View source for Trans–New Guinea languages

{{Short description|Large Papuan language family}}
{{Infobox language family
|name = Trans–New Guinea
|region = [[Indonesia]] ([[Western New Guinea]], [[East Nusa Tenggara]] ([[Alor Archipelago|Alor]], [[Pantar]]) <br> [[East Timor]] <br> [[Papua New Guinea]]
|family      = One of the world's primary [[language family|language families]]
|familycolor = Papuan
|protoname=[[Proto-Trans–New Guinea language|Proto-Trans–New Guinea]]
|child1 = [[Berau Gulf languages|Berau Gulf]]
|child2 = ''[[Sumuri language|Sumeri]]''
|child3 = [[Irian Highlands languages|Irian Highlands]]
|child4 = [[Asmat–Mombum languages|Asmat–Mombum]]
|child5 = Kayagar–Kolopom
|child6 = [[Central West New Guinea languages|Central West New Guinea]]
|child7 = ''[[Oksapmin language|Oksapmin]]''
|child8 = [[Bosavi languages|Bosavi]]
|child9 = [[Duna–Pogaya languages|Duna–Pogaya]]
|child10= [[Anim languages|Anim]]
|child11= ''[[Abom language|Abom]]''
|child12= Morobe – Eastern Highlands
|child13= [[Southeast Papuan languages|Southeast Papuan]]
|iso5=ngf
|glotto=none
|glotto2=nucl1709
|glottoname2=Nuclear Trans–New Guinea,<br />partial overlap
|glottorefname2=Nuclear Trans New Guinea
|map=Trans-New Guinea languages.svg
|mapcaption=The extent of various proposals for Trans–New Guinea. 
{{legend|#7BB5B6|Families accepted by Usher<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/newguineaworld/families/trans-new-guinea NewGuineaWorld Trans–New Guinea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906084908/https://sites.google.com/site/newguineaworld/families/trans-new-guinea|date=6 Sep 2014}}</ref>}}
{{legend|#A7C5C7|Other families proposed by Ross (2005)}}
{{legend|#D9D9D9|Other Papuan languages}}
{{legend|#E09D00|Austronesian languages}}
{{legend|white|Uninhabited}}
|mapsize=255
|map2=TNG map.svg
|mapcaption2=The various families constituting Ross' conception of Trans–New Guinea. The greatest TNG diversity is in the eastern highlands. (After Ross 2005.)
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
''Irian Jaya, W to E''
{{legend|#E00000|South Bird's Head}}
{{legend|#5DFF00|West Trans–New Guinea}}
{{legend|#AD00FF|Kaure–Kapori}}
{{legend|#FFCA6D|Pauwasi}}
{{legend|#D5D300|Mek}}
{{legend|#FF9600|Asmat–Kamoro}}
{{legend|#FF3800|Awyu–Dumut}}
{{legend|#D82600|Ok}}
{{legend|#7EB00A|Kayagar}}
{{legend|#FFFF00|Marind}}
{{legend|#FFD3B6|Kolopom}}
{{Col-3}}
''PNG highlands, W to E''
{{legend|#3684B6|Awin–Pa}}
{{legend|#CD5C6F|East Strickland}}
{{legend|#A400AD|Duna}}
{{legend|#00D327|Bosavi}}
{{legend|#FF3BB6|Engan}}
{{legend|#D9D079|West Kutubuan}}
{{legend|#FFE700|East Kutubuan}}
{{legend|#DCD300|Chimbu–Wahgi}}
{{legend|#00A159|Kainantu–Goroka}}
{{legend|#BF767B|Madang}}
{{legend|#7BB5B6|Finisterre–Huon}}
{{Col-3}}
''Southern PNG, E to W''
{{legend|#FFFF66|Binanderean}}
{{legend|#FFF0B6|Southeast Papuan}}
{{legend|#B00070|Angan}}
{{legend|#AAD383|Eleman}}
{{legend|#8D75B6|Teberan}}
{{legend|#FFA100|Turama–Kikorian}}
{{legend|#FF5E5F|Kiwai–Porome}}
{{legend|#CCFF24|Inland Gulf}}
{{legend|#D687FF|Gogodala–Suki}}
{{legend|#FFD561|Tirio}}
{{legend|#00FFFF|isolates*}}
{{Col-end}}
&nbsp;&nbsp;* <small>''Mor, Tanah Merah, Dem, Uhunduni, Oksapmin, Wiru, Pawaia, Kamula, Moraori, Mombum''</small>
}}

'''Trans–New Guinea''' ('''TNG''') is an extensive [[Language family|family]] of [[Papuan languages]] spoken on the island of [[New Guinea]] and neighboring islands, a region corresponding to the country [[Papua New Guinea]] as well as [[Western New Guinea|parts]] of [[Indonesia]].

Trans–New Guinea is perhaps the [[List of language families#By number of languages|third-largest language family in the world]] by number of languages. The core of the family is considered to be established, but its boundaries and overall membership are uncertain. The languages are spoken by around 3 million people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Papuan.html|title=Papuan|website=www.languagesgulper.com|language=en|access-date=2017-10-15}}</ref> There have been several main proposals as to its internal classification.

==History of the proposal==
Although Papuan languages for the most part are poorly documented, several of the branches of Trans–New Guinea have been recognized for some time. The [[Eleman languages]] were first proposed by S. Ray in 1907, parts of [[Marind languages|Marind]] were recognized by Ray and JHP Murray in 1918, and the [[Rai Coast languages]] in 1919, again by Ray.

The precursor of the Trans–New Guinea family was [[Stephen Wurm]]'s 1960 proposal of an [[East New Guinea Highlands languages|East New Guinea Highlands]] family. Although broken up by [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]] in 2005, it united different branches of what became TNG for the first time, linking Engan, Chimbu–Wahgi, Goroka, and Kainantu. (Duna and Kalam were added in 1971.) Then in 1970, [[Clemens Voorhoeve]] and [[Kenneth McElhanon]] noted 91 lexical resemblances between the [[Central and South New Guinea languages|Central and South New Guinea]] (CSNG) and [[Finisterre–Huon languages|Finisterre–Huon]] families, which they had respectively established a few years earlier. Although they did not work out regular sound correspondences, and so could not distinguish between cognates due to genealogical relationship, cognates due to borrowing, and chance resemblances, their research was taken seriously. They chose the name ''Trans–New Guinea'' because this new family was the first to span New Guinea, from the [[Bomberai Peninsula]] of western West Irian to the [[Huon Peninsula]] of eastern PNG. They also noted possible cognates in other families Wurm would later add to TNG: Wurm's East New Guinea Highlands, [[Binandere languages|Binandere]] in the '[[Bird's Tail]]' of PNG, and two families that [[John Z'graggen]] would later (1971, 1975) unite in his 100-language [[Madang languages|Madang–Adelbert Range]] family.

In 1975, Wurm accepted Voorhoeve and McElhanon's suspicions about further connections, as well as Z'graggen's work, and postulated additional links to, among others, the languages of the island of [[Timor]] to the west of New Guinea, [[Angan languages|Angan]], [[Goilalan languages|Goilalan]], [[Koiarian languages|Koiarian]], [[Dagan languages|Dagan]], [[Eleman languages|Eleman]], [[Wissel Lakes languages|Wissel Lakes]], the erstwhile [[Dani-Kwerba languages|Dani-Kwerba]] family, and the erstwhile [[Trans-Fly–Bulaka River]] family (which he had established in 1970), expanding TNG into an enormous language phylum that covered most of the island of New Guinea, as well as Timor and neighboring islands, and included over 500 languages spoken by some 2,300,000 people. However, part of the evidence for this was [[language typology|typological]], and Wurm stated that he did not expect it to stand up well to scrutiny. Although he based the phylum on characteristic [[personal pronoun]]s, several of the branches had no pronouns in common with the rest of the family, or even had pronouns related to non-TNG families, but were included because they were grammatically similar to TNG. Other families that had typical TNG pronouns were excluded because they did not resemble other TNG families in their grammatical structure.

Because grammatical typology is readily borrowed—many of the [[Austronesian languages]] in New Guinea have grammatical structures similar to their Papuan neighbors, for example, and conversely many Papuan languages resemble typical Austronesian languages typologically—other linguists were skeptical. [[William A. Foley]] rejected Wurm's and even some of Voorhoeve's results, and he broke much of TNG into its constituent parts: several dozen small but clearly valid families, plus a number of apparent [[language isolate|isolates]].

In 2005, [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]] published a draft proposal re-evaluating Trans–New Guinea, and found what he believed to be overwhelming evidence for a reduced version of the phylum, based solely on lexical resemblances, which retained as much as 85% of Wurm's hypothesis, though some of it tentatively.

The strongest lexical evidence for any language family is shared [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] paradigms, especially highly irregular or [[suppletive]] paradigms with bound morphology, because these are extremely resistant to borrowing. For example, the fact that German words  ''gut'' "good" and ''besser'' "better" resemble their English counterparts would be stronger evidence that German is related to English than the mere lexical correspondence between German ''rot'' and English ''red'' for the color. However, because of the great morphological complexity of many Papuan languages, and the poor state of documentation of nearly all, in New Guinea this approach is essentially restricted to comparing [[pronoun]]s. Ross reconstructed pronouns sets for Foley's basic families and compared these reconstructions, rather than using a direct mass comparison of all Papuan languages; attempted to then reconstruct the ancestral pronouns of the proto-Trans–New Guinea language, such as ''*ni'' "we", ''*ŋgi'' "you", ''*i'' "they"; and then compared poorly supported branches directly to this reconstruction. Families required two apparent cognates to be included. However, if any language in a family was a match, the family was considered a match, greatly increasing the likelihood of coincidental resemblances, and because the plural forms are related to the singular forms, a match of 1sg and 1pl, although satisfying Ross's requirement of two matches, is not actually two independent matches, again increasing the likelihood of spurious matches.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} In addition, Ross counted forms like *a as a match to 2sg *ga, so that {{IPA|/ɡV, kV, ŋɡV, V/}} all counted as matches to *ga. And although {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} occur in Papuan pronouns at twice the level expected by their occurrence in pronouns elsewhere in the world, they do not correlate with each other as they would if they reflected a language family. That is, it is argued that Ross's pronouns do not support the validity of Trans–New Guinea, and do not reveal which families might belong to it.<ref name=HH>Harald Hammarström (2012) "Pronouns and the (Preliminary) Classification of Papuan languages", ''Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea''</ref>

Ross also included in his proposal several better-attested families for non-pronominal evidence, despite a lack of pronouns common to other branches of TNG, and he suggested that there may be other families that would have been included if they had been better attested. Several additional families are only tentatively linked to TNG. Because the boundaries of Ross's proposal are based primarily on a single parameter, the pronouns, all internal structure remains tentative.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

==The languages==
[[File:Newguinea topo.png|thumb|upright=1.3|left|TNG is strongly associated with the [[New Guinea Highlands]] (red), and may have spread with the spread of highland agriculture starting c. 10,000 BP, probably in the east, and only more recently south of the highlands.]]
Most TNG languages are spoken by only a few thousand people, with only seven ([[Melpa language|Melpa]], [[Kuman language (New Guinea)|Kuman]], [[Enga language|Enga]], [[Huli language|Huli]], [[Western Dani language|Western Dani]], [[Makasae language|Makasae]], and [[Ekari language|Ekari]]) being spoken by more than 100,000.<ref name="Palmer-LLNGA">{{cite book |last=Palmer |first=Bill |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=Language families of the New Guinea Area |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=1–20 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref> The most populous language outside of mainland New Guinea is [[Makasae language|Makasae]] of [[East Timor]], with 100,000 speakers throughout the eastern part of the country. [[Enga language|Enga]] is the most populous Trans-New Guinea language spoken in [[New Guinea]], with more than 200,000 speakers. [[Golin language|Golin]], [[Sinasina language|Sinasina]], Mid Grand Valley Dani, [[Kamano language|Kamano]], and [[Bunaq language|Bunaq]] have between 50,000 and 100,000 speakers ([[Galela language|Galela]] of [[Halmahera]], usually not classified as Trans-New Guinea, also has between 50,000 and 100,000 speakers.) All other Trans–New Guinea languages have fewer than 50,000 speakers.<ref name="Palmer-LLNGA"/>

The greatest linguistic diversity in Ross's Trans–New Guinea proposal, and therefore perhaps the location of the proto-Trans–New Guinea homeland, is in the interior highlands of Papua New Guinea, in the central-to-eastern New Guinea cordillera where Wurm first posited his East New Guinea Highlands family. Indonesian [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]] and the [[Papuan Peninsula]] of Papua New Guinea (the "bird's tail") have fewer and more widely extended branches of TNG, and were therefore likely settled by TNG speakers after the [[proto-language]] broke up.

Ross speculates that the TNG family may have spread with the high population densities that resulted from the domestication of [[taro]], settling quickly in the highland valleys along the length of the cordillera but spreading much more slowly into the [[malaria]]l lowlands, and not at all into areas such as the [[Sepik River]] valley where the people already had yam agriculture, which thus supported high population densities. Ross suggests that TNG may have arrived at its western limit, the islands near [[Timor]], perhaps four to 4.5 thousand years ago, before the expansion of Austronesian into this area. 
[[Roger Blench]] associates the spread of Trans–New Guinea languages with the domestication of the [[Musa (genus)|banana]].<ref name=RB>Roger Blench (2017) "Things your classics master never told you: a borrowing from Trans New Guinea languages into Latin", ''McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research''</ref>

==Classification==
===Wurm, Voorhoeve & McElhanon (1975)===
Wurm et al. identify the subdivisions in their Papuan classification as ''families'' (on the order of relatedness of the [[Germanic languages]]), ''stocks'' (on the order of the [[Indo-European languages]]), and ''phyla'' (on the order of the [[Nostratic]] hypothesis). Trans-New Guinea is a phylum in this terminology. A language that is not related to any other at a ''family'' level or below is called an [[language isolate|isolate]] in this scheme.<ref>S.A.Wurm, C.L.Voorhoeve & K. McElhanon, The Trans-New Guinea Phylum in General.[https://web.archive.org/web/20100626004723/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-5.pdf] Section 2.5 of S.A. Wurm (ed.) 1977 [1975] ''New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, Volume 1: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene''. Australian National University, Canberra</ref>

{{collapse top|Trans-New Guinea phylum (Wurm et al. 1975)}}
('Family-level' groups are listed in '''boldface''')

* ?'''[[Oksapmin language|Oksapmin]]''' isolate [inclusion dubious] 
* '''[[Morwap language|Morwap]]''' isolate 
* '''[[Molof language|Molof]]''' isolate 
* '''[[Usku language|Usku]]''' isolate 
* '''[[Tofamna language|Tofamna]]''' isolate 
* Eleman stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626004629/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-7.pdf] 
** '''[[Eleman languages|Eleman]]''' family
** '''[[Purari language|Purari]]''' isolate (Koriki, Namau)
** '''[[Tate language|Tate]]''' isolate
* [[Inland Gulf languages|Inland Gulf]] stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626004629/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-7.pdf] 
** '''[[Ipiko language|Ipiko]]''' isolate
** '''[[Minanibai languages|Minanibai]]''' family (incl. [[Karami language|Karami]])
* Kaure stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
** '''[[Kaure languages|Kaure]]''' family
** '''[[Kapori language|Kapori]]''' isolate
** '''[[Sause language|Sause]]''' isolate
* '''[[Kolopom languages|Kolopom]]''' (Frederik Hendrik Island) family 
* '''[[Nimboran languages|Nimboran]]''' family 
* '''[[Goliath languages|Goliath]]''' family (Mek) 
* Northern, or Border&ndash;Tor&ndash;Lake Plain super-stock
** Border stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
*** '''[[Waris languages|Waris]]''' family
*** '''[[Taikat languages|Taikat]]''' family
*** '''[[Bewani languages|Bewani]]''' family
** Tor &ndash; Lake Plain stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
*** '''[[Tor languages|Tor]]''' family
*** '''[[Turu languages|Turu]]''' family
*** '''[[Central Lakes Plain languages|Central Lake Plain]]''' family
*** '''[[Uria language|Uria]]''' isolate
*** '''[[Mawes language|Mawes]]''' isolate
* [[Pauwasi languages|Pauwasi]] stock
** '''[[Eastern Pauwasi languages|Eastern]]''' family
** '''[[Western Pauwasi languages|Western]]''' family ([[Dubu language|Dubu]], [[Towei language|Towei]])
* '''[[Senagi languages|Senagi]]''' family [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf] 
* South Bird's Head (Vogelkop) stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
** '''[[South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head]]''' family
** '''[[Inanwatan languages|Inanwatan]]''' family
** '''[[Konda&ndash;Yahadian languages|Konda&ndash;Yahadian]]''' family
* Timor&ndash;Alor&ndash;Pantar stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003748/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-10-1.pdf] 
** '''[[Bunak language|Bunak]]''' isolate
** '''[[Makasai language|Makasai]]''' isolate 
** '''[[Oirata language|Oirata]]''' isolate
** '''[[Fataluku language|Fataluku]]''' (Dagodá) isolate
** '''[[Lovaea language|Lovaea]]''' isolate
** '''[[Kairui language|Kairui]]''' isolate
** '''[[Alor&ndash;Pantar languages|Alor&ndash;Pantar]]''' family
* Teberan&ndash;Pawaian superstock 
** '''[[Teberan languages|Teberan]]''' family
** '''[[Pawaia language|Pawaia]]''' isolate
* Turama&ndash;Kikorian stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626004629/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-7.pdf] 
** '''[[Mena languages|Mena]]''' or '''Turama&ndash;Omatian''' family
** '''[[Kairi language|Kairi]] (Dumu)''' isolate
* Trans-Fly &ndash; Bulaka River superstock 
** '''[[Bulaka River languages|Bulaka River]]''' family (Yelmek–Maklew)
** Trans-Fly stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626004512/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-1.pdf]
*** '''[[Kiwaian languages|Kiwaian]]''' family
*** '''[[Tirio languages|Tirio]]''' family 
*** '''[[Eastern Trans-Fly languages|Eastern Trans-Fly]]''' family
*** '''[[Pahoturi languages|Pahoturi River]]''' family
*** '''Morehead & Upper Maro Rivers''' family: 
**** [[Nambu languages|Nambu]] subfamily
**** [[Tonda languages|Tonda]] subfamily
**** [[Yey language|Yey]] isolate
**** [[Moraori language|Moraori]] isolate
* Madang &ndash; Adelbert Range subphylum [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626005003/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-8-2.pdf] 
** Madang superstock 
*** '''[[Rai Coast languages|Rai Coast]] stock'''
**** '''Evapia''' family ([[Asas language|Asas]], [[Dumpu language|Dumpu]], [[Kesawai language|Kesawai]], [[Sausi language|Sausi]], [[Sinsauru language|Sinsauru]])
**** '''[[Mindjim languages|Mindjim]]''' family
**** '''Kabenau''' family ([[Arawum language|Arawum]], [[Kolom language|Kolom]], [[Siroi language|Siroi]], [[Lemio language|Lemio]], [[Pulabu language|Pulabu]])
**** '''[[Yaganon languages|Yaganon]]''' family
**** '''Peka''' family ([[Usino language|Usino]], [[Sumau language|Sumau]], [[Urigina language|Urigina]], [[Danaru language|Danaru]])
**** '''Nuru''' family ([[Usu language|Usu]], [[Erima language|Erima]], [[Duduela language|Duduela]], [[Kwato language|Kwato]], [[Rerau language|Rerau]], [[Jilim language|Jilim]], [[Yangulam language|Yangulam]])
*** [[Mabuso languages|Mabuso]] stock
**** '''[[Kare language (Papuan)|Kare]]''' isolate
**** '''[[Kokon languages|Kokon]]''' family
**** '''[[Gum languages|Gum]]''' family
**** '''[[Hanseman languages|Hanseman]]''' family
** Adelbert Range superstock 
*** '''[[Mugil language|Mugil]]'''  isolate
*** Isumrud stock
**** '''[[Dimir language|Dimir]]''' isolate
**** '''[[Kowan languages|Kowan]]''' family
**** '''[[Mabuan languages|Mabuan]]''' family
*** Pihom stock
**** '''[[Amaimon language|Amaimon]]''' isolate
**** '''[[Kaukombar languages|Kaukombaran]]''' family
**** '''[[Kumil languages|Kumilan]]''' family
**** '''[[Numugen languages|Numagenan]]''' family
**** '''[[Omosan languages|Omosan]]''' family
**** '''[[Tiboran languages|Tiboran]]''' family
*** [[Josephstaal languages|Josephstaal]] stock
**** '''[[Osum language|Osum]]''' isolate
**** '''[[Wadaginam language|Wadaginam]]''' isolate
**** '''[[Sikan languages|Sikan]]''' family
**** '''[[Pomoikan languages|Pomoikan]]''' family
*** [[Wanang languages|Wanang]] stock
**** '''[[Paynamar language|Paynamar]]''' isolate
**** '''Atan''' family ([[Atemble language|Atemble]], [[Angaua language|Angaua]])
**** '''Emuan''' family ([[Emerum language|Emerum]], [[Musak language|Musak]])
*** '''[[Brahman languages|Brahman]]''' family (membership per Z'graggen)
* Main Section: 
** Eastern TNG subphylum [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626002932/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-9.pdf]
*** Binandere stock
**** '''[[Guhu-Semane language|Guhu-Semane]]''' isolate
**** '''[[Binandere languages|Binandere]]''' family
*** '''[[Goilalan languages|Goilalan]]''' family
*** '''[[Koiarian languages|Koiarian]]''' family 
*** '''[[Kwalean languages|Kwalean]]''' family
*** '''[[Manubaran languages|Manubaran]]''' family
*** '''[[Yareban languages|Yareban]]''' family
*** '''[[Mailuan languages|Mailuan]]''' family
*** '''[[Dagan languages|Dagan]]''' family
** Central and Western TNG subphylum
*** Finisterre-Huon superstock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003636/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-8-1.pdf]
**** Huon stock
***** '''[[Kovai language|Kovai]]''' isolate
***** '''[[Eastern Huon languages|Eastern Huon]]''' family
***** '''[[Western Huon languages|Western Huon]]''' family
****Finisterre stock
*****'''[[Erap languages|Erap]]''' family
*****'''[[Wantoat languages|Wantoat]]''' family
*****'''[[Gusap&ndash;Mot languages|Gusap&ndash;Mot]]''' family
*****'''[[Warup languages|Warup]]''' family
*****'''[[Yupna languages|Yupna]]''' family
*****'''[[Uruwa languages|Uruwa]]''' family
*****'''[[Abaga language|Abaga]]''' isolate
*** East New Guinea Highlands stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626004629/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-7.pdf]
**** '''[[Kainantu languages|Eastern]]''' family (= Kainantu)
***** Gadsup&ndash;Auyana&ndash;Awa subfamily
***** Tairora subfamily
***** [[Owena language|Owena]] isolate
**** '''[[Goroka languages|East-Central]]''' family (= Goroka)
***** [[Gende language|Gende]] (Bundi) isolate
***** Siane subfamily
***** Gahuku subfamily
***** Kamano subfamily
***** Fore subfamily
**** '''[[Chimbu–Wahgi languages|Central]]''' family (= Chimbu–Wahgi)
***** Chimbu subfamily
***** Wahgi subfamily
***** Jimi subfamily
***** Hagen subfamily
**** '''[[Engan languages|West-Central]]''' family (= Engan)
***** Enga subfamily
***** [[Huli language|Huli]] isolate
***** Angal (Mendi)&ndash;Kewa subfamily
**** '''[[Kalam languages|Kalam]]''' family
**** '''[[Wiru language|Wiru]]''' isolate
**** '''[[Kenati language|Kenati]]''' (Aziana) isolate
*** Central and South New Guinea &ndash; Kutubuan superstock
**** Kutubuan stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626004629/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-7.pdf]
***** '''[[West Kutubu languages|West Kutubu]]''' family
***** '''[[East Kutubu languages|East Kutubu]]''' family
**** Central and South New Guinea stock (in the Central Highlands and Arafura Coast)[https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
***** '''[[Bosavi languages|Bosavi]]''' family
***** '''[[East Strickland languages|East Strickland]]''' family
***** '''[[Awin&ndash;Pa languages|Awin&ndash;Pa]]''' family
***** '''[[Duna languages|Duna]]''' or '''Duna&ndash;Bogaya''' family
***** '''[[Ok languages|Ok]]''' family
***** '''[[Awyu&ndash;Dumut languages|Awyu&ndash;Dumut]]''' family
***** '''[[Asmat&ndash;Kamoro languages|Asmat&ndash;Kamoro]]''' family
***** '''[[Somahai language|Somahai]]''' isolate
***** '''[[Mombum languages|Mombum]]''' family
*** '''Angan''' family [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626004629/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-7.pdf]
**** [[Angaataha language|Angaataha]] isolate
**** Angan subfamily
*** Gogodala&ndash;Suki stock
**** '''[[Suki language|Suki]]''' isolate
**** '''[[Gogodala languages|Gogodala]]''' family
*** Marind stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
**** '''[[Boazi languages|Boazi]]''' family
**** '''[[Marind languages|Marind]]''' family
**** '''[[Yaqay languages|Yaqay]]''' family
*** '''[[Kayagar languages|Kayagar]]''' family
*** Sentani stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
**** '''[[Sentani languages|Sentani]]''' family
**** '''[[Demta language|Demta]]''' isolate
*** Dani or Dani&ndash;Kwerba stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
**** '''[[Dani languages|Dani]]''' family
**** '''[[Kwerba languages|Kwerba]]''' family
**** '''[[Samarokena language|Samarokena]]''' isolate
**** '''[[Saberi language|Saberi]]''' isolate 
*** '''[[Dem language|Dem]]''' isolate
*** Wissel Lakes &ndash; Kemandoga stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
**** '''[[Uhunduni language|Uhunduni]] (Amung)''' isolate
**** '''[[Ekagi–Wodani–Moni languages|Ekagi&ndash;Wodani&ndash;Moni]]''' family
*** Mairasi &ndash; Tanah Merah stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
**** '''[[Mairasi languages|Mairasi]]''' family
**** '''[[Sumeri language|Tanah Merah]]''' isolate
*** West Bomberai stock [https://web.archive.org/web/20100626003541/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/02-6-2.pdf]
**** '''[[Karas language|Karas]]''' isolate
**** '''[[West Bomberai languages|West Bomberai]]''' family
*** '''[[Mor language (Papuan)|Mor]]''' isolate
{{collapse bottom}}

===Foley (2003)===
As of 2003, [[William A. Foley]] accepted the core of TNG: "The fact, for example, that a great swath of languages in New Guinea from the Huon Peninsula to the highlands of Irian Jaya mark the object of a transitive verb with a set of verbal prefixes, a first person singular in /n/ and second person singular in a [[velar stop]], is overwhelming evidence that these languages are all genetically related; the likelihood of such a system being borrowed vanishingly small."<ref>[http://www.arts.usyd.edu.au/research_projects/delp/papuan.php DELP: Papuan languages]</ref> He considered the relationship between the Finisterre–Huon, Eastern Highlands (Kainantu–Gorokan), and Irian Highlands (Dani – Paniai Lakes) families (and presumably some other smaller ones) to be established, and he said that it is "highly likely" that the Madang family belongs as well. He considered it possible, but not yet demonstrated, that the Enga, Chimbu, Binandere, Angan, Ok, Awyu, Asmat (perhaps closest to Ok and Awyu), Mek, Sentani, and the seven small language families of the tail of Papua New Guinea (Koiarian, Goilalan, etc., which he maintains have not been shown to be closely related to each other) may belong to TNG as well.

===Ross (2005)===
[[File:TNG map.svg|thumb|The various families constituting [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]]' conception of Trans–New Guinea. The greatest TNG diversity is in the eastern highlands. (After Ross 2005.)
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
''Irian Jaya, W to E''
{{legend|#E00000|South Bird's Head}}
{{legend|#5DFF00|West Trans–New Guinea}}
{{legend|#AD00FF|Kaure–Kapori}}
{{legend|#FFCA6D|Pauwasi}}
{{legend|#D5D300|Mek}}
{{legend|#FF9600|Asmat–Kamoro}}
{{legend|#FF3800|Awyu–Dumut}}
{{legend|#D82600|Ok}}
{{legend|#7EB00A|Kayagar}}
{{legend|#FFFF00|Marind}}
{{legend|#FFD3B6|Kolopom}}
{{Col-3}}
''PNG highlands, W to E''
{{legend|#3684B6|Awin–Pa}}
{{legend|#CD5C6F|East Strickland}}
{{legend|#A400AD|Duna}}
{{legend|#00D327|Bosavi}}
{{legend|#FF3BB6|Engan}}
{{legend|#D9D079|West Kutubuan}}
{{legend|#FFE700|East Kutubuan}}
{{legend|#DCD300|Chimbu–Wahgi}}
{{legend|#00A159|Kainantu–Goroka}}
{{legend|#BF767B|Madang}}
{{legend|#7BB5B6|Finisterre–Huon}}
{{Col-3}}
''Southern PNG, E to W''
{{legend|#FFFF66|Binanderean}}
{{legend|#FFF0B6|Southeast Papuan}}
{{legend|#B00070|Angan}}
{{legend|#AAD383|Eleman}}
{{legend|#8D75B6|Teberan}}
{{legend|#FFA100|Turama–Kikorian}}
{{legend|#FF5E5F|Kiwai–Porome}}
{{legend|#CCFF24|Inland Gulf}}
{{legend|#D687FF|Gogodala–Suki}}
{{legend|#FFD561|Tirio}}
{{legend|#00FFFF|isolates*}}
{{Col-end}}
&nbsp;&nbsp;* <small>''Mor, Tanah Merah, Dem, Uhunduni, Oksapmin, Wiru, Pawaia, Kamula, Moraori, Mombum''</small>]]

Ross does not use specialized terms for different levels of classification as [[Donald Laycock]] and [[Stephen Wurm]] did. In the list given here, the uncontroversial families that are accepted by Foley and other Papuanists and that are the building blocks of Ross's TNG are printed in '''boldface'''. Language isolates are printed in ''italics''.

Ross removed about 100 languages from Wurm's proposal, and only tentatively retained a few dozen more, but in one instance he added a language, the isolate [[Porome language|Porome]].

Ross did not have sufficient evidence to classify all Papuan groups. In addition, the classification is based on a single feature – shared pronouns, especially 1sg and 2sg – and thus is subject to false positives as well as to missing branches that have undergone significant sound changes, since he does not have the data to establish regular sound correspondences.{{according to whom|date=May 2024}}

;Unclassified Wurmian languages
Although Ross based his classification on pronoun systems, many languages in New Guinea are too poorly documented for even this to work.{{POV statement|date=May 2024}} Thus there are several isolates that were placed in TNG by Wurm but that cannot be addressed by Ross's classification. A few of them (Komyandaret, Samarokena, and maybe Kenati) have since been assigned to existing branches (or ex-branches) of TNG, whereas others (Massep, Momuna) continue to defy classification.

* ''[[Kenati language|Kenati]]'' (→ [[Kainantu languages|Kainantu]]?)
* ''[[Komyandaret language|Komyandaret]]'' (→ [[Greater Awyu languages|Greater Awyu]])
* ''[[Massep language|Massep]]'' isolate
* ''[[Molof language|Molof]]'' isolate
* '''[[Momuna languages|Momuna]]''' family (2)
* ''[[Samarokena language|Samarokena]]'' (→ [[Kwerba languages|Kwerba]])
* ''[[Tofamna language|Tofamna]]'' isolate
* ''[[Usku language|Usku]]'' isolate

;Reclassified Wurmian languages
Ross removed 95 languages from TNG. These are small families with no pronouns in common with TNG languages, but that are typologically similar, perhaps due to long periods of contact with TNG languages.

* Border and Morwap (Elseng), as an independent [[Border languages (New Guinea)|Border]] family (15 languages)
* ''[[Isirawa language|Isirawa]] (Saberi),'' as a language isolate (though classified as [[Kwerba languages|Kwerba]] by Clouse, Donohue & Ma 2002)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clouse|first=Duane|last2=Donohue|first2=Mark|last3=Ma|first3=Felix|year=2002|title=Survey report of the north coast of Irian Jaya|url=https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/9028|journal=SIL Electronic Survey Reports|volume=078}}</ref>
* Lakes Plain, as an independent [[Lakes Plain languages|Lakes Plain]] family (19)
* Mairasi, as an independent [[Mairasi languages|Mairasi]] family (4)
* Nimboran, as an independent [[Nimboran languages|Nimboran]] family (5)
* Piawi, as an independent [[Piawi languages|Piawi]] family (2)
* Senagi, as an independent [[Senagi languages|Senagi]] family (2)
* Sentani (4 languages), within an [[East Bird's Head – Sentani languages|East Bird's Head – Sentani]] family
* Tor and Kwerba, joined as a [[Tor–Kwerba languages|Tor–Kwerba]] family (17)
* Trans-Fly – Bulaka River is broken into five groups: three remaining (tentatively) in TNG (Kiwaian, Moraori, Tirio), plus the independent [[South-Central Papuan languages|South-Central Papuan]] and [[Eastern Trans-Fly languages|Eastern Trans-Fly]] families (22 and 4 languages).

{{collapse top|Trans–New Guinea phylum (Ross 2005)}}
*[[West Trans–New Guinea languages|West Trans–New Guinea]] linkage ? [a suspected old [[dialect continuum]]]
**West Bomberai – Timor–Alor–Pantar
*** '''[[Timor–Alor–Pantar languages|Timor–Alor–Pantar]]''' families (22)
*** '''[[West Bomberai languages|West Bomberai]]''' family (2)
** '''[[Paniai Lakes languages|Paniai Lakes]] (Wissel Lakes)''' family (5)
** '''[[Dani languages|Dani]]''' family (13)
* '''[[South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head]] (South Doberai)''' family (12)
* '''''[[Sumeri language|Tanah Merah]] (Sumeri)''''' isolate
* '''''[[Mor language (Papuan)|Mor]]''''' isolate
* '''''[[Dem language|Dem]]''''' isolate
* '''''[[Amung language|Uhunduni]]''''' (''Damal, Amungme'') isolate
* '''[[Mek languages|Mek]]''' family (13)
* ? Kaure–Kapori (4) [Inclusion in TNG tentative. No pronouns can be reconstructed from the available data.]
** '''''[[Kapori language|Kapori]]''''' isolate
** '''[[Kaure languages|Kaure]]''' family (3)
* ? '''[[Pauwasi languages|Pauwasi]]''' family (4) [Inclusion in TNG tentative. No pronouns can be reconstructed from the available data. Since linked to [[Karkar language|Karkar]], which is well attested and not TNG]
* '''[[Kayagar languages|Kayagar]]''' family (3)
* '''[[Kolopom languages|Kolopom]]''' family (3)
* '''''[[Moraori language|Moraori]]''''' isolate
* ? Kiwai–Porome (8) [TNG identity of pronouns suspect]
** '''[[Kiwaian languages|Kiwaian]]''' family (7)
** '''''[[Porome language|Porome]] (Kibiri)''''' isolate
* '''[[Marind languages|Marind]]''' family (6)
* [[Central and South New Guinea languages|Central and South New Guinea]] ? (49, reduced) [Part of the original TNG proposal. Not clear if these four families form a single branch of TNG. Voorhoeve argues independently for an Awyu–Ok relationship.]
** '''[[Asmat–Kamoro languages|Asmat–Kamoro]]''' family (11)
** '''[[Awyu–Dumut languages|Awyu–Dumut]]''' family (8–16)
** '''[[Mombum languages|Mombum]]''' family (2)
** '''[[Ok languages|Ok]]''' family (20)
* '''''[[Oksapmin language|Oksapmin]]''''' isolate [now linked to the Ok family]
* '''[[Gogodala–Suki languages|Gogodala–Suki]]''' family (4)
* '''[[Tirio languages|Tirio]]''' family (4)
* '''[[Eleman languages|Eleman]]''' family (7)
* '''[[Inland Gulf languages|Inland Gulf]]''' family (6)
* '''[[Turama–Kikorian languages|Turama–Kikorian]]''' family (4)
* ? '''[[Teberan languages|Teberan]]''' family [inclusion in TNG tentative] (2)
* ? '''''[[Pawaia language|Pawaia]]''''' isolate [has proto-TNG vocabulary, but inclusion questionable]
* '''[[Angan languages|Angan]]''' family (12)
* ? '''''[[Fasu language|Fasu]] (West Kutubuan)''''' family (1–3) [has proto-TNG vocabulary, but inclusion somewhat questionable]
* ? '''[[East Kutubuan languages|East Kutubuan]]''' family (2) [has proto-TNG vocabulary, but inclusion somewhat questionable]
* '''[[Duna–Pogaya languages|Duna–Pogaya]]''' family (2)
* '''[[Awin–Pa languages|Awin–Pa]]''' family (2)
* '''[[East Strickland languages|East Strickland]]''' family (6)
* '''[[Bosavi languages|Bosavi]]''' family (8)
* '''''[[Kamula language|Kamula]]''''' isolate
* '''[[Engan languages|Engan]]''' family (9)
* '''''[[Wiru language|Wiru]]''''' isolate (lexical similarities with Engan)
* '''[[Chimbu–Wahgi languages|Chimbu–Wahgi]]''' family (17)
* Kainantu–Goroka (22) [also known as East Highlands; first noticed by Capell 1948]
** '''[[Goroka languages|Goroka]]''' family (14)
** '''[[Kainantu languages|Kainantu]]''' family (8)
* Madang (103)
** Southern Adelbert Range–Kowan
*** '''[[Kowan languages|Kowan]]''' family (2)
*** Southern Adelbert Range
**** Josephstaal (7)
***** '''''[[Osum language|Osum]] (Utarmbung)''''' isolate
***** '''''[[Wadaginam language|Wadaginam]]''''' isolate
***** '''[[Sikan languages|Sikan]]''' family (2)
***** '''[[Pomoikan languages|Pomoikan]]''' family (3)
**** Wanang (5)
***** '''''[[Paynamar language|Paynamar]]''''' isolate
***** '''[[Atan languages|Atan]]''' family (2)
***** '''[[Emuan languages|Emuan]]''' family (2)
**** '''''[[Faita language|Faita]]''''' isolate
** Rai Coast–Kalam
*** '''[[Rai Coast languages|Rai Coast]]''' family (31)
*** '''[[Kalam languages|Kalam]]''' family (4; perhaps part of Rai Coast)
** Croisilles [[linkage (linguistics)|linkage]]
***[[Dimir-Malas languages|Dimir-Malas]] (2)
***[[Kaukombar languages|Kaukombar]] (4)
***[[Kumil languages|Kumil]] (5)
***[[Tibor-Omosa languages|Tibor-Omosa]] (6)
*** '''''[[Amaimon language|Amaimon]]''''' isolate
***Numugen-Mabuso
****'''[[Numugen languages|Numugen]]''' family (6)
****'''[[Mabuso languages|Mabuso]]''' family (29)
* Finisterre–Huon (62) [part of the original TNG proposal. Has verbs that are [[suppletion|suppletive]] per the person and number of the object.]
** '''[[Finisterre languages|Finisterre]]''' family (41)
** '''[[Huon languages|Huon]]''' family (21)
* ? '''[[Goilalan languages|Goilalan]]''' family (6) [inclusion in TNG tentative]
* Southeast Papuan (Bird's Tail) ? [these families have not been demonstrated to be related to each other, but have in common ''ya'' for 'you[plural]' instead of proto-TNG ''*gi'']
** '''[[Koiarian languages|Koiarian]]''' family (7)
** '''[[Kwalean languages|Kwalean]]''' family (3)
** '''[[Manubaran languages|Manubaran]]''' family (2)
** '''[[Yareban languages|Yareban]]''' family (5)
** '''[[Mailuan languages|Mailuan]]''' family (6)
** '''[[Dagan languages|Dagan]]''' family (9)
* Binanderean (16)
** '''''[[Guhu-Samane language|Guhu-Samane]]''''' isolate
** '''[[Binandere languages|Binandere]]''' family (15) [a recent expansion from the north]
{{collapse bottom}}

===Pawley and Hammarström (2018)===
[[File:TransNewGuineaPawleyHammerstromVSUsherConsensus.png|thumb|Languages accepted by both Pawley and Hammarström (2018) and Usher (2018).]]
[[Andrew Pawley]] and [[Harald Hammarström]] (2018) accept 35 subgroups as members of Trans-New Guinea.<ref name="Pawley-TNG">{{cite book |last1=Pawley |first1=Andrew |last2=Hammarström |first2=Harald |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The Trans New Guinea family |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=21–196 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref><ref name="Palmer-LLNGA" />

{{collapse top|Trans–New Guinea phylum (Pawley and Hammarström 2018)}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
;Trans-New Guinea subgroups (strong evidence): 35 subgroups, 431 languages
*[[Madang languages|Madang]] (107)
*[[Finisterre-Huon languages|Finisterre-Huon]] (62)
*[[Kainantu-Goroka languages|Kainantu-Goroka]] (29)
*[[Ok-Oksapmin languages|Ok-Oksapmin]] (20)
*[[Anim languages|Anim]] (17)
*[[Chimbu-Wahgi languages|Chimbu-Wahgi]] (17)
*[[Greater Awyu languages|Greater Awyu]] (17)
*[[Enga-Kewa-Huli languages|Enga-Kewa-Huli]] (14)
*[[Angan languages|Angan]] (13)
*[[Dani languages|Dani]] (13)
*[[Greater Binanderean languages|Greater Binanderean]] (13)
*[[Asmat-Kamoro languages|Asmat-Kamoro]] (11)
*[[Dagan languages|Dagan]] (9)
*[[Mailuan languages|Mailuan]] (8)
*[[Bosavi languages|Bosavi]] (7)
*[[Koiarian languages|Koiarian]] (7)
*[[Mek languages|Mek]] (7)
{{col-break}}
*[[East Strickland languages|East Strickland]] (6)
*[[Kiwaian languages|Kiwaian]] (6)
*[[Goilalan languages|Goilalan]] (5)
*[[Paniai Lakes languages|Paniai Lakes]] (5)
*[[Yareban languages|Yareban]] (5)
*[[Gogodala-Suki languages|Gogodala-Suki]] (4)
*[[Turama-Kikori languages|Turama-Kikori]] (4)
*[[Kayagaric languages|Kayagaric]] (3)
*[[Kolopom languages|Kolopom]] (3)
*[[Kutubuan languages|Kutubu]] (3)
*[[Kwalean languages|Kwalean]] (3)
*[[West Bomberai languages|West Bomberai]] (3)
*[[Awin-Pa languages|Awin-Pa]] (2)
*[[Duna-Bogaya languages|Duna-Bogaya]] (2)
*[[Manubaran languages|Manubaran]] (2)
*[[Somahai languages|Somahai]] (2)
*''[[Marori language|Marori]]'' (isolate)
*''[[Wiru language|Wiru]]'' (isolate)
{{col-end}}
{{collapse bottom}}

Groups and isolates considered by Pawley and Hammarström (2018) as having weaker or disputed claims to membership in Trans-New Guinea (some of which they suggest may ultimately turn out to be Trans-New Guinea, but further evidence is needed):<ref name="Pawley-TNG"/>
*[[Bayono-Awbono languages|Bayono-Awbono]] (2)
*[[Komolom languages|Komolom]] ([[Mombum languages|Mombum]]) (2)
*[[Mairasi languages|Mairasi]] (3)
*[[Pauwasi languages|Pauwasi]] (5)
*''[[Pawaian language|Pawaian]]'' (isolate)
*[[Sentanic languages|Sentanic]] (4)
*[[South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head]] (12)
*''[[Sumeri language|Tanah Merah]]'' (isolate)
*[[Teberan languages|Teberan]] (2)
*[[Timor-Alor-Pantar languages|Timor-Alor-Pantar]] (20+)
*''[[Uhunduni language|Uhunduni]]'' (''[[Damal language|Damal]]'') (isolate)

Groups and isolates sometimes classified as Trans-New Guinea, but rejected by Pawley and Hammarström (2018) as Trans-New Guinea:<ref name="Pawley-TNG"/>
*''[[Dem language|Dem]]'' (isolate)
*[[Eleman languages|Eleman]] (5)
*''[[Kaki Ae language|Kaki Ae]]'' (isolate)
*''[[Kamula language|Kamula]]'' (isolate)
*[[Kaure-Narau languages|Kaure-Narau]] (2)
*''[[Mor language (Papuan)|Mor]]'' (isolate)
*''[[Porome language|Porome]]'' (isolate)
*''[[Purari language|Purari]]'' (isolate)

===''Glottolog'' 5.0 (2024)===
''[[Glottolog]]'', of which Hammarström is one of the editors, accepts 10 groups as part of a ''Nuclear Trans–New Guinea'' family, based on Foley (2000), Pawley (2005) and Edgar Suter (1997).<ref name="Glottolog-5-0">{{cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nucl1709 |title=Glottolog. Family: Nuclear Trans New Guinea. |version=5.0 |editor1-last=Hammarström |editor1-first=Harald |editor2-last=Forkel |editor2-first=Robert |editor3-last=Haspelmath |editor3-first=Martin |date=2024 |location=Jena |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History]]}}</ref>

*[[Madang languages|Madang]] (108 languages)
*[[Finisterre-Huon languages|Finisterre-Huon]] (61)
*[[Asmat-Awyu-Ok languages|Asmat-Awyu-Ok]] (49)
*[[Kainantu-Goroka languages|Kainantu-Goroka]] (28)
*[[Chimbu-Wahgi languages|Chimbu-Wahgi]] (17)
*[[Enga-Kewa-Huli languages|Enga-Kewa-Huli]] (14)
*[[Dani languages|Dani]] (13)
*[[Greater Binanderean languages|Greater Binanderean]] (13)
*[[Mek languages|Mek]] (8)
*[[Paniai Lakes languages|Paniai Lakes]] (5)

===Dryer (2022)===

[[Matthew Dryer]] used [[lexicostatistics]] to evaluate Pawley and Hammarström (2018), based on 40-word [[Swadesh list]] data from the [[ASJP]] database. Dryer concludes that the following language families are likely to be Trans–New Guinea. They are listed in order of highest to lowest score, i.e. starting with the most likely.<ref name="Dryer 2022"/>

Dryer does not consider that evidence based solely on pronouns and the word for 'louse' is sufficient to conclude that a family is a member of Trans-New Guinea. This is because they are more likely to be an areal form (''[[Wanderwort]]'') in the case of the word for 'louse' or to be highly conservative in the case of pronouns. Dryer states that similarities solely in pronouns mean that the families are related but that the relationship is so distant as to be "undetectable".<ref name="Dryer 2022">{{cite conference |url=https://sites.google.com/view/apll14-conference |title=Trans-New Guinea IV.2: Evaluating Membership in Trans-New Guinea |last1=Dryer |first1=Matthew S. |author-link1=Matthew Dryer |date=10 June 2022 |location=Berlin |conference=14th Conference on Austronesian and Papuan Languages and Linguistics (APLL14) |publisher=Humboldt University}}</ref>

Dryer notes that this is a preliminary quantitative analysis and only gives a rough prediction of the families that may or may not belong within Trans–New Guinea, and that the lexical similarities it is based on may be due to loanwords, areal forms (''Wanderwörter'') and so forth.<ref name="Dryer 2022"/>

{{collapse top|Families likely to be Trans–New Guinea (Dryer 2022)}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
*[[Madang languages|Madang]]
*[[Chimbu–Wahgi languages|Chimbu–Wahgi]]
*[[Awyu–Ok languages|Awyu–Ok]]
*[[Enga–Kewa–Huli languages|Enga–Kewa–Huli]]
*[[Kiwaian languages|Kiwaian]]
*[[Finisterre–Huon languages|Finisterre–Huon]]
*[[Dagan languages|Dagan]]
*[[Yareban languages|Yareban]]
*''[[Wiru language|Wiru]]''
*[[Bayono–Awbono languages|Bayono–Awbono]]
*[[Paniai Lakes languages|Paniai Lakes]]
*[[Turama–Kikorian languages|Turama–Kikorian]]
*[[Kainantu–Goroka languages|Kainantu–Goroka]]
{{col-break}}
*[[Dani languages|Dani]]
*[[Angan languages|Angan]]
*[[Somahai languages|Somahai]]
*[[East Strickland languages|East Strickland]]
*[[Koiarian languages|Koiarian]]
*''[[Fuyug language|Fuyug]]''
*''[[Fasu language|Fasu]]''
*[[Gogodala–Suki languages|Gogodala–Suki]]
*''[[Damal language|Damal]]''
*[[Manubaran languages|Manubaran]]
*[[Anim languages|Anim]]
*[[Greater Binanderean languages|Greater Binanderean]]
{{col-end}}

(Pawley and Hammarström (2018) do not classify [[Bayono–Awbono languages|Bayono–Awbono]] and [[Damal language|Damal]] as Trans–New Guinea.)

Dryer lists the following families as "borderline". They have a somewhat higher basic lexical similarity with Trans–New Guinea than with non-Trans–New Guinea families:

*[[Bosavi languages|Bosavi]]
*[[Goilalan languages|Goilalan]]
*[[South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head]]
*[[Timor–Alor–Pantar languages|Timor–Alor–Pantar]]
*''[[Fasu language|Fasu]]''
*''[[Bogaya language|Bogaya]]''
*[[Teberan languages|Teberan]]

(Pawley and Hammarström (2018) do not classify [[South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head]], [[Timor–Alor–Pantar languages|Timor–Alor–Pantar]] or [[Teberan languages|Teberan]] as Trans–New Guinea.)

Dryer lists the following families as less likely to be Trans–New Guinea. They have few basic vocabulary items in common with Trans–New Guinea:

*[[Mailuan languages|Mailuan]]
*''[[Duna language|Duna]]''
*[[Asmat–Kamrau Bay languages|Asmat–Kamrau Bay]]
*[[Kwalean languages|Kwalean]]
*[[Kolopom languages|Kolopom]]
*[[West Bomberai languages|West Bomberai]]
*[[Mek languages|Mek]]
*[[Elevala languages|Elevala]]
*''[[Moraori language|Moraori]]''
*[[Kayagaric languages|Kayagaric]]
*''[[Mulaha language|Mulaha]]''
{{collapse bottom}}

===Usher & Suter (2024)===
[[File:Trans-New Guinea languages (Usher 2018).svg|thumb|The established Trans–New Guinea families according to Usher (2024). Additional families may eventually prove to belong as well, as Usher has initially excluded any that don't have a regular reflex of the 2sg pronoun.]]

Timothy Usher and Edgar Suter, in consultation with Papuan language researchers such as [[William Croft (linguist)|William Croft]], [[Matthew Dryer]], [[John Lynch (linguist)|John Lynch]], [[Andrew Pawley]], and [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]],<ref>[https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/about-newguineaworld/editorial Newguineaworld Advisory Board]</ref> have reconstructed low-level constituents of Trans–New Guinea to verify, through the establishment of regular sound changes, which purported members truly belong to it, and to determine their subclassification. In many cases Usher has created new names for the member families to reflect their geographic location. Much of Usher's classification is accepted by ''[[Glottolog]]'', though under different names. As of 2024, his classification is as follows, including correspondences to the names in earlier classifications. He expects to expand the membership of the family as reconstruction proceeds.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/trans-new-guinea/start |title=NewGuineaWorld, Trans–New Guinea |access-date=2024-07-09 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref>

{{collapse top|Trans–New Guinea phylum (Usher 2024)}}
*[[Berau Gulf languages|Berau Gulf]]
**''[[Mor language (Papuan)|Mor]]''
**[[North Berau Gulf languages|North Berau Gulf]] (= South Bird's Head)
***[[Yabin languages|Yabin]]
***[[South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head]] (= nuclear South Bird's Head plus Inanwatan)
**[[West Bomberai languages|West Bomberai]] (incl. [[Timor–Alor–Pantar languages|Timor–Alor–Pantar]])
*[[Sumuri language|Sumuri]]
*[[West Papuan Highlands languages|West Papuan Highlands]] (= Irian Highlands)
**Amung–Dem
***[[Amung language|Amung]] (Uhunduni)
***[[Dem language|Dem]]
**[[Balim Valley languages|Balim Valley]] (= Dani)
**[[Paniai Lakes languages|Paniai Lakes]]
*[[Asmat–Mombum languages|Asmat – Muli Strait]]
**[[Asmat – Kamrau Bay languages|Asmat – Kamrau Bay]] (= Asmat–Kamoro)
**[[Muli Strait languages|Muli Strait]] (= Mombum)
*Cook River – Kolopom
**[[Cook and Gondu Rivers languages|Cook River]] (= Kayagar)
**[[Kolopom languages|Kolopom]] (incl. [[Moraori language|Moraori]])
*[[Oksap language|Oksap]] (Oksapmin)
*Central West New Guinea
**Digul River – Ok
***[[Digul River languages|Digul River]] (= Greater Awyu, incl. [[Bayono-Awbono language|Bayono-Awbono]])
***[[Kamula – Elevala River languages|Kamula – Elevala River]] (= Awin–Pa plus Kamula)
***[[Ok languages|Ok]]
**Momuna–Mek
***[[Mek languages|Mek]]
***[[Momuna languages|Momuna]]
*[[Papuan Plateau languages|Papuan Plateau]] (= Bosavi, incl. [[Dibiyaso language|Dibiyaso]])
*[[Duna–Bogaia languages|Duna–Bogaia]]
*[[Abom language|Abom]]
*[[Fly River languages|Fly River]] (Anim)
**[[Inland Gulf languages|Inland Gulf]]
**[[Lake Murray languages|Lake Murray]] (= Boazi)
**[[Lower Fly River languages|Lower Fly River]] (= Tirio)
**[[Marind–Yakhai languages|Marind–Yakhai]] (= Marind)
*[[Eastern Highlands – Kratke Range languages|Eastern Highlands – Kratke Range]]
**[[Eastern Highlands languages|Eastern Highlands]] (= Kainantu–Goroka)
**[[Kratke Range languages|Kratke Range]] (= Angan)
*[[Finisterre–Huon languages|Finisterre–Huon]]
*[[Papuan Peninsula languages|Papuan Peninsula]] (Southeast Papuan)
**[[Meneao Range languages|Meneao Range]] (= Dagan)
**Owen Stanley Range
***[[Koiari – Managalas Plateau languages|Koiari – Managalas Plateau]] (= Koiarian)
***[[Kwalean languages|Humene–Uare]] (= Kwalean)
***[[Mount Brown languages|Mount Brown]] (= Manubaran)
***Cloudy Bay – Musa River
****''[[Bauwaki language|Bauwaki]]''
****[[Cloudy Bay languages|Cloudy Bay]] (= Mailuan)
****[[Musa River languages|Musa River]] (= Yareban)
These branches may cluster together (the southwestern branches, for example, may group together), but the details are as yet unclear.
{{collapse bottom}}

[[File:Branches of Trans-New Guinea.svg|thumb|The primary branches of the Trans–New Guinea family of languages, per Usher (2024).]]
The families from the Ross and Glottolog classifications that are not included are Kaure, Pauwasi, Engan, Chimbu–Wahgi, Madang, Eleman, Kiwaian, Binanderean, Goilalan, and the several [[Papuan Gulf languages|Papuan Gulf]] families. Usher only includes families that have a regular reflex of the 2sg pronoun, so there may be additional TNG families that have changed their pronouns.

==Lexical semantics==
A number of [[Colexification|colexification patterns]] (called 'semantic conflations' by [[Donald Laycock]]), particularly in the [[Noun|nominal domain]], are commonly found among Trans–New Guinea languages:<ref name="Pawley-TNG"/>
*[man, husband]
*[woman, wife]
*[bird, bat]
*[hair, fur, feather, leaf]
*[tree, firewood, fire]
*[water, river]
*[bark, skin of animal, peel or skin of fruit]
*[bark, skin, body]
*[egg, fruit, seed; some other round objects, e.g. kidney, eye, heart]
*[hand, foreleg of quadruped, wing]
*[heart, seat of emotions]
*[blood, red]
*[garden, work], [to make gardens, to work]
*[joint, elbow, knee]
*[milk, sap, semen, white of egg, bone marrow]
*[nose, face]
*[teeth, internal mouth]
*[leg, foot, hindleg]
*[finger, toe]
*[father, owner; mother, owner]

==Proto-language==
{{main|Proto-Trans–New Guinea language}}

==See also==
{{portal|New Guinea|Language|Indonesia|Timor-Leste}}
*[[Indo-Pacific languages]]
*[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Trans-New Guinea reconstructions|Proto-Trans-New Guinea reconstructions]] (Wiktionary)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last = Pawley | first = Andrew | author-link = Andrew Pawley | year = 1998 | chapter = The Trans New Guinea Phylum hypothesis: A reassessment | editor = Jelle Miedema |editor2=Cecilia Odé |editor3=Rien A.C. Dam | title = Perspectives on the Bird's Head of Irian Jaya, Indonesia | location = Amsterdam | publisher = Rodopi | pages = 655–90 | isbn = 978-90-420-0644-7 | oclc = 41025250 }}
* {{cite book | last = Pawley | first = Andrew | author-link = Andrew Pawley | year = 2005 | chapter = The chequered career of the Trans New Guinea hypothesis: recent research and its implications | editor = Andrew Pawley | editor-link = Andrew Pawley |editor2=Robert Attenborough |editor3=Robin Hide |editor4=Jack Golson | title = Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples | location = Canberra | publisher = Pacific Linguistics | pages = 67–107 | isbn = 0-85883-562-2 | oclc = 67292782 }}
{{Malcolm Ross Pronouns}}
* {{cite book | first = Stephen | last = Wurm | author-link = Stephen Wurm | year = 1975 | title = New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, Volume 1: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene | url = http://www.papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/_toc.html | publisher = Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University | location = Canberra | oclc = 37096514 | access-date = 2009-08-13 | archive-date = 2010-06-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100620132933/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/_toc.html | url-status = dead }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://transnewguinea.org/ TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea] (by Simon Greenhill)
*[https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/trans-new-guinea/start Timothy Usher and Edgar Suter's Newguineaworld site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709083628/https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/trans-new-guinea/start |date=2024-07-09 }}

{{Trans–New Guinea languages}}
{{Papuan languages}}
{{language families}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Trans-New Guinea Languages}}
[[Category:Trans–New Guinea languages| ]]
[[Category:Proposed language families]]
[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:Languages of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Languages of Papua New Guinea]]
[[Category:Papuan languages]]