosphere layers-en.svg|right|90px]]

== Tropospheric scatter communications networks ==

The tropospheric scatter phenomenon has been used to build both civilian and military communication links in a number of parts of the world, including:
;[[Allied Command Europe Highband]] (ACE High), {{flag|NATO}}
:[[NATO]] military [[radiocommunication]] and [[early warning]] system throughout Europe from the Norwegian-Soviet border to the Turkish-Soviet border.

;[[BT Group|BT]] (British Telecom), {{flag|UK}}
:United Kingdom - [[Shetland]] to [[Mormond Hill]]

;[[Fernmeldeturm Berlin]], {{flag|West Germany}}
:Torfhaus-Berlin, Clenze-Berlin at Cold War times

;[[Portugal Telecom]], {{flag|Portugal}}
:Serra de Nogueira (northeastern Portugal) to [[Artzamendi]] (southwestern France)

;[[CNCP Telecommunications]], {{flag|Canada}}
:[[Tsiigehtchic]] to Galena Hill, Keno City
:[[Hay River, Northwest Territories|Hay River]] - [[Port Radium]] - [[Lady Franklin Point]]

;{{flag|Cuba}} - {{flag|Florida}}
:[[Guanabo]] to [[Florida City]]

;Project Offices - [[AT&T Corporation]], {{flagu|United States}}
:{{Main|Project Offices}}
:'''Project Offices''' is the name sometimes used to refer to several structurally dependable facilities maintained by the AT{{&}}T Corporation in the [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic states]] since the mid-{{century|1960}}th century to house an ongoing, non-public, company project. AT&T began constructing Project Offices in the {{DECADE|1960}}. Since the inception of the Project Offices program, the company has chosen not to disclose the exact nature of business conducted at Project Offices. However, it has described them as ''central facilities''.<ref name = "co">{{cite news | last1 = Price | first1 = Jay | date = 2008-08-10 | title = Mysterious Cold War bunker closes | url = https://www.charlotteobserver.com/living/home-garden/article8999099.html | url-status = live | department = Home & Garden | work = [[The Charlotte Observer]] | language = en-us | issn = 2331-7221 | oclc = 9554626 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201006205249/https://www.charlotteobserver.com/living/home-garden/article8999099.html | archive-date = 2020-10-06 | access-date = 2021-07-15 | url-access = limited | quote = Although AT{{&}}T had dozens of similar communications bunkers across the country, the one in Chatham was part of a heavily armored and heavily guarded group of just five that went by the deceptively bland name of "Project Offices," said Albert LaFrance, who runs two websites dedicated to Cold War infrastructure. Unlike the more common AT{{&}}T communications bunkers, the Project Offices were apparently designed to shelter high-level government and military officials as part of a plan to preserve at least a skeletal national government in the event of a nuclear attack, LaFrance said. These “Continuance of Government” facilities would need communications capability, but communications wasn't their main mission, he said. | df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="indy">{{cite news|last1=Elliston|first1=Jon|title=Big Hole, Deep Secret|url=http://www.indyweek.com/indyweek/big-hole-deep-secret/Content?oid=1182760|access-date=March 8, 2017|work=[[Indy Week]]|date=December 13, 2000}}</ref><ref>[http://coldwar-c4i.net/ATT_Project/index.html coldwar-c4i.net]</ref>
::*[[Pittsboro, North Carolina]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051230102029/http://indyweek.com/durham/2000-12-13/triangles.html indyweek.com (Archived copy)]</ref>
::*[[Buckingham, Virginia]]<ref>[http://coldwar-c4i.net/ATT_Project/Buckingham/index.html coldwar-c4i.net]</ref>
::*[[Charlottesville, Virginia]]
::*[[Leesburg, Virginia]]
::*[[Hagerstown, Maryland]]

;Texas Towers - Air defence radars, {{flag|United States Air Force}}
{{Main|Texas Towers}}

:The '''Texas Towers''' were a set of three [[radar]] facilities off the eastern seaboard of the United States which were used for surveillance by the [[United States Air Force]] during the [[Cold War]]. Modeled on the [[offshore oil drilling platform]]s first employed off the [[Texas]] coast, they were in operation from 1958 to 1963.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; height: 100px;"
|-
!Tower ID
!Location
!Staffing unit
!Mainland station
!Notes
|-
| TT-1
| Cashes Ledge off [[New Hampshire]] coast<br>{{Coord|42|53|N|68|57|W |type:landmark_region:US_scale:25000 |display=inline}}
|
|
|Not built
|-
| [[Texas Tower 2|TT-2]]
| [[Georges Bank]] off [[Cape Cod]]<br/>{{Coord|41|45|0.00|N|67|46|0.00|W|scale:25000_region:US|display=inline}}
| [[762d Radar Squadron]]
| [[North Truro Air Force Station]]
|decommissioned 1963
|-
| [[Texas Tower 3|TT-3]]
| [[Nantucket Shoals]]<br/>{{Coord|40|45|00.00|N|69|19|0.00|W|scale:25000_region:US|display=inline}}
| [[773d Radar Squadron]]
| [[Montauk AFS]]
|decommissioned 1963
|-
| [[Texas Tower 4|TT-4]]
| off [[Long Beach Island, New Jersey]]<br/>{{Coord|39|48|N|72|40|W |dim:150km_region:US|display=inline }}
| [[646th Radar Squadron]]
| [[Highlands Air Force Station]]
| collapsed (1961)
|-
| [[Texas Tower 5|TT-5]]
| Browns Bank south of [[Nova Scotia]]<br/>{{Coord|42|47|N|65|37|W |type:landmark_region:CA_dim:250000 |display=inline}}
| 
| 
| Not built
|}

;[[Mid Canada Line]], {{flagu|Canada}}
:A series of five stations (070, 060, 050, 415, 410) in  [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]] around the lower [[Hudson Bay]]. A series of six stations were built in Labrador and Quebec between Goose Bay and Sept-Îles between 1957 and 1958.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://campingcdn.blogspot.com/2014/03/1958-bell-quebec-labrador-troposcatter.html | title=Camping Canadian: 1958 Bell Quebec-Labrador Troposcatter Network | date=27 September 2014 }}</ref>

;[[Pinetree Line]], [[Pole Vault (communications system)|Pole Vault]], {{flagu|Canada}}
:[[Pole Vault (communications system)|Pole Vault]] was series of fourteen stations providing communications for Eastern seaboard radar stations of the US/Canadian Pinetree line, running from N-31 [[Iqaluit Airport|Frobisher Bay]], [[Baffin Island]] to N-22 [[Red Cliff Air Station|St. John's, Newfoundland]].

;[[White Alice]]/[[DEW Line]]/[[DEW]] Training ([[Cold War]] era), {{flagu|United States}}/{{flagu|Canada}}
:A former military and civil communications network with eighty stations stretching up the western seaboard from [[Port Hardy]], [[Vancouver Island]] north to [[Barter Island]] (BAR), west to [[Shemya, Alaska]] (SYA) in the [[Aleutian Islands]] (just a few hundred miles from the [[Soviet Union]]) and east across arctic Canada to [[Greenland]]. Note that not all station were troposcatter, but many were. It also included a training facility for White Alice/DEW line tropo-scatter network located between [[Pecatonica, Illinois]], and [[Streator, Illinois]].

;[[DEW Line]] (Post [[Cold War]] era), {{flagu|United States}}/{{flagu|Canada}}
:Several tropo-scatter networks providing communications for the extensive air-defence radar chain in the far north of Canada and the US.

;[[North Atlantic Radio System|North Atlantic Radio System (NARS)]], {{flag|NATO}}
:NATO air-defence network stretching from [[RAF Fylingdales]], via [[Mormond Hill|Mormond Hill, UK]], [[Sornfelli]] ([[Faroe Islands]]), [[Hofn Air Station|Höfn, Iceland]] to [[Rockville Air Station (Iceland)|Keflavik DYE-5, Rockville]].

;European Tropospheric Scatter - Army (ET-A), {{flag|United States Army}}
:A US Army network from [[RAF Fylingdales]] to a network in Germany and a single station in France ([[Maison Fort]]). The network became active on 1966.<ref name="ET-A">{{cite web |url=http://www.usarmygermany.com/Sont.htm?http&&&www.usarmygermany.com/units/signal/USAREUR_SignalCorps%20ETA.htm |title=European Tropospheric Scatter - Army |last= Elkins |first= Walter |website= USARMYGERMANY.com |language= en-us |access-date= 2021-07-15 |quote= A major segment of the Department of Defense communications network in Europe was activated July 19 (1966). The new system went into operation as part of the ET-A ( European Tropo-Army ) network that spans a number of nations in Western Europe. The system ties in communications from Leghorn, Italy, through the Italian Alps to Bremerhaven, Germany, and from Heidelberg to within a few miles of Paris, adding more than 1,200 channel miles to the US Army Strategic Communications Command’s world-wide communications complex. | df = dmy-all}}</ref>

;486L Mediterranean Communications System (MEDCOM), {{flag|United States Air Force}}
: A network covering the European coast of the Mediterranean Sea from [[San Pablo airport|San Pablo]], Spain, in the west to [[Incirlik Air Base]], [[Turkey]] in the East, with headquarters at [[RAF Ringstead|Ringstead]] in [[Dorset]], England. Commissioned by the US Air Force in {{YEAR|1966}}.<ref name="USARMYGERMANY.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.usarmygermany.com/Sont.htm?https&&&www.usarmygermany.com/units/USAFE%20Units/USAREUR_HqUSAFE%201.htm |title=Air Force Communications in Europe |last= Elkins |first= Walter |website= USARMYGERMANY.com |language= en-us |access-date= 2021-07-15 | df = dmy-all}}</ref>{{rp|page=Spanish Communications Region|quote=The 486L Mediterranean Communications System (MEDCOM) was commissioned by the US Air Force in ceremonies at Martina Franca, Italy on Oct 5 1966. The communications system, spanning the Mediterranean from Spain to the Near East, is a 100-site network with sites in Spain, Sardenia, Sicily, Italy, Greece, Crete and Turkey. The system was built by the System Command's Electronic Systems Division for the European-African-Middle Eastern Communications Area (EAME) of AFCS.}}

;[[Royal Air Force]], {{flag|UK}}
:Communications to [[British Forces Germany]], running from [[Swingate, Kent]] to [[Lammersdorf]] in Germany.

;[[:de:Troposphären-Nachrichtensystem Bars|Troposphären-Nachrichtensystem Bars]], [[Warsaw Pact]]  [[File:Bars_a.jpg|thumb|right|BARS tropo-scatter network map]]
:A Warsaw Pact tropo-scatter network stretching from near [[Rostock]] in the [[East Germany|DDR]] (Deutsches Demokratisches Republik), [[Czechoslovakia]], Hungary, Poland, [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussia]] USSR, [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukraine]] USSR and [[Bulgaria]].

;TRRL SEVER, {{flag|USSR}}
:A Soviet network stretching across the [[USSR]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Soviet System of Tropospheric Communication TRRL Sever |url=https://www.trrlsever.org/index.html |access-date=6 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="Sever_TRRL">{{cite web | url = https://rusue.com/a-dead-dragon-or-the-remains-of-sever-trrl/ | title = A dead Dragon, or the remains of Sever TRRL | last = | first = | date = n.d. | website = Russian Urban Exploration | language = en | access-date = | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210304061325/https://rusue.com/a-dead-dragon-or-the-remains-of-sever-trrl/ | archive-date = 2021-03-04 | quote = Sever tropospheric-scatter radio relay line (TRRL Sever) is a former Soviet communications line system designed for establishing communication with the remote regions of the country. The line was 13200 km (8200 miles) long and consisted of 46 tropospheric radio relay stations (TRRS) located mostly along the coasts of the Arctic and the Pacific oceans and major Siberian rivers: the Ob, the Enisey and the Lena. | df = dmy-all}}</ref>

;{{flagu|India}} - {{flag|USSR}} [[File:Troposcatter link stamp of India-1982.jpg|thumb|right|India-USSR troposcatter UHF link on a 1982 stamp of India]]
:A single section from [[Srinigar]], [[Kashmir]], India to [[Dangara]], [[Tajikistan]], USSR.

;[[Indian Air Force]], {{flagu|India}}
:Part of an Air Defence Network covering major air bases, radar installations and missile sites in Northern and central India. The network is being phased out to be replaced with more modern fiber-optic based communication systems.<ref>[https://www.ifsecglobal.com/afnet-to-herald-network-centric-operations-in-iaf/ AF Net ]</ref>

;Peace Ruby, Spellout, Peace Net, {{flag|Iran|1970|name=Imperial State of Iran}}
:An air-defence network set up by the United States prior to the [[Iranian revolution|1979 Islamic Revolution]]. ''Spellout'' built a radar and communications network in the north of Iran. ''Peace{{nbsp}}Ruby'' built another air-defence network in the south and ''Peace{{nbsp}}Net'' integrated the two networks.<ref name="IIAF">{{cite web | url = http://iiaf.net/history/airdefense.html | title = Air Defense Command And Radars | website = Imperial Iranian Air Force | access-date = 2021-05-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120315193038/http://iiaf.net/history/airdefense.html | archive-date = 2012-03-15 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="ExReps">{{cite web | last1 = Clark | first1 = Jay | last2 = Salute | first2 = Joe | url = http://www.exreps.com/Photos/PeaceRuby/index.shtml | title = The Philco-Ford Peace Ruby Project | website = exreps.com | access-date = 2021-05-15 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120315193038/http://www.exreps.com/Photos/PeaceRuby/index.shtml | archive-date = 2012-03-15 | quote = The Peace Ruby program added AC&W radar sites and communications to the south of Iran, it supplemented the Spellout system to the north which provided radar coverage along the Russian boarder from Mashad to Tabriz. A later project, Peace Net, fully integreted these two systems into a state of the art air control and  defense system. | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

;{{flag|Bahrain}} - {{flag|UAE}}
:A tropo-scatter system linking [[Al Manamah]], [[Bahrain]] to [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates]].

;[[Royal Air Force of Oman]], {{flag|Oman}}
:A tropo-scatter communications system providing military comms to the former SOAF - Sultan of Oman's Air Force, (now RAFO - Royal Air Force of Oman), across the [[Sultanate of Oman]].

;[[Royal Saudi Air Force]], {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
:A Royal Saudi Air Force tropo-scatter network linking major airbases and population centres in [[Saudi Arabia]].

;[[Yemen]], {{flag|Yemen}}
:A single system linking [[Sana'a]] with [[Sa'dah]].

;BACK PORCH and Integrated Wideband Communications System (IWCS), {{flagu|United States}}
:Two networks run by the United States linking military bases in [[Thailand]] and [[South Vietnam]]. Stations were located at [[Bangkok]], [[Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base]], [[Pleiku]], [[Nha Trang]], Vung Chua mountain ({{Coord|13.742|N|109.196|E|display=inline}}) [[Quy Nhon]], [[Monkey Mountain Facility]] [[Da Nang]], [[Phu Bai Combat Base]], Pr Line ({{Coord|11.868|N|108.547|E|display=inline}}) near [[Da Lat]], Hon Cong mountain [[An Khê]], Phu Lam ({{Coord|10.752|N|106.627|E|display=inline}}) [[Saigon]], VC Hill ({{Coord|10.36|N|107.068|E|display=inline}}) [[Vũng Tàu]] and [[Cần Thơ]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Rienzi|first=Thomas|title=Vietnam Studies Communications-Electronics 1962-1970|publisher=Department of the Army|year=1972|url=https://history.army.mil/html/books/090/90-9-1/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908103743/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/090/90-9-1/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 8, 2015|page=14}}</ref>

;Phil-Tai-Oki, {{flag|Taiwan}}
:A system linking the [[Taiwan]] with the [[Philippines]] and [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]].<ref name="Farrow_1981">{{cite tech report | last1 = Farrow | first1 = J. E. | author-link1 = | last2 = Hause | first2 = L. G. | author-link2 = | date = 1981-01-01 | chapter = 3.3 Aspects of Equipment Covered | script-chapter = | trans-chapter = | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HSCT9S9MioAC&pg=PA29 | chapter-format = | title = Recommendations for Digital Radio Common Tactical/Long-Haul Standards | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HSCT9S9MioAC | url-status = | url-access = | format = | type = | series = | language = en-us | volume = 60 | edition = | institution = [[United States Department of Commerce]] | page=29 | asin = B003HGFY0K | oclc = 605998563 | ol = OL14852853M | number = NTIA Report 81-74 | access-date = 2021-07-15 | via = [[Google Books]] | quote = Failures of the antenna, antenna mounts, or transmission lines have been observed to contribute a major portion of system unavailability. Such outages have been observed on the Scope Com system in Germany, the ETA system in Germany, the Phil-Tai-Oki system in Taiwan and most recently, on the DEB Phase I in Italy. | df = dmy-all}}</ref>

; [[Cable & Wireless plc|Cable & Wireless]] Caribbean network
:A troposcatter link was established by Cable & Wireless in 1960, linking Barbados with Port of Spain, Trinidad. The network was extended further south to Georgetown, Guyana in 1965.<ref name="CableAndWireless">{{cite web | url = https://www.bajanthings.com/cable-and-wireless-in-barbados/ | url-access = | title = Cable & Wireless in Barbados | last1 = Burton | first1 = William | date = 2016-09-19 | website = BajanThings | language = en | access-date = 2021-07-15 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210418112706/https://www.bajanthings.com/cable-and-wireless-in-barbados/ | archive-date = 2021-04-18 | quote = 1960 – Tropospheric scatter radio link established between Barbados and Trinidad. 1965 – Tropospheric scatter system extended south to Guyana via Trinidad and North to Tortola via St. Lucia and Antigua. | df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ipernity.com/doc/777361/48870628 Stamp of Guyana] (1968)</ref>
 
;Japanese Troposcatter Networks, {{flagu|Japan}}
:Two networks linking Japanese islands from North to South.

==Tactical Troposcatter Communication systems==
[[File:Milex-2019 exhibition (Minsk, Belarus) — Выставка Milex-2019 (Минск, Беларусь) 00010.jpg|thumb|Belarusian "Horizon" mobile tropospheric scatter communication system]]
As well as the permanent networks detailed above, there have been many tactical transportable systems produced by several countries:<ref>{{cite tech report |url= http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Troposcatter-Systems.html |url-access= |title=Tropospheric Scatter Communications Systems | last = Kopp | first = Carlo | author-link = Carlo Kopp | date = 2010-08-01 | number = APA-TR-2010-0801 | institution = Air Power Australia | language= en | format = html | access-date = 2021-07-13 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210506001738/http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Troposcatter-Systems.html | archive-date = 2021-05-06 | df = dmy-all}}</ref>
;Soviet / Russian Troposcatter Systems
:[[MNIRTI R-423]]-1 Brig-1/R-423-2A Brig-2A/R-423-1KF
:[[MNIRTI R-444 Eshelon]] / R-444-7,5 Eshelon D
:[[MNIRTI R-420 Atlet-D]]
:[[NIRTI R-417 Baget]]/R-417S Baget S
:[[NPP Radiosvyaz R-412]] A/B/F/S TORF
:[[MNIRTI R-410]]/R-410-5,5/R-410-7,5 Atlet / Albatros
:[[MNIRTI R-408]]/R-408M Baklan

;People's Republic of China (PRoC), People's Liberation Army (PLA) Troposcatter Systems
:[[CETC TS-504]] Troposcatter Communication System
:[[CETC TS-510]]/GS-510 Troposcatter Communication System

;Western Troposcatter Systems
:[[AN/TRC-97]] Troposcatter Communication System
:[[AN/TRC-170]] Tropospheric Scatter Microwave Radio Terminal<ref>{{cite book |date = 2011-01-27 |chapter = Terrestrial microwave and tropospheric scatter - AN/TRC-170(V) tactical digital tropospheric scatter radio (United States) |editor1-last = Williamson |editor1-first = John |title = Jane's Military Communications |url = https://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Military-Communications/AN-TRC-170-V-tactical-digital-tropospheric-scatter-radio-United-States.html/ |url-status = dead |url-access = limited | language = en | edition = 32nd | publisher = [[Janes Information Services|Janes Information Group]] | isbn = 978-0710629487 |oclc = 751723522 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110205092418/https://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Military-Communications/AN-TRC-170-V-tactical-digital-tropospheric-scatter-radio-United-States.html/ | archive-date = 2011-02-05 |access-date= 2021-07-13 |via= |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
:[[AN/GRC-201]] Troposcatter Communication System

[[File:Tropo Scatter Microwave System Antenna.jpg|thumb|US Army TRC-170 Tropo Scatter Microwave System]]
The U.S. Army and Air Force use tactical tropospheric scatter systems developed by [[Raytheon]] for long haul communications. The systems come in two configurations, the original "heavy tropo", and a newer "light tropo" configuration exist. The systems provide four [[Multiplexing|multiplexed]] group channels and trunk encryption, and 16 or 32 local analog phone extensions. The U.S. Marine Corps also uses the same device, albeit an older version.

==See also==
* [[Radio propagation]]
* [[Non-line-of-sight propagation]]
* [[Microwave]]
* [[ACE High]] - Cold war era NATO European troposcatter network
* [[White Alice Communications System]] - Cold war era Alaskan tropospheric communications link
* [[List of White Alice Communications System sites]]
* [[TV and FM DX]]
* [[Distant Early Warning Line]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist|30em|refs=

}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite magazine |last1 = Stecker |first1 = Robert S. | date = 1960-03-01 | title = Scatter Radio Communications | url = https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-Electronics-World/60s/1960/Electronics-World-1960-03.pdf |url-status = live | magazine = [[Electronics World]] | language = en-us | publisher = [[Ziff Davis|Ziff-Davis Publishing Company]] |volume= 63 |issue= 3 |pages = 39{{hyphen}}40,130 | issn = 0266-3244 | oclc = 464907838  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210309142329/https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-Electronics-World/60s/1960/Electronics-World-1960-03.pdf | archive-date = 2021-03-09 | access-date = 2021-07-13 | via = worldradiohistory.com | df = dmy-all}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.trrlsever.org Russian tropospheric relay communication network]
* [http://rammstein.dfmk.hu/~s200/tropo.html Troposcatter communication network maps]
* [https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/antennas-propagation/tropospheric/troposcatter.php Tropospheric Scatter Communications - the essentials]
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.dod.dimoc.26968|name=STAFF FILM REPORT 66-19A (1966)}}

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