View source for Treaty ports

{{Short description|Ports in East Asia opened to trade with Western countries}}
{{About|the ports in East Asia|the Anglo-Irish Treaty ports|Treaty Ports (Ireland)}}
'''Treaty ports''' ({{zh|t=商埠}}; {{langx|ja|条約港}}) were the port cities in China and Japan that were opened to foreign trade mainly by the [[Unequal treaty|unequal treaties]] forced upon them by [[Western world|Western powers]], as well as cities in Korea opened up similarly by the [[Qing dynasty]] of China (before the [[First Sino-Japanese War]]) and the [[Empire of Japan]].<ref>{{Cite book|title = A New Modern History of East Asia|last = Fuchs|first = Eckhardt|year = 2017|page = 146}}</ref><ref>William C. Johnstone, "International Relations: The Status of Foreign Concessions and Settlements in the Treaty Ports of China" ''American Political Science Review'' (1937) 31#5 pp. 942-948 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1947920 online]</ref>

==Chinese treaty ports==
{{main|List of Chinese treaty ports}}

[[File:Chinese Treaty Ports.svg|thumb|Map showing Chinese treaty ports in the 19th and early 20th centuries]]

The British established their first treaty ports in China after the [[First Opium War]] by the [[Treaty of Nanking]] in 1842. As well as ceding the island of [[Hong Kong]] to Great Britain in perpetuity, the treaty also established five treaty ports at [[Shanghai International Settlement|Shanghai]], [[Thirteen Factories|Guangzhou]] (Canton), [[Ningbo]], [[Fuzhou]], and [[Xiamen]] (Amoy). The following year the Chinese and British signed the [[Treaty of the Bogue]], which added provisions for [[extraterritoriality]] and the most favored nation status for the latter country. Subsequent negotiations with the Americans (1844 [[Treaty of Wanghia]]) and the French (1844 [[Treaty of Whampoa]]) led to further concessions for these nations on the same terms as the British.

The second group of treaty ports was set up following the end of the [[Second Opium War]] (Arrow War) in 1860 and eventually, more than 80 treaty ports were established in China alone, involving many foreign powers.

===Characteristics===
Foreigners all lived in prestigious sections newly built for them on the edges of existing port cities. They enjoyed legal extraterritoriality, as stipulated in the unequal treaties. Some of these port areas were directly leased by foreign powers such as in the [[foreign concessions in China]], effectively removing them from the control of local governments.<ref>Peter Hibbard, ''The Bund Shanghai: China Faces West'' (Odyssey Illustrated Guides, 2007)</ref>

Western images of the Chinese treaty ports focus on the distinctive geography of the "bund", a long narrow strip of land in a prime location on the waterfront where the businesses, offices, warehouses, and residences of all foreigners were located. [[The Bund|The Shanghai Bund]] was the largest and most famous. The North Riverbank in [[Ningbo]] (nowadays known as the [[Old Bund]]), was the first in China, opening in 1844, 20 years before the Shanghai bund. A typical bund contained British, German, French, American, Japanese, and other nationals.

The bund was a self-governing operation with its own shops, restaurants, recreational facilities, parks, churches, courts, police, and local government. The facilities were generally off-limits to the natives. The British, who by far dominated foreign trade with China, normally were the largest presence. Businessmen and officials typically brought their own families with them and stayed for years but sent their older children back to England for education.

Chinese sovereignty was only nominal. Officially, the foreign powers were not allowed to station military units in the bund, but in practice, there often was a warship or two in the harbor.<ref>Robert Nield, ''China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Ports'' (2015) [https://books.google.com/books?isbn=9888139282 Online.]</ref>

===Chinese capitulation treaties===
The treaty port system in China lasted approximately one hundred years. It began when the First Opium War ended in 1842. The major powers involved were the British, the French, and the Americans, although by the end of the 19th century all the major powers were involved.

The system effectively ended when Japan took control of most of the ports in the late 1930s, the Russians relinquished their treaty rights in the wake of the [[Russian Revolution]] in 1917, and the Germans were expelled in 1914. The three main treaty powers, the British, the Americans, and the French, continued to hold their concessions and extraterritorial jurisdictions until the [[Second World War]]. This ended when the Japanese stormed into their concessions in late 1941. They formally relinquished their treaty rights in a new "equal treaties" agreement with [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s [[Nationalist government|nationalist government-in-exile]] in [[Chongqing]] in 1943. The international communities that were residues of the treaty port era ended in the late 1940s when the communists took over and nearly all foreigners left.

===Impact on China===
Although the great majority of Chinese lived in traditional rural areas, a handful of booming treaty port cities became vibrant centers that had an enormous long-term impact on the Chinese economy and society. Above all Shanghai became the dominant urban center. Tianjin and  Shenyang followed; Hong Kong, although a British colony, not a treaty port, was similar. Foreigners were welcomed and had stable safe bases, as did Christian missionaries. Outside the ports, the only foreigners were occasional Christian missionaries, and they often encountered serious difficulties. The other 89 cities that became treaty ports between 1842 and 1914 were of minor importance.<ref>Klaus Mühlhahn, ''Making China Modern: From the Great Qing to Xi Jinping'' (2020) pp 107-119.</ref><ref>Arnold Wright, ''Twentieth century impressions of Hongkong, Shanghai, and other treaty ports of China: their history, people, commerce, industries, and resources'' (1908) [https://archive.org/details/twentiethcentury00wriguoft online]</ref>

The [[Shanghai International Settlement]] rapidly developed into one of the world's most modern cities, often compared to Paris, Berlin, and London.<ref>Rhoads Murphey, ''Shanghai: key to modern China'' (Harvard UP, 2013).</ref>  It set the standard of modernity for China and all of East Asia. In Shanghai, the British and American settlements combined in 1863 into an international settlement, with the French settlement operated separately nearby. The foreigners took out long-term leases on the land and set up factories, offices, warehouses, sanitation, police, gardens, restaurants, hotels, banks, and private clubs. The [[Shanghai International Settlement#Municipal Council|Shanghai Municipal Council]] was created in 1854, with nine members who were elected by three dozen foreign landowners at first, and by about 2,000 electors in the 1920s. Chinese residents comprised 90% of the total population of Shanghai but complained about taxation without representation. Eventually, the Council admitted five Chinese representatives.<ref>Robert Bickers, "Shanghailanders: The formation and identity of the British settler community in Shanghai 1843–1937." ''Past & Present'' 159.1 (1998): 161–211 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/651233 online].</ref>

The European community promoted technological and economic innovation, as well as knowledge industries, that proved especially attractive to Chinese entrepreneurs as models for their cities across the growing nation.<ref>Yen-p'ing Hao,  ''The Commercial Revolution of Nineteenth-Century China: The Rise of Sino-Western Mercantile Competition'' (U of California Press, 1984).</ref>  Port cities combined several leadership roles. First of all, they were the major port of entry for all imports and exports - except for opium, which was handled by smugglers in other cities.<ref>Mühlhahn, ''Making China Modern'' 110–114.</ref> Foreign entrepreneurs introduced the latest European manufacturing techniques, providing a model followed sooner or later by all of China. The first establishments focused on shipbuilding, ship repair, railway repair, and factories producing textiles, matches, porcelain, flour, and machinery. Tobacco, cigarettes, textiles, and food products were the specialty in Canton. Financing was handled by branch banks, as well as entirely new operations such as [[HSBC]] -the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, which remains a world-class establishment into the 21st century.<ref>Frank H.H. King,  et al., ''The History of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation'' (Cambridge UP, 1991).</ref>   Across the modernizing world, railway construction was a major financial and industrial endeavor, usually led by the British. Investments now poured into building a railway-plus-telegraph system knitting China together, connecting the treaty ports, and other major cities, as well as mining districts and agricultural centers.<ref>David McLean, "Chinese Railways and the Townley Agreement of 1903." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 7.2 (1973): 145-164 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/311772 online]</ref> Chinese entrepreneurs learned their skills in the port cities, and soon applied for and received bank loans for their startups. Chinese merchants headquartered there set up branches across Southeast Asia, including British Singapore and Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, French Indochina, and the American Philippines.<ref>François Gipouloux,  ed. ''The Asian Mediterranean: port cities and trading networks in China, Japan and South Asia, 13th-21st century'' (Elgar, 2011).</ref>

The information industry flourished in the port cities, with printing shops, newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets in Chinese and European languages. Book publishers often featured Chinese translations of European classics in philosophy, politics, literature, and social issues.<ref>Natascha Vittinghoff, "Readers, publishers and officials in the contest for a public voice and the rise of a modern press in late Qing China (1860-1880)." ''T'oung Pao'' 87.4 (2001): 393-455 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4528882 online].</ref>  According to historian Klaus Mühlhahn:
:This vast network, with Shanghai as its center, spurred the transformation of the Chinese urban population. In their thoughts, tastes, and daily activities, the educated and affluent groups of the urban population began to abandon traditional ways of living and started to embrace what they saw as modern lifestyles.<ref>Mühlhahn, ''Making China Modern'', p. 115.</ref>

Christian missionaries saw all of the Chinese population as their target audience, but they were headquartered in the port cities. The missionaries had very modest success in the conversion of the Chinese population but discovered they became widely  popular for setting up medical and educational facilities. For example, [[St. John's University, Shanghai|St John's University in Shanghai]] (1879–1952) first set up faculties of theology, Western learning, and  Chinese languages, then expanded to cover literature, science, medicine, and intense coverage of Western languages eagerly sought by the ambitious Chinese intellectuals and entrepreneurs who had rejected the old Confucian exam system for the Western model of modernity. Engineering schools were established as well, and by 1914 a network of universities, colleges, teacher training schools, and specialized industrial schools was headquartered in the Port cities, and diffusing their alumni across urban China.<ref>Philip L. Wickeri, ed. ''Christian encounters with Chinese culture: essays on Anglican and Episcopal history in China'' (Hong Kong University Press, 2015).</ref>

Students poured into the port cities. Many adopted ideas and used the facilities newly opened to them to network with each other, set up organizations and publications, and [[Anti-Qing sentiment|plot a revolution against the Qing government]]. Aggressive Japanese moves to dominate China in World War I caused a strong backlash of nationalism in the [[May Fourth Movement]], which focused its ire not just on Japan, but also on the entire port city system as emblematic of imperialism that should no longer be tolerated.<ref>Chow Tse-Tsung, ''The May fourth movement: Intellectual revolution in modern China'' (Harvard UP. 1960) pp 228-238. [https://archive.org/details/mayfourthmovemen0000zhou/mode/2up online]</ref> The national government had almost no police power in the port cities, allowing secret societies to flourish in the Chinese community, some of which turned into criminal gangs. Eventually, Shanghai had a strong underground illegal underworld that was ready to employ violence.<ref>John C. DeKorne, "Sun Yat-Sen and the Secret Societies." ''Pacific Affairs'' 7.4 (1934): 425-433 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2751370 online].</ref>

In modern China, most of [[Special economic zones of China|the country's special economic zones]] are located in former treaty ports and therefore have symbolic significance in demonstrating a "reversal of fortunes" in China's dealings with foreigners since the [[century of humiliation]].<ref name=":33">{{Cite book |last=Liu |first=Zongyuan Zoe |title=Sovereign Funds: How the Communist Party of China Finances its Global Ambitions |publisher=The Belknap Press of [[Harvard University Press]] |year=2023 |isbn=9780674271913 |pages= |doi=10.2307/jj.2915805 |jstor=jj.2915805}}</ref>{{Rp|page=51}} Researcher Zongyuan Zoe Liu writes that "[t]he success of these cities as 'red' treaty ports represented another step in China's overall [[Reform and opening up|reform and opening-up]] plan while legitimizing the leadership of the CPC over the Chinese state and people."<ref name=":33" />{{Rp|page=51}}

===Major treaty ports===
For encyclopedic details on each treaty port, see Robert Nield's ''China's Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Port Era, 1840-1943'' (2015).

{| class="wikitable"
! Current province<br>or municipality
! City
! Date
! Foreign concession holders
|-
| [[Shanghai]]
! scope="row" | [[Shanghai]]
| 1842–1946
| Greater Shanghai had three sections: 
* the [[Shanghai International Settlement]] of the {{flagcountry|UKGBI}} and the {{flag|United States}}
* the [[Shanghai French Concession|Shanghai Concession]] of {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}},
* the [[Old City of Shanghai]]
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Jiangsu]]
! scope="row" | [[Nanjing]]
| 1858
| 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Zhenjiang]]
| 
| 
|-
| [[Jiangxi]]
! scope="row" | [[Jiujiang]]
| 1861–1929
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}, [[British Concession in Jiujiang]] 
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Hubei]]
! scope="row" | [[Hankou District|Hankou]]<br>(now part of [[Wuhan]])
| 1858–1945
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}; later {{flagcountry|Second French Empire}}, {{flagcountry|German Empire}} and {{flag|Empire of Japan}}, {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Russian Empire|Russia]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Shashi District|Shashi]]
| 
| {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Yichang]]
| 
| 
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Hunan]]
! scope="row" | [[Changsha]]
| 1937–1945
| {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Yuzhou, Henan|Yuzhou]]
| 
| 
|-
| [[Sichuan]]
! scope="row" | [[Chongqing]]
| 
| 
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Zhejiang]]
! scope="row" | [[Ningbo]]
| 1841–1842
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Wenzhou]]
| 
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Fujian]]
! scope="row" | [[Fuzhou]]
| 1842–1945
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}, then {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Xiamen]] (Amoy)
| 1842–1912
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}
|-
| rowspan="4" | [[Guangdong]]
! scope="row" | [[Guangzhou]] (Canton)
| 1842–WWII
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}; then {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Shantou]]
| 1858
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Sanshui]]
| 
| 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Haikou]] (Qiongshan)
| 1858
| 
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Guangxi]]
! scope="row" | [[Beihai]]
| 1876–1940s?
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}, {{flag|United States|1877}}, {{flagcountry|German Empire}}, {{flag|Austria-Hungary}}, {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}, {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}}, {{flag|Portugal|1830}}, {{flag|Belgium}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Nanning]]
| 
| 
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Yunnan]]
! scope="row" | [[Mengzi City|Mengzi]]
| 
| 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Pu'er City|Simao]]
| 
| 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Dengyue]]
| 
| 
|-
| [[Shandong]]
! scope="row" | [[Yantai]]
| 
| 
|-
| [[Hebei]]
! scope="row" | [[Tianjin]]
| 1860–1902
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}, {{flag|United States|1859}}, {{flagcountry|Russian Empire}}, {{flagcountry|German Empire}}, {{flag|Austria-Hungary}}, {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}, {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}}, {{flag|Portugal|1830}}, {{flag|Belgium}}
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Liaoning]]
! scope="row" | [[Niuzhuang]]
| 1858
| 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Yingkou]]
| 
| 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Shenyang]]
| 
| 
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Jilin]]
! scope="row" | [[Changchun]]
| 
| 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Hunchun]]
| 
| 
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Heilongjiang]]
! scope="row" | [[Harbin]]
| 1898–1946
| {{flagcountry|Russian Empire}}, {{flag|United States|1896}}, {{flagcountry|German Empire}}; later {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}} and the {{flag|Soviet Union|1936}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Aihun]]
| 
| {{flagcountry|Russian Empire}}, {{flag|Soviet Union|1936}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Manzhouli]]
| 
| {{flagcountry|Russian Empire}}, {{flag|Soviet Union|1936}}
|-
| [[New Taipei City]]
! scope="row" | [[Tamsui District|Tamsui]]
| 1862
| 
|-
|[[Tainan]]
! scope="row" | [[Tainan]]
| 1858
| {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}
|}

===Leased territories===
In these territories the foreign powers obtained, under a [[lease]] treaty, not only the right to trade and exemptions for their subjects but a truly colonial control over each [[concession (territory)|concession territory]], de facto annexation:

{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" | Territory
! scope="col" | Modern Province
! scope="col" | Date
! scope="col" | Lease holder
! scope="col" | Notes
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" | [[Russian Dalian|Kwantung]]
| rowspan="3" | [[Liaoning]]
|-
| 1898–1905
| {{flagcountry|Russian Empire}}
| [[Russian Dalian]] (1898–1905); now [[Dalian]]
|-
| 1905–1945
| {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[British Weihaiwei|Weihaiwei]]
| [[Shandong]]
| 1898–1930
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}
| Now [[Weihai]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory|Kiautschou Bay]]
| Shandong
| 1897–1922
| {{flagcountry|German Empire}}
| Now [[Qingdao]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[New Territories]]
| [[Hong Kong]]
| 1842; 1860; 1898–1997
| {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}
| These are the territories adjoining the original perpetual [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong concession]] and its 1860 [[Kowloon]] extension
|-
! scope="row" | [[Guangzhouwan Leased Territory|Guangzhouwan]]
| [[Guangdong]]
| 1911–1946
| {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}
| Now [[Zhanjiang]]
|}

==Japanese treaty ports==
Japan opened two ports to foreign trade, [[Shimoda, Shizuoka|Shimoda]] and [[Hakodate]], in 1854 ([[Convention of Kanagawa]]), to the United States.<ref>Nakabayashi, 2014</ref> 
In 1858, the [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States-Japan)|Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] designated four more ports, [[Port of Yokohama|Kanagawa]], [[Port of Kobe|Hyogo]], [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], and [[Niigata, Niigata|Niigata]]. The treaty with the United States was followed by similar ones with Britain, the Netherlands, Russia, and France. The ports permitted legal [[extraterritoriality]] for citizens of the treaty nations. The system of treaty ports ended in Japan in the year 1899 as a consequence of Japan's rapid transition to a modern nation. Japan had sought treaty revision earnestly, and in 1894, signed a new treaty with Britain which revised or abrogated the previous "unequal" treaty.  Other countries signed similar treaties.  The new treaties came into force in July 1899.<ref>J.E. Hoare, ''Japan's treaty ports and foreign settlements: the uninvited guests 1858–1899'' (Folkestone: Japan Library, 1994).</ref>

==Korean treaty ports==
Following the [[Ganghwa Treaty]] of 1876, the Korean kingdom of [[Joseon]] agreed to the opening of three strategic ports and the extension of legal [[extraterritoriality]] to merchants from [[Meiji Japan]]. Chinese merchants also entered Korea in earnest after the Qing army was sent to suppress the [[Imo Incident]] in 1882.<ref>{{Cite book|title = A New Modern History of East Asia|last = Fuchs|first = Eckhardt|year = 2017|page = 145}}</ref> The first port opened in this manner was [[Busan]], while [[Incheon]] and [[Wonsan]] followed shortly thereafter. These cities became important centers of mercantile activity for traders from China and Japan until Korea's colonization by Japan in 1910.<ref>Hoisoo Min,  "The Establishment of the Superintendent Office (Gamriseo) at the Treaty Ports in Korea, 1883~ 1886." ''Journal of Northeast Asian History'' 36 (2012): 139-186.</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|China|Japan}}
* [[Economic history of China before 1912]]
* [[Shanghai International Settlement]]
* [[Unequal treaties]]
* [[Chinese concession of Incheon]]
* [[Foreign concessions in China]]
* [[List of Chinese treaty ports]]

==References==
<references/>
* {{Catholic|wstitle=China}}

==Further reading==
* Bickers, Robert, and Isabella Jackson, eds. ''Treaty Ports in Modern China: Law, Land and Power'' (Routledge, 2016).
* Bracken, Gregory. "Treaty Ports in China: Their Genesis, Development, and Influence." ''Journal of Urban History'' 45#1  (2019): 168–176. [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0096144218816548 online]
* Brunero, Donna, and Stephanie Villalta Puig, eds. '' Life in Treaty Port China and Japan'' (Palgrave, 2018), scholarly essays
* Deuchler, Martina.''Confucian Gentlemen and Barbarian Envoys: The Opening of Korea, 1875-1885'' (University of Washington Press, 1977).
* Gull E. M. ''British Economic Interests in the Far East'' (1943); focus on the treaty ports [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.13002/page/n9/mode/2up online]
* Hamashita, Takeshi. "Tribute and treaties: East Asian treaty ports networks in the era of negotiation, 1834–1894." ''European journal of East Asian studies'' 1.1 (2002): 59–87.
* Hibbard, Peter ''The Bund Shanghai: China Faces West'' (Odyssey Illustrated Guides, 2007)
* Hoare. J.E. ''Japan's Treaty Ports and Foreign Settlements: The Uninvited Guests, 1858–1899''  (RoutledgeCurzon, 1995) {{ISBN|978-1-873410-26-4}}.
* Johnstone, William C. "The status of foreign concessions and settlements in the Treaty Ports of China." ''American Political Science Review'' 31.5 (1937): 942–948. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/194792 Online]
* Morse, Hosea Ballou. ''International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The  Period of Conflict: 1834-1860''. (1910) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.53367 online] 
** Morse, Hosea Ballou. ''International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The  Period of Submission: 1861–1893''. (1918) [https://archive.org/details/internationalre00morsgoog online]
** Morse, Hosea Ballou. ''International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The  Period of Subjection: 1894-1911''  (1918) [https://archive.org/details/internationalrel03mors online]
* Morse, Hosea Ballou. ''The Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire'' (1908) [https://archive.org/details/tradeandadminist025044mbp online]
* Nakabayashi, Masaki. "Imposed Efficiency of Treaty Ports: Japanese Industrialization and Western Imperialist Institutions." ''Review of Development Economics'' 18.2 (2014): 254–271. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/rode.12082 Online]
* Nield, Robert.  ''China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Ports'' (2015) [https://books.google.com/books?isbn=9888139282 Online] 
* Patterson, Wayne. ''William Nelson Lovatt in Late Qing China: War, Maritime Customs, and Treaty Ports, 1860–1904'' (Lexington Books, 2019).
* Sewell, Bill. "East Asian Treaty Ports as Zones of Encounter." ''Journal of Urban History'' 45#6  (2019): 1315-1325 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0096144219859256?journalCode=juha online].
* Sigel, Louis T. "Foreign Policy Interests and Activities of the Treaty-Port Chinese Community." in ''Reform in Nineteenth-Century China'' (Brill, 1976) pp.&nbsp;272–281.
* Sigel, Louis T. [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1026.1851&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Urbanization, Modernization, and Identity in Asia: A Historical Perspective"]. ''Modern China'' 4#4 (1978)  pp 461–490.
* Tai, En-Sai. ''Treaty ports in China: A study in diplomacy'' (Columbia UP, 1918) [https://archive.org/details/treatyportsinch01taigoog online].
* Taylor, Jeremy E.  "The bund: littoral space of empire in the treaty ports of East Asia." ''Social History'' 27.2 (2002): 125–142.
* Wood, Frances. ''No Dogs and Not Many Chinese: Treaty Port Life in China 1843-1943'' (1998) 
* Zinda, Yvonne Schulz  "Representation and Nostalgic Re-invention of Shanghai in Chinese film." in ''Port Cities in Asia and Europe'' (2008): 159+.

===Primary sources===
* Cortazzi, Hugh, ed. ''Victorians in Japan: In and around the Treaty ports'' (A&C Black, 2013), Anthology of primary sources.
* Dennys, Nicholas Belfield. ''The Treaty Ports of China and Japan. A Complete Guide to the Open Ports of Those Countries, Together with Peking, Yedo, Hongkong and Macao. Forming a Guide Book & Vade Mecum... With 29 Maps and Plans'' (1867). [https://archive.org/details/treatyportschin00kinggoog online]
* Wright, Arnold. ''Twentieth century impressions of Hongkong, Shanghai, and other treaty ports of China: their history, people, commerce, industries, and resources'' (1908) [https://books.google.com/books?id=tQI_AQAAIAAJ&dq=treaty+ports&pg=PA13 online]

==External links==
* {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412015953/http://www.chinapage.com/transportation/port/treatport1.html|date=12 April 2016|title=Treaty ports and extraterritoriality in China, 1921–22}}
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/China_Foreign_colonies.html WorldStatesmen: China]
* [http://omniatlas.com/maps/eastasia/19070408/ Omniatlas: Map of treaty port system in China in 1907 (earlier dates also available)]
* [http://www.chinasage.info/treatyports.htm Treaty ports in China, 1557-1999]

{{Qing dynasty topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Treaty Ports}}
[[Category:History of European colonialism]]
[[Category:Concessions in China|*]]
[[Category:Free trade imperialism]]
[[Category:19th century in Japan]]
[[Category:History of the foreign relations of Japan]]
[[Category:History of the foreign relations of China]]