View source for Tower of London

{{Short description|Castle in London, England}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox historic site
|name = His Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London
|image = File:tower of London from the Shard (8515883950).jpg
|caption =
|locmapin = United Kingdom Central London
|map_width = 275
|map_caption = Location of the castle in London
| coordinates = {{coord|51|30|29|N|00|04|34|W|type:landmark_scale:3000_region:GB|display=inline,title}}
|location = [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]
|area = {{ubl|Castle: {{convert|12|acre|ha|abbr=on}}|[[Tower Liberties]]: {{convert|6|acre|ha|abbr=on}}}}
|built = {{ubl|White Tower: 1078|Inner ward: 1190s|Rebuilt: 1285|Wharf expansion: 1377–1399}}
|demolished =
|rebuilt =
|architect =
|architecture =
|governing_body =
|designation1 = WHS
|designation1_date = 1988 {{Small|(12th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])}}
|designation1_type = Cultural
|designation1_criteria = ii, iv
|designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/488 488]
|designation1_free1name = Country
|designation1_free1value =  England
|designation1_free2value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Europe|Europe and North America]]
|designation2 = UK Grade I
|designation3 = UK Grade II
|visitation_num = 2,790,280
|visitation_year = 2023
|visitation_ref = <ref name=ALVA>{{cite news |title=British Museum is the most-visited UK attraction again |work=BBC News |date=18 March 2024 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-68577122 |accessdate=18 March 2024}}</ref>
|height = {{convert|27|m|ft}}
|owner= King [[Charles III]] in right of [[the Crown]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/about-us/who-we-are/history/ |accessdate=22 July 2013 |publisher=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref>
}}

The '''Tower of London''', officially '''His Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London''', is a <!-- this is correct; please do *not* change it to "an historic" -->historic [[citadel]] and [[castle]] on the north bank of the [[River Thames]] in [[London]], England. It lies within the [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]], which is separated from the eastern edge of the square mile of the [[City of London]] by the open space known as [[Tower Hill]]. It was founded toward the end of 1066 as part of the [[Norman Conquest]]. The [[White Tower (Tower of London)|White Tower]], which gives the entire castle its name, was built by [[William the Conqueror]] in 1078 and was initially a resented symbol of oppression, inflicted upon London by the new [[Normans|Norman]] [[ruling class]]. The castle was also used as a prison from 1100 ([[Ranulf Flambard]], Bishop of Durham) until 1952 (the [[Kray twins]]),<ref>{{Citation |title=Tower of London Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/discoverthepalaces/FAQs#11 |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227072443/http://www.hrp.org.uk/discoverthepalaces/FAQs#11 |accessdate=2 December 2015 |archivedate=27 December 2013}}</ref> although that was not its primary purpose. A grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a [[moat]]. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under kings [[Richard I]], [[Henry III of England|Henry III]], and [[Edward I]] in the 12th and 13th centuries. The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site.

The Tower of London has played a prominent role in [[English history]]. It was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an [[armoury]], a [[treasury]], a [[menagerie]], the home of the [[Royal Mint]], a [[List of Keepers of the Records in the Tower of London|public record office]], and the home of the [[Crown Jewels of England]]. From the early 14th century until the reign of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in the 17th century, the monarch would traditionally prepare for several nights at the Tower, and lead a procession from there to [[Westminster Abbey]] for their coronation. In the absence of the monarch, the [[Constable of the Tower]] was in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period. In the late 15th century, the [[Princes in the Tower]] were housed at the castle when they mysteriously disappeared, presumed murdered. Under the [[Tudor period|Tudors]], the Tower was used less as a royal residence, and despite attempts to refortify and repair the castle, its defences lagged behind developments to deal with artillery.

The zenith of the castle's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries, when many figures who had fallen into disgrace, such as [[Elizabeth I]] before she became queen, Sir [[Walter Raleigh]], and [[Elizabeth Throckmorton]], were held within its walls. This use has led to the phrase "[[wikt:sent to the Tower|sent to the Tower]]". Despite its enduring reputation as a place of torture and death, popularised by 16th-century religious propagandists and 19th-century writers, only seven people were executed within the Tower before the [[world war]]s of the 20th century. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, with 112 occurring there over a 400-year period. In the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. [[Anthony Salvin]] and [[John Taylor (architect)|John Taylor]] took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, clearing out many of the vacant post-medieval structures.

In the [[First World War|First]] and [[Second World War]]s, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during [[the Blitz]] was repaired, and the castle reopened to the public. Today, the Tower of London is one of the country's most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, operated by the [[Resident Governor of the Tower of London and Keeper of the Jewel House]], and guarded by the [[Yeomen Warders]], the property is cared for by the charity [[Historic Royal Palaces]] and is protected as a [[World Heritage Site]].

==Architecture==
[[File:Mike Gatting on the Tower of London.ogg|thumb|Audio description of the Tower of London by [[Mike Gatting]]]]

===Layout===
[[File:Tower of London EN.png|300px|thumb|Plan of the Tower of London]]

The Tower was oriented with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] London, which archaeologist [[Alan Vince]] suggests was deliberate.<ref>{{harvnb|Vince|1990}} in {{harvnb|Creighton|2002|p=138}}</ref> It would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames.<ref>{{harvnb|Creighton|2002|p=138}}</ref> The castle is made up of three "[[ward (fortification)|wards]]", or enclosures. The innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle. Encircling it to the north, east, and west is the inner ward, built during the reign of [[Richard I]] (1189–1199). Finally, there is the outer ward which encompasses the castle and was built under [[Edward I]]. Although there were several phases of expansion after William the Conqueror founded the Tower of London, the general layout has remained the same since Edward I completed his rebuild in 1285.

The castle encloses an area of almost {{convert|12|acre|abbr=off}} with a further {{convert|6|acre}} around the Tower of London constituting the [[Tower Liberties]] – land under the direct influence of the castle and cleared for military reasons.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=11}}</ref> The precursor of the Liberties was laid out in the 13th century when [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] ordered that a strip of land adjacent to the castle be kept clear.<ref name="Parnell 1993 32-33">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|pp=32–33}}</ref> Despite popular fiction, the Tower of London never had a permanent torture chamber, although the basement of the White Tower housed a [[rack (torture)|rack]] in later periods.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|p=39}}</ref> Tower [[Wharf]] was built on the bank of the Thames under Edward I and was expanded to its current size during the reign of [[Richard II]] (1377–1399).<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=49}}</ref>

===White Tower===
{{Main|White Tower (Tower of London)}}
The White Tower is a [[keep]] (also known as a donjon), which was often the strongest structure in a medieval castle, and contained lodgings suitable for the lord – in this case, the king or his representative.<ref>{{harvnb|Friar|2003|p=163}}</ref> According to military historian Allen Brown, "The great tower [White Tower] was also, by virtue of its strength, majesty and lordly accommodation, the donjon ''par excellence''".<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|1976|p=15}}</ref> As one of the largest keeps in the [[Christian world]],<ref name="Allen Brown 1976 44" /> the White Tower has been described as "the most complete eleventh-century palace in Europe".<ref name="I&P 16">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=16}}</ref>
[[File:Whitetowerlondon.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The original entrance to the White Tower was at first-floor level.]]

The White Tower, not including its projecting corner towers, measures {{convert|36|by|32|m}} at the base, and is {{convert|27|m|-1|abbr=on}} high at the southern battlements. The structure was originally three storeys high, comprising a basement floor, an entrance level, and an upper floor. The entrance, as is usual in [[Norman architecture|Norman]] keeps, was above ground, in this case on the south face, and accessed via a wooden staircase which could be removed in the event of an attack. It was probably during [[Henry II of England|Henry II]]'s reign (1154–1189) that a forebuilding was added to the south side of the tower to provide extra defences to the entrance, but it has not survived. Each floor was divided into three chambers, the largest in the west, a smaller room in the north-east, and the chapel taking up the entrance and upper floors of the south-east.<ref name="Parnell 1993 20-21">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|pp=19–23}}</ref> At the western corners of the building are square towers, while to the north-east a round tower houses a spiral staircase. At the south-east corner there is a larger semi-circular projection which accommodates the [[apse]] of the chapel.  As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold, latrines were built into the walls, and four fireplaces provided warmth.<ref name="I&P 16" />

The main building material is [[Kentish ragstone]], although some local [[mudstone]] was also used. [[Caen stone]] was imported from northern France to provide details in the Tower's facing, although little of the original material survives as it was replaced with [[Portland stone]] in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name="Parnell 1993 22" /> [[Reigate stone]] was also used as [[ashlar]] and for carved details. Its location, in the lower courses of the building and at higher levels corresponding to a building break, suggest it was readily available and may have been used when access to Caen stone was restricted.<ref>{{harvnb|Michette|Viles|Vlachou|Angus|2020}}</ref> As most of the Tower's windows were enlarged in the 18th century, only two original – albeit restored – examples remain, in the south wall at the gallery level.<ref name="Parnell 1993 22">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=22}}</ref>

The tower was terraced into the side of a mound, so the northern side of the basement is partially below ground level.<ref name="Parnell 20">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=20}}</ref> As was typical of most keeps,<ref>{{harvnb|Friar|2003|p=164}}</ref> the bottom floor was an [[undercroft]] used for storage. One of the rooms contained a well. Although the layout has remained the same since the tower's construction, the interior of the basement dates mostly from the 18th century when the floor was lowered and the pre-existing timber [[vault (architecture)|vaults]] were replaced with brick counterparts.<ref name="Parnell 20" /> The basement is lit through small slits.<ref name="I&P 16" />

[[File:Wakefield Tower Chapel - Tower of London.jpg|thumb|St John's Chapel, inside the White Tower]]
The entrance floor was probably intended for the use of the [[Constable of the Tower]], [[Lieutenant of the Tower of London]] and other important officials. The south entrance was blocked during the 17th century, and not reopened until 1973. Those heading to the upper floor had to pass through a smaller chamber to the east, also connected to the entrance floor. The [[crypt]] of [[St John's Chapel, London|St John's Chapel]] occupied the south-east corner and was accessible only from the eastern chamber. There is a recess in the north wall of the crypt; according to Geoffrey Parnell, Keeper of the Tower History at the Royal Armouries, "the windowless form and restricted access, suggest that it was designed as a strong-room for safekeeping of royal treasures and important documents".<ref name="Parnell 20" />

The upper floor contained a grand hall in the west and residential chamber in the east{{spaced ndash}}both originally open to the roof and surrounded by a gallery built into the wall{{spaced ndash}}and St John's Chapel in the south-east. The top floor was added in the 15th century, along with the present roof.<ref name="Parnell 1993 20-21" /><ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=17}}</ref> St John's Chapel was not part of the White Tower's original design, as the apsidal projection was built after the basement walls.<ref name="Parnell 20" /> Due to changes in function and design since the tower's construction, except for the chapel little is left of the original interior.<ref name="ABC 12" /> The chapel's current bare and unadorned appearance is reminiscent of how it would have been in the Norman period. In the 13th century, during Henry III's reign, the chapel was decorated with such ornamentation as a gold-painted cross, and [[stained glass]] windows that depicted the [[Virgin Mary]] and the Holy [[Trinity]].<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=32}}</ref>

===Innermost ward===
The innermost ward encloses an area immediately south of the White Tower, stretching to what was once the edge of the River Thames. As was the case at other castles, such as the 11th-century [[Hen Domen]], the innermost ward was probably filled with timber buildings from the Tower's foundation. Exactly when the royal lodgings began to encroach from the White Tower into the innermost ward is uncertain, although it had happened by the 1170s.<ref name="Parnell 1993 22" /> The lodgings were renovated and elaborated during the 1220s and 1230s, becoming comparable with other palatial residences such as [[Windsor Castle]].<ref name="Parnell 1993 27">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=27}}</ref> Construction of Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers – located at the corners of the innermost ward's wall along the river – began around 1220.<ref name="ABC 17" />{{refn|Wakefield Tower was originally called Blundeville Tower.<ref name="ABC 17" />|group="nb"}} They probably served as private residences for the queen and king respectively.

The earliest evidence for how the royal chambers were decorated comes from Henry III's reign: the queen's chamber was whitewashed, and painted with flowers and imitation stonework. A [[great hall]] existed in the south of the ward, between the two towers.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=28}}</ref> It was similar to, although slightly smaller than, that also built by Henry III at [[Winchester Castle]].<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=31}}</ref> Near Wakefield Tower was a [[postern gate]] which allowed private access to the king's apartments. The innermost ward was originally surrounded by a protective ditch, which had been filled in by the 1220s. Around this time, a kitchen was built in the ward.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|pp=17–18}}</ref> Between 1666 and 1676, the innermost ward was transformed and the palace buildings removed.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=65}}</ref> The area around the White Tower was cleared so that anyone approaching would have to cross open ground. The Jewel House was demolished, and the [[Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom|Crown Jewels]] moved to Martin Tower.<ref name="Parnell 1993 67">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=67}}</ref>
{{wideimage|Panoramic view from Tower of London cropped.jpg|800px|Interior of the innermost ward. Right of centre is the 11th-century White Tower; the structure at the end of the walkway to the left is Wakefield Tower. Beyond that can be seen Traitors' Gate.}}

===Inner ward===
{{See also|Church of St Peter ad Vincula}}
The inner ward was created during [[Richard the Lionheart]]'s reign, when a moat was dug to the west of the innermost ward, effectively doubling the castle's size.<ref name="ABC 15-17">{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|pp=15–17}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=24}}</ref> Henry III created the ward's east and north walls, and the ward's dimensions remain to this day.<ref name="Parnell 1993 32-33" /> Most of Henry's work survives, and only two of the nine towers he constructed have been completely rebuilt.<ref name="Parnell 1993 33">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=33}}</ref> Between the Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers, the innermost ward's wall also serves as a [[curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] for the inner ward.<ref name="Parnell 1993 10">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=10}}</ref> The main entrance to the inner ward would have been through a [[gatehouse]], most likely in the west wall on the site of what is now Beauchamp Tower. The inner ward's western curtain wall was rebuilt by Edward I.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|pp=34–35}}</ref> The 13th-century Beauchamp Tower marks the first large-scale use of brick as a building material in Britain, since the 5th-century departure of the Romans.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=42}}</ref> The Beauchamp Tower is one of 13 towers that stud the curtain wall. Clockwise from the south-west corner they are: Bell, Beauchamp, Devereux, Flint, Bowyer, Brick, Martin, Constable, Broad Arrow, Salt, Lanthorn, Wakefield, and the Bloody Tower.<ref name="Parnell 1993 10" /> While these towers provided positions from which [[flanking fire]] could be deployed against a potential enemy, they also contained accommodation. As its name suggests, Bell Tower housed a belfry, its purpose to raise the alarm in the event of an attack. The royal bow-maker, responsible for making [[English longbow|longbows]], [[crossbow]]s, [[catapult]]s, and other siege and hand weapons, had a workshop in the Bowyer Tower. A turret at the top of Lanthorn Tower was used as a beacon by traffic approaching the Tower at night.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|p=34}}</ref>

[[File:London Tower (CherryX).jpg|thumb|left|The south face of the Waterloo Block]]

As a result of Henry's expansion, [[St. Peter ad Vincula (London)|St Peter ad Vincula]], a Norman chapel which had previously stood outside the Tower, was incorporated into the castle. Henry decorated the chapel by adding glazed windows, and stalls for himself and his queen.<ref name="Parnell 1993 33" /> It was rebuilt by Edward I at a cost of over £300<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=46}}</ref> and again by [[Henry VIII]] in 1519; the current building dates from this period, although the chapel was refurbished in the 19th century.<ref name="Parnell 1993 55">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=55}}</ref> Immediately west of Wakefield Tower, the Bloody Tower was built at the same time as the inner ward's curtain wall, and as a water-gate provided access to the castle from the River Thames. It was a simple structure, protected by a [[portcullis]] and gate.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=29}}</ref> The Bloody Tower acquired its name in the 16th century, as it was believed to be the site of the murder of the [[Princes in the Tower]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Bloody Tower |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/Sightsandstories/Prisoners/Towers/BloodyTower.aspx |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |accessdate=22 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100428063720/http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/Sightsandstories/Prisoners/Towers/BloodyTower.aspx |archivedate=28 April 2010}}</ref> Between 1339 and 1341, a gatehouse was built into the curtain wall between Bell and Salt Towers.<ref name="Parnell 1993 47">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=47}}</ref> During the Tudor period, a range of buildings for the storage of munitions was built along the inside of the north inner ward.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=58}}</ref> The castle buildings were remodelled during the [[House of Stuart|Stuart period]], mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. In 1663, just over £4,000 was spent building a new storehouse (now known as the New Armouries) in the inner ward.<ref name="Parnell 1993 64">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=64}}</ref> Construction of the Grand Storehouse north of the White Tower began in 1688, on the same site as the dilapidated Tudor range of storehouses;<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=70}}</ref> it was destroyed by fire in 1841. The Waterloo Block, a former barracks in the castellated Gothic Revival style with Domestic Tudor details,<ref>{{NHLE|num=1242210|desc= Waterloo Block|accessdate=16 January 2016}}</ref> was built on the site and remains to this day, housing the Crown Jewels on the ground floor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Historic Royal... Patchworks? |url=http://blog.hrp.org.uk/curators/historic-royal-patchworks/ |accessdate=8 February 2016 |publisher=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref>

===Outer ward===

A third ward was created during Edward I's extension to the Tower, as the narrow enclosure completely surrounded the castle. At the same time a [[bastion]] known as Legge's Mount was built at the castle's northwest corner. Brass Mount, the bastion in the northeast corner, was a later addition. The three rectangular towers along the east wall {{convert|15|m}} apart were dismantled in 1843. Although the bastions have often been ascribed to the Tudor period, there is no evidence to support this; archaeological investigations suggest that Legge's Mount dates from the reign of Edward I.<ref name="Parnell 1993 35-37">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|pp=35–37}}</ref> Blocked [[battlement]]s (also known as crenellations) in the south side of Legge's Mount are the only surviving medieval battlements at the Tower of London (the rest are Victorian replacements).<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|pp=43–44}}</ref> A new {{convert|50|m|adj=on}} moat was dug beyond the castle's new limits;<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=34}}</ref> it was originally {{convert|4.5|m}} deeper in the middle than it is today.<ref name="Parnell 1993 35-37" /> With the addition of a new curtain wall, the old main entrance to the Tower of London was obscured and made redundant; a new entrance was created in the southwest corner of the external wall circuit. The complex consisted of an inner and an outer gatehouse and a [[barbican]],<ref name="Parnell 1993 40-41">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|pp=40–41}}</ref> which became known as the Lion Tower as it was associated with the animals as part of the Royal Menagerie since at least the 1330s.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=36}}</ref> The Lion Tower itself no longer survives.<ref name="Parnell 1993 40-41" />

Edward extended the south side of the Tower of London onto land that had previously been submerged by the River Thames. In this wall, he built St Thomas's Tower between 1275 and 1279; later known as [[Traitors' Gate]], it replaced the Bloody Tower as the castle's water-gate. The building is unique in England, and the closest parallel is the now demolished water-gate at the [[Louvre Palace|Louvre]] in Paris. The dock was covered with [[arrowslit]]s in case of an attack on the castle from the River; there was also a [[portcullis]] at the entrance to control who entered. There were luxurious lodgings on the first floor.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|pp=38–39}}</ref> Edward also moved the [[Royal Mint]] into the Tower; its exact location early on is unknown, although it was probably in either the outer ward or the Lion Tower.<ref name="Parnell 1943">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=43}}</ref> By 1560, the Mint was located in a building in the outer ward near Salt Tower.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=61}}</ref> Between 1348 and 1355, a second water-gate, Cradle Tower, was added east of St Thomas's Tower for the king's private use.<ref name="Parnell 1993 47" />
{{wideimage|Panorama of the outer curtain wall of the Tower of London, 2006.jpg|800px|The Tower of London's outer curtain wall, with the curtain wall of the inner ward just visible behind. In the centre is Legge's Mount.}}

==History==
===Foundation and early history===
Victorious at the [[Battle of Hastings]] on 14 October 1066, the invading [[Duke of Normandy]], [[William the Conqueror]], spent the rest of the year securing his holdings by fortifying key positions. He founded several castles along the way, but took a circuitous route toward London;<ref name="ABC 5">{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|p=5}}</ref><ref name="Liddiard 18">{{Harvnb|Liddiard|2005|p=18}}</ref> only when he reached [[Canterbury]] did he turn towards England's largest city. As the fortified bridge into London was held by [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] troops, he decided instead to ravage [[Southwark]] before continuing his journey around southern England.<ref>{{harvnb|Bennett|2001|p=45}}</ref> A series of Norman victories along the route cut the city's supply lines and in December 1066, isolated and intimidated, its leaders yielded London without a fight.<ref>{{harvnb|Bennett|2001|pp=45–47}}</ref><ref name="Wilson1">{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|p=1}}</ref> Between 1066 and 1087, William established 36 castles,<ref name="Liddiard 18" /> although references in the [[Domesday Book]] indicate that many more were founded by his subordinates.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|1976|p=30}}</ref> The Normans undertook what has been described as "the most extensive and concentrated programme of castle-building in the whole history of feudal Europe".<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|1976|p=31}}</ref> They were multi-purpose buildings, serving as fortifications (used as a base of operations in enemy territory), centres of administration, and residences.<ref>{{Harvnb|Friar|2003|p=47}}</ref>

William sent an advance party to prepare the city for his entrance, to celebrate his victory and found a castle; in the words of William's biographer, [[William of Poitiers]], "certain fortifications were completed in the city against the restlessness of the huge and brutal populace. For he [William] realised that it was of the first importance to overawe the Londoners".<ref name="ABC 5" /> At the time, London was the largest town in England; the foundation of [[Westminster Abbey]] and the old [[Westminster Palace#Old Palace|Palace of Westminster]] under [[Edward the Confessor]] had marked it as a centre of governance, and with a prosperous port it was important for the Normans to establish control over the settlement.<ref name="Wilson1" /> The other two castles in London – [[Baynard's Castle]] and [[Montfichet's Castle]] – were established at the same time.<ref name="Wilson 2">{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|p=2}}</ref> The fortification that would later become known as the Tower of London was built onto the south-east corner of the Roman town walls, using them as prefabricated defences, with the [[River Thames]] providing additional protection from the south.<ref name="ABC 5" /> This earliest phase of the castle would have been enclosed by a ditch and defended by a timber [[palisade]], and probably had accommodation suitable for William.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|pp=5–9}}</ref>

[[File:Tower of London White Tower.jpg|left|thumb|The White Tower dates from the late 11th century.]]
Most of the early Norman castles were built from timber, but by the end of the 11th century a few, including the Tower of London, had been renovated or replaced with stone.<ref name="Wilson 2" /> Work on the White Tower – which gives the whole castle its name<ref name="Allen Brown 1976 44">{{harvnb|Allen Brown|1976|p=44}}</ref> – is usually considered to have begun in 1078, however the exact date is uncertain. William made [[Bishop Gundulf|Gundulf]], [[Bishop of Rochester]], responsible for its construction, although it may not have been completed until after William's death in 1087.<ref name="Allen Brown 1976 44" /> The White Tower is the earliest stone [[keep]] in England, and was the strongest point of the early castle. It also contained grand accommodation for the king.<ref name="AB 9-10">{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|pp=9–10}}</ref> At the latest, it was probably finished by 1100 when Bishop [[Ranulf Flambard]] was imprisoned there.<ref name="ABC 12">{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|p=12}}</ref>{{refn|Flambard, [[Bishop of Durham]], was imprisoned by [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] "for the many injustices which Henry himself and the king's other sons had suffered".<ref name="Wilson 5">{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|p=5}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Flambard was loathed by the English for exacting harsh taxes. Although he is the first recorded prisoner held in the Tower, he was also the first person to escape from it, using a smuggled rope secreted in a butt of wine. He was held in luxury and permitted servants, but on 2 February 1101 he hosted a banquet for his captors. After plying them with drink, when no one was looking he lowered himself from a secluded chamber, and out of the Tower. The escape came as such a surprise that one contemporary chronicler accused the bishop of witchcraft.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=5–6}}</ref>

The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' records that in 1097 King [[William II of England|William II]] ordered a wall to be built around the Tower of London; it was probably built from stone and likely replaced the timber palisade that arced around the north and west sides of the castle, between the [[London Wall|Roman wall]] (to the east) and the Thames (to the south).<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|pp=12–13}}</ref> The Norman Conquest of London manifested itself not only with a new ruling class, but in the way the city was structured. Land was confiscated and redistributed amongst the Normans, who also brought over hundreds of Jews, for financial reasons.<ref name="Parnell 1993 54" /> The Jews arrived under the direct protection of the Crown, as a result of which Jewish communities were often found close to castles.<ref>{{harvnb|Creighton|2002|p=147}}</ref> The Jews used the Tower as a retreat, when threatened by anti-Jewish violence.<ref name="Parnell 1993 54" />

The death in 1135 of [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] left England with a disputed succession; although the king had persuaded his most powerful barons to swear support for the [[Empress Matilda]], just a few days after Henry's death [[Stephen of Blois]] arrived from France to lay claim to the throne. The importance of the city and its Tower is marked by the speed at which he secured London. The castle, which had not been used as a royal residence for some time, was usually left in the charge of a [[Constable of the Tower|Constable]], a post held at this time by [[Geoffrey de Mandeville, 1st Earl of Essex|Geoffrey de Mandeville]]. As the Tower was considered an impregnable fortress in a strategically important position, possession was highly valued. Mandeville exploited this, selling his allegiance to Matilda after Stephen was captured in 1141 at the [[First Battle of Lincoln|Battle of Lincoln]]. Once her support waned, the following year he resold his loyalty to Stephen. Through his role as Constable of the Tower, Mandeville became "the richest and most powerful man in England".<ref name="Wilson 6-9">{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=6–9}}</ref> When he tried the same ploy again, this time holding secret talks with Matilda, Stephen had him arrested, forced him to cede control of his castles, and replaced him with one of his most loyal supporters. Until then the position had been hereditary, originally held by [[Geoffrey de Mandeville (11th century)|Geoffrey de Mandeville]], but the position's authority was such that from then on it remained in the hands of an appointee of the monarch. The position was usually given to someone of great importance, who might not always be at the castle due to other duties. Although the Constable was still responsible for maintaining the castle and its garrison, from an early stage he had a subordinate to help with this duty: the Lieutenant of the Tower.<ref name="Wilson 6-9" /> Constables also had civic duties relating to the city. Usually they were given control of the city and were responsible for levying taxes, enforcing the law and maintaining order. The creation in 1191 of the position of [[Lord Mayor of London]] removed many of the Constable's civic powers, and at times led to friction between the two.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=14–15}}</ref>

===Expansion===
The castle probably retained its form as established by 1100 until the reign of [[Richard I]] (1189–1199).<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|p=13}}</ref> The castle was extended under [[William Longchamp]], King Richard's [[Lord Chancellor]] and the man in charge of England while he was on crusade. The [[Pipe rolls]] record £2,881 1s 10d spent at the Tower of London between 3 December 1189 and 11 November 1190,<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|p=15}}</ref> from an estimated £7,000 spent by Richard on castle building in England.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=304}}</ref> According to the contemporary chronicler [[Roger of Howden]], Longchamp dug a [[moat]] around the castle and tried in vain to fill it from the Thames.<ref name="ABC 15-17" /> Longchamp was also Constable of the Tower, and undertook its expansion while preparing for war with King Richard's younger brother, [[John, King of England|Prince John]], who in Richard's absence arrived in England to try to seize power. As Longchamp's main fortress, he made the Tower as strong as possible. The new fortifications were first tested in October 1191, when the Tower was besieged for the first time in its history. Longchamp capitulated to John after just three days, deciding he had more to gain from surrender than prolonging the siege.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=13–14}}</ref>

John succeeded Richard as king in 1199, but his rule proved unpopular with many of his [[baron]]s, who in response moved against him. In 1214, while the king was at Windsor Castle, [[Robert Fitzwalter]] led an army into London and laid siege to the Tower. Although under-garrisoned, the Tower resisted and the siege was lifted once John signed [[Magna Carta]].<ref name="Wilson 17-18">{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=17–18}}</ref> The king reneged on his promises of reform, leading to the outbreak of the [[First Barons' War]]. Even after Magna Carta was signed, Fitzwalter maintained his control of London. During the war, the Tower's garrison joined forces with the barons. John was deposed in 1216 and the barons offered the English throne to [[Louis VIII of France|Prince Louis]], the eldest son of the French king. However, after John's death in October 1216, many began to support the claim of his eldest son, Henry III. War continued between the factions supporting Louis and Henry, with Fitzwalter supporting Louis. Fitzwalter was still in control of London and the Tower, both of which held out until it was clear that Henry III's supporters would prevail.<ref name="Wilson 17-18" />

In the 13th century, Kings [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] (1216–1272) and [[Edward I]] (1272–1307) extended the castle, essentially creating it as it stands today.<ref name="ABC 17">{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|p=17}}</ref> Henry was disconnected from his barons, and a mutual lack of understanding led to unrest and resentment towards his rule. As a result, he was eager to ensure the Tower of London was a formidable fortification; at the same time Henry was an [[wikt:aesthete|aesthete]] and wished to make the castle a comfortable place to live.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=19–20}}</ref> From 1216 to 1227 nearly £10,000 was spent on the Tower of London; in this period, only the work at Windsor Castle cost more (£15,000). Most of the work was focused on the palatial buildings of the innermost ward.<ref name="Parnell 1993 27" /> The tradition of whitewashing the White Tower (from which it derives its name) began in 1240.<ref name="ABC 20">{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|p=20}}</ref>

Beginning around 1238, the castle was expanded to the east, north, and north-west. The work lasted through the reign of Henry III and into that of Edward I, interrupted occasionally by civil unrest. New creations included a new defensive perimeter, studded with towers, while on the west, north, and east sides, where the wall was not defended by the river, a defensive ditch was dug. The eastern extension took the castle beyond the bounds of the old Roman settlement, marked by the city wall which had been incorporated into the castle's defences.<ref name="ABC 20" /> The Tower had long been a symbol of oppression, despised by Londoners, and Henry's building programme was unpopular. So when the gatehouse collapsed in 1240, the locals celebrated the setback.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|p=21}}</ref> The expansion caused disruption locally and £166 was paid to [[St Katharine's by the Tower|St Katherine's Hospital]] and the prior of [[Holy Trinity Priory|Holy Trinity]] in compensation.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|Curnow|1984|pp=20–21}}</ref>

Henry III often held court at the Tower of London, and held parliament there on at least two occasions (1236 and 1261) when he felt that the barons were becoming dangerously unruly. In 1258, the discontented barons, led by [[Simon de Montfort]], forced the King to agree to reforms including the holding of regular parliaments. Relinquishing the Tower of London was among the conditions. Henry III resented losing power and sought permission from the pope to break his oath. With the backing of mercenaries, Henry installed himself in the Tower in 1261. While negotiations continued with the barons, the King ensconced himself in the castle, although no army moved to take it. A truce was agreed with the condition that the King hand over control of the Tower once again. Henry won a significant victory at the [[Battle of Evesham]] in 1265, allowing him to regain control of the country and the Tower of London. Cardinal [[Pope Adrian V|Ottobuon]] came to England to excommunicate those who were still rebellious; the act was deeply unpopular and the situation was exacerbated when the cardinal was granted custody of the Tower. [[Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford]], marched on London in April 1267 and laid siege to the castle, declaring that custody of the Tower was "not a post to be trusted in the hands of a foreigner, much less of an ecclesiastic".<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=24–27}}</ref> Despite a large army and siege engines, Gilbert de Clare was unable to take the castle. The Earl retreated, allowing the King control of the capital, and the Tower experienced peace for the rest of Henry's reign.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|p=27}}</ref>

Although he was rarely in London, Edward I undertook an expensive remodelling of the Tower, costing £21,000 between 1275 and 1285, over double that spent on the castle during the whole of Henry III's reign.<ref name="Parnell 1993 35">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=35}}</ref> Edward I was a seasoned castle builder, and used his experience of siege warfare during the [[crusade]]s to bring innovations to castle building.<ref name="Parnell 1993 35" /> His [[Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd|programme of castle building in Wales]] heralded the introduction of the widespread use of [[arrowslit]]s in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cathcart King|1988|p=84}}</ref> At the Tower of London, Edward filled in the moat dug by Henry III and built a new curtain wall along its line, creating a new enclosure. A new moat was created in front of the new curtain wall. The western part of Henry III's curtain wall was rebuilt, with Beauchamp Tower replacing the castle's old gatehouse. A new entrance was created, with elaborate defences including two gatehouses and a [[barbican]].<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|pp=35–44}}</ref> In an effort to make the castle self-sufficient, Edward I also added two [[watermill]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=31}}</ref> Six hundred Jews were imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1278, charged with [[coin clipping]].<ref name="Parnell 1993 54" /> Persecution of the country's Jewish population under Edward began in 1276 and culminated in 1290 when he issued the [[Edict of Expulsion]], forcing the Jews out of the country.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=34, 36}}</ref> In 1279, the country's numerous mints were unified under a single system whereby control was centralised to the mint within the Tower of London, while mints outside of London were reduced, with only a few local and [[bishop|episcopal]] mints continuing to operate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Records of the Royal Mint |url=http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C207 |accessdate=6 June 2017 |publisher=[[The National Archive]]}}</ref>

During this period, many Jews were imprisoned at the Tower before [[Edward I]]'s [[edict of expulsion]] in 1290.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McLellan |first=Rory |date=13 June 2024 |title=The Jewish History of the Medieval Tower of London |url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/about-us/research/the-jewish-history-of-the-medieval-tower-of-london/#gs.a7xgdo |accessdate=13 June 2024 |website=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref>

===Later medieval period===
[[File:Tower of London model close up.jpg|thumb|A model of the Tower of London as it appeared after the extension of the wharf in the late medieval period and the addition of the brick Bulwark at the west end of the castle under Edward IV<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tower of London World Heritage Site Management Plan |url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/media/1490/2016-03-31_tol_whsmanagementplan_v1.pdf |publisher=Historic Royal Palaces |pages=xi–xii}}</ref>]]
During [[Edward II]]'s reign (1307–1327) there was relatively little activity at the Tower of London.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=41}}</ref> However, it was during this period that the [[Wardrobe (government)|Privy Wardrobe]] was founded. The institution was based at the Tower and responsible for organising the state's arms.<ref>{{harvnb|Lapper|Parnell|2000|p=28}}</ref> In 1321, [[Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere]] became the first woman imprisoned in the Tower of London after she refused [[Isabella of France|Queen Isabella]] admittance to [[Leeds Castle]]<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|p=40}}</ref> and ordered her archers to target Isabella, killing six of the royal escort.<ref>{{harvnb|Costain|1958|pp=193–195}}</ref><ref>Calendar of Patent Rolls. 1321–1327. p. 29</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Strickland|1840|p=201}}</ref> Generally reserved for high-ranking inmates, the Tower was the most important royal prison in the country.<ref>{{harvnb|Friar|2003|p=235}}</ref> However it was not necessarily very secure, and throughout its history people bribed the guards to help them escape. In 1323, [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer, Baron Mortimer]], was aided in his escape from the Tower by the Sub-Lieutenant of the Tower who let Mortimer's men inside. They hacked a hole in his cell wall and Mortimer escaped to a waiting boat. He fled to France where he encountered Edward's Queen. They began an affair and plotted to overthrow the King.

One of Mortimer's first acts on entering England in 1326 was to capture the Tower and release the prisoners held there. For four years he ruled while [[Edward III]] was too young to do so himself; in 1330, Edward and his supporters captured Mortimer and threw him into the Tower.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=34, 42–43}}</ref> Under Edward III's rule (1312–1377) England experienced renewed success in warfare after his father's reign had put the realm on the backfoot against the Scots and French. Amongst Edward's successes were the battles of [[Crécy]] and [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Poitiers]] where King [[John II of France]] was taken prisoner, and the capture of the King [[David II of Scotland]] at [[Battle of Neville's Cross|Neville's Cross]]. During this period, the Tower of London held many noble prisoners of war.<ref name="I&P 42">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=42}}</ref> Edward II had allowed the Tower of London to fall into a state of disrepair,<ref name="Parnell 1993 47" /> and by the reign of Edward III the castle was an uncomfortable place. The nobility held captive within its walls were unable to engage in activities such as hunting which were permissible at other royal castles used as prisons, for instance Windsor. Edward III ordered that the castle should be renovated.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|p=45}}</ref>

[[File:towrlndn.JPG|thumb|left|[[Charles, Duke of Orléans]], the nephew of the King of France, was held in the Tower during the Hundred Years' War. This late 15th-century image is the earliest surviving non-schematic picture of the Tower of London. It shows the White Tower, the water-gate, and [[Old London Bridge]] in the background.<ref name="I&P 51" />]]
When [[Richard II]] was crowned in 1377, he led a procession from the Tower to [[Westminster Abbey]]. This tradition began in at least the early 14th century and lasted until 1660.<ref name="I&P 42" /> During the [[Peasants' Revolt]] of 1381 the Tower of London was besieged with the King inside. When Richard rode out to meet with [[Wat Tyler]], the rebel leader, a crowd broke into the castle without meeting resistance and looted the [[Jewel House]]. The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Simon Sudbury]], took refuge in St John's Chapel, hoping the mob would respect the sanctuary. However, he was taken away and beheaded on Tower Hill.<ref name="Parnell 1993 53">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=53}}</ref> Six years later there was again civil unrest, and Richard spent Christmas in the security of the Tower rather than Windsor as was more usual.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=44}}</ref> When [[Henry Bolingbroke]] returned from exile in 1399, Richard was imprisoned in the White Tower. He abdicated and was replaced on the throne by Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV.<ref name="Parnell 1993 53" /> In the 15th century, there was little building work at the Tower of London, yet the castle still remained important as a place of refuge. When supporters of the late Richard II attempted a [[Epiphany Rising|coup]], Henry IV found safety in the Tower of London. During this period, the castle also held many distinguished prisoners. The heir to the Scottish throne, later King [[James I of Scotland]], was kidnapped while journeying to France in 1406 and held in the Tower. The reign of [[Henry V of England|Henry V]] (1413–1422) renewed England's fortune in the [[Hundred Years' War]] against France. As a result of Henry's victories, such as the [[Battle of Agincourt]], many high-status prisoners were held in the Tower of London until they were ransomed.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=45}}</ref>

Much of the latter half of the 15th century was occupied by the [[Wars of the Roses]] between the claimants to the throne, the houses of [[House of Lancaster|Lancaster]] and [[House of York|York]].<ref name="I&P 46">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=46}}</ref> The castle was [[Siege of the Tower of London (1460)|once again besieged in 1460]], this time by a [[Yorkist]] force. The Tower was damaged by artillery fire but only surrendered when [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]] was captured at the [[Battle of Northampton (1460)|Battle of Northampton]]. With the help of [[Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick]] (nicknamed "the Kingmaker") Henry recaptured the throne for a short time in 1470. However, [[Edward IV]] soon regained control and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he was probably murdered.<ref name="Parnell 1993 53" /> In 1471, during the [[Siege of London (1471)|Siege of London]], the Tower's Yorkist garrison exchanged fire with Lancastrians holding [[Southwark]], and sallied from the fortress to take part in a pincer movement to attack Lancastrians who were assaulting [[Aldgate]] on [[London Wall|London's defensive wall]]. During the wars, the Tower was fortified to withstand gunfire, and provided with [[Embrasure|loopholes]] for cannons and handguns: an enclosure called the Bulwark was created for this purpose to the south of Tower Hill, although it no longer survives.<ref name="I&P 46" />

[[File:The Princes in the Tower by John Everett Millais (1878).png|thumb|upright|''Prince Edward V and Richard in the Tower, 1483'' by Sir [[John Everett Millais]], 1878]]
Shortly after the death of Edward IV in 1483, the notorious murder of the [[Princes in the Tower]] is traditionally believed to have taken place. The incident is one of the most infamous events associated with the Tower of London.<ref name="I&P 46-47">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|pp=46–47}}</ref> [[Edward V]]'s uncle [[Richard III of England|Richard, Duke of Gloucester]] was declared [[Lord Protector]] while the prince was too young to rule.<ref name="Horrox">{{harvnb|Horrox|2004}}</ref> Traditional accounts have held that the 12-year-old Edward was confined to the Tower of London along with his younger brother [[Richard of Shrewsbury, 1st Duke of York|Richard]]. The Duke of Gloucester was proclaimed King Richard III in June. The princes were last seen in public in June 1483;<ref name="I&P 46-47" /> it has traditionally been thought that the most likely reason for their disappearance is that they were murdered late in the summer of 1483.<ref name="Horrox" /> Bones thought to belong to them were discovered in 1674 when the 12th-century forebuilding at the entrance to the White Tower was demolished; however, the reputed level at which the bones were found ({{convert|10|ft|m|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) would put the bones at a depth similar to that of the Roman graveyard found, in 2011, {{convert|12|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} underneath [[Minories|the Minories]] a few hundred yards to the north.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kennedy |first=Maev |date=29 October 2013 |title=Roman eagle found by archaeologists in City of London |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/29/roman-eagle-found-archaeologists-london-sculpture-art}}</ref> Opposition to Richard escalated until he was defeated at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in 1485 by the Lancastrian [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor]], who ascended to the throne as Henry VII.<ref name="I&P 46-47" /> As king, Henry VII built a tower for a library next to the King's Tower.<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=16–17}}</ref>

===Changing use===
The beginning of the [[Tudor period]] marked the start of the decline of the Tower of London's use as a royal residence. As 16th-century chronicler [[Raphael Holinshed]] said the Tower became used more as "an armouries and house of munition, and thereunto a place for the safekeeping of offenders than a palace roiall for a king or queen to sojourne in".<ref name="I&P 51">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=51}}</ref> Henry VII visited the Tower on fourteen occasions between 1485 and 1500, usually staying for less than a week at a time.<ref>{{harvnb|Thurley|2017}}</ref> The [[Yeoman Warder]]s have been the Royal Bodyguard since at least 1509.<ref name="Yeoman Warders">{{Citation |title=Yeoman Warders |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/yeomanwarder.aspx |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |accessdate=21 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729164307/http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/yeomanwarder.aspx |archivedate=29 July 2010}}</ref> In 1517 the Tower fired its cannon at City crowds engaged in the xenophobic [[Evil May Day]] riots, in which the properties of foreign residents were looted. It is not thought that any rioters were hurt by the gunfire, which was probably meant merely to intimidate the mob.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowle|1964}}</ref>
[[File:James_Basire_-_The_Procession_of_King_Edward_VI_from_the_Tower_-_B1977.14.11652_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg|thumb|400px|The traditional coronation procession from the Tower (at left) to Westminster for King Edward VI  (1547)]]
During the reign of [[Henry VIII]], the Tower was assessed as needing considerable work on its defences. In 1532, [[Thomas Cromwell]] spent £3,593 on repairs and imported nearly 3,000 tons of Caen stone for the work.<ref name="Parnell 1993 55" /> Even so, this was not sufficient to bring the castle up to the standard of contemporary military fortifications which were designed to withstand powerful artillery.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=73}}</ref> Although the defences were repaired, the palace buildings were left in a state of neglect after Henry's death. Their condition was so poor that they were virtually uninhabitable.<ref name="I&P 51" /> From 1547 onwards, the Tower of London was only used as a royal residence when its political and historic symbolism was considered useful, for instance each of [[Edward VI]], [[Mary I]], and [[Elizabeth I]] briefly stayed at the Tower before their coronations.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=52}}</ref>

In the 16th century, the Tower acquired an enduring reputation as a grim, forbidding prison. This had not always been the case. As a royal castle, it was used by the monarch to imprison people for various reasons, however these were usually high-status individuals for short periods rather than common citizenry as there were plenty of prisons elsewhere for such people. Contrary to the popular image of the Tower, prisoners were able to make their life easier by purchasing amenities such as better food or tapestries through the Lieutenant of the Tower.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|pp=10–11}}</ref> As holding prisoners was originally an incidental role of the Tower – as would have been the case for any castle – there was no purpose-built accommodation for prisoners until 1687 when a brick shed, a "Prison for Soldiers", was built to the north-west of the White Tower. The Tower's reputation for torture and imprisonment derives largely from 16th-century religious propagandists and 19th-century romanticists.<ref name="I&P 91">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=91}}</ref> Although much of the Tower's reputation is exaggerated, the 16th and 17th centuries marked the castle's zenith as a prison, with many religious and political undesirables locked away.<ref name="I&P 91" /> The Privy Council had to sanction the use of torture, so it was not often used; between 1540 and 1640, the peak of imprisonment at the Tower, there were 48 recorded cases of the use of torture. The three most common forms used were the infamous [[Rack (torture)|rack]], the [[Scavenger's daughter]], and manacles.<ref name="I&P 92">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=92}}</ref> The rack was introduced to England in 1447 by the Duke of Exeter, the Constable of the Tower; consequentially it was also known as the [[Duke of Exeter's daughter]].<ref>{{harvnb|Black|1927|p=345}}</ref> One of those tortured at the Tower was [[Guy Fawkes]], who was brought there on 6 November 1605; after torture he signed a full confession to the [[Gunpowder Plot]].<ref name="I&P 91" />

Among those held and executed at the Tower was [[Anne Boleyn]].<ref name="I&P 91" /> Although the Yeoman Warders were once the Royal Bodyguard, by the 16th and 17th centuries their main duty had become to look after the prisoners.<ref name="Parnell 1993 117">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=117}}</ref> The Tower was often a safer place than other prisons in London such as the [[Fleet Prison|Fleet]], where disease was rife. High-status prisoners could live in conditions comparable to those they might expect outside; one such example was that while [[Walter Raleigh]] was held in the Tower his rooms were altered to accommodate his family, including his son who was born there in 1605.<ref name="I&P 92" /> Executions were usually carried out on Tower Hill rather than in the Tower of London itself, and 112 people were executed on the hill over 400 years.<ref name="I&P 94">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=94}}</ref> Before the 20th century, there had been seven executions within the castle on [[Tower Green]]; as was the case with [[Lady Jane Grey]], this was reserved for prisoners for whom public execution was considered dangerous.<ref name="I&P 94" /> After Lady Jane Grey's execution on 12 February 1554,<ref>{{harvnb|Plowden|2004}}</ref> Queen Mary I imprisoned her sister Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth I, in the Tower under suspicion of causing rebellion as Sir [[Thomas Wyatt the Younger|Thomas Wyatt]] had led a revolt against Mary in Elizabeth's name.<ref>{{harvnb|Collinson|2004}}</ref>

[[File:London-10-2 (48189346536).jpg|thumb|Memorial To The Executed in the Tower, unveiled in 2006, designed by [[Brian Catling]]]]

[[File:Tower Hill, 2006.jpg|right|thumb|The cobbled surface of [[Tower Hill]] to the north of the Tower of London. Over a period of 400 years, 112 people were executed on the hill.<ref name="I&P 94" />]]
The Office of Ordnance and Armoury Office were founded in the 15th century, taking over the Privy Wardrobe's duties of looking after the monarch's arsenal and valuables.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=47}}</ref> As there was no standing army before 1661, the importance of the royal armoury at the Tower of London was that it provided a professional basis for procuring supplies and equipment in times of war. The two bodies were resident at the Tower from at least 1454, and by the 16th century they had moved to a position in the inner ward.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=57}}</ref> The [[Board of Ordnance]] (successor to these Offices) had its headquarters in the White Tower and used surrounding buildings for storage. In 1855 the Board was abolished; its successor (the [[Royal Army Ordnance Corps|Military Store Department]] of the [[War Office]]) was also based there until 1869, after which its headquarters staff were relocated to the [[Royal Arsenal]] in [[Woolwich]] (where the recently closed [[Woolwich Dockyard]] was converted into a vast ordnance store).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Semark |first=H.W. |title=The Royal Naval Armament Depots of Priddy's Hard, Elson, Frater and Bedenham, 1768–1977 |date=1997 |publisher=Hampshire County Council |location=Winchester |page=124}}</ref>

Political tensions between [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] and Parliament in the second quarter of the 17th century led to an attempt by forces loyal to the King to secure the Tower and its valuable contents, including money and munitions. London's [[London Trained Bands|Trained Bands]], a militia force, were moved into the castle in 1640. Plans for defence were drawn up and gun platforms were built, readying the Tower for war. The preparations were never put to the test. In 1642, Charles I attempted to arrest five members of parliament. When this failed he fled the city, and Parliament retaliated by removing Sir [[John Byron, 1st Baron Byron|John Byron]], the Lieutenant of the Tower. The Trained Bands had switched sides, and now supported Parliament; together with the London citizenry, they blockaded the Tower. With permission from the King, Byron relinquished control of the Tower. Parliament replaced Byron with a man of their own choosing, Sir [[Conyers baronets|John Conyers]]. By the time the [[English Civil War]] broke out in November 1642, the Tower of London was already in Parliament's control.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=74}}</ref>

The last monarch to uphold the tradition of taking a procession from the Tower to Westminster to be crowned was [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1661. At the time, the castle's accommodation was in such poor condition that he did not stay there the night before his coronation.<ref name="I&P 54-55">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|pp=54–55}}</ref> Under the [[Stuart kings]] the Tower's buildings were remodelled, mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. Just over £4,000 was spent in 1663 on building a new storehouse, now known as the New Armouries in the inner ward.<ref name="Parnell 1993 64" /> In the 17th century there were plans to enhance the Tower's defences in the style of the ''[[trace italienne]]'', however they were never acted on. Although the facilities for the garrison were improved with the addition of the first purpose-built quarters for soldiers (the "Irish Barracks") in 1670, the general accommodations were still in poor condition.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|pp=76–77}}</ref>

When the [[Great Fire of London]] broke out on 2 September 1666, [[Samuel Pepys]] ascended the Tower to view the early progress of the fire, which he reported, collecting further reports from witnesses on the way, to King Charles II and his brother, the [[James II of England|Duke of York]] at [[Palace of Whitehall|Whitehall Palace]].<ref>{{harvnb|Tinniswood|2003|pp=45–46, 53}}</ref> Two days later (Tuesday 4 September), through the day, the flames began to move eastward from the neighbourhood of [[Pudding Lane]], straight against the prevailing east wind and towards the Tower, potentially threatening its gunpowder stores.<ref>{{harvnb|Tinniswood|2003|p=86}}</ref> The garrison at the Tower took matters into their own hands after waiting all day for requested help from the official firemen supervised by the Duke of York, who were busy in the west, by blowing up houses on a large scale in the vicinity to create firebreaks, halting the advance of the fire.<ref>{{harvnb|Tinniswood|2003|p=96}}</ref>

[[File:Tower of London, south, Buck brothers.jpg|thumb|300px|left|An engraving of the Tower of London in 1737 by [[Samuel and Nathaniel Buck]]]]
When the [[Hanoverian dynasty]] ascended the throne, their situation was uncertain and with a possible Scottish rebellion in mind, the Tower of London was repaired. Most of the work in this period (1750 to 1770) was done by the King's Master Mason, [[John Deval]].<ref>Dictionary of British Sculptors 1660–1851 by Rupert Gunnisp.129</ref> Gun platforms added under the Stuarts had decayed. The number of guns at the Tower was reduced from 118 to 45, and one contemporary commentator noted that the castle "would not hold out four and twenty hours against an army prepared for a siege".<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=78}}</ref> For the most part, the 18th-century work on the defences was spasmodic and piecemeal, although a new gateway in the southern curtain wall permitting access from the wharf to the outer ward was added in 1774. The moat surrounding the castle had become silted over the centuries since it was created despite attempts at clearing it. It was still an integral part of the castle's defences, so in 1830 the Constable of the Tower, the [[Duke of Wellington]], ordered a large-scale clearance of several feet of silt. However this did not prevent an outbreak of disease in the garrison in 1841 caused by poor water supply, resulting in several deaths. To prevent the festering ditch posing further health problems, it was ordered that the moat should be drained and filled with earth. The work began in 1843 and was mostly complete two years later. The construction of the Waterloo Barracks in the inner ward began in 1845, when the Duke of Wellington laid the foundation stone. The building could accommodate 1,000 men; at the same time, separate quarters for the officers were built to the north-east of the White Tower. The building is now the headquarters of the [[Royal Fusiliers|Royal Regiment of Fusiliers]].<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|pp=79–80}}</ref> The popularity of the [[Chartist movement]] between 1828 and 1858 led to a desire to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest. It was the last major programme of fortification at the castle. Most of the surviving installations for the use of artillery and firearms date from this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=81}}</ref>

During the [[First World War]], eleven men were tried in private and shot by firing squad at the Tower for espionage.<ref>{{Citation |title=Executions at The Tower of London |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/Resources/Executions%20at%20the%20Tower.pdf |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705121450/http://www.hrp.org.uk/Resources/Executions%20at%20the%20Tower.pdf |archivedate=5 July 2011 |accessdate=31 July 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> During the [[Second World War]], the Tower was once again used to hold prisoners of war. One such person was [[Rudolf Hess]], [[Adolf Hitler]]'s deputy, albeit just for four days in 1941. He was the last state prisoner to be held at the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=123}}</ref> The last person to be executed at the Tower was German spy [[Josef Jakobs]] who was shot on 15 August 1941.<ref name="Sellers 179">{{harvnb|Sellers|1997|p=179}}</ref> The executions for espionage during the wars took place in a prefabricated miniature [[rifle range]] which stood in the outer ward and was demolished in 1969.<ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|pp=117–118}}</ref> The Second World War also saw the last use of the Tower as a fortification. In the event of a [[Operation Sealion|German invasion]], the Tower, together with the Royal Mint and nearby warehouses, was to have formed one of three "keeps" or complexes of defended buildings which formed the last-ditch defences of the capital.<ref>{{harvnb|Osbourne|2012|p=167}}</ref>

==Restoration and tourism==
[[File:Tower of London (8145477096).jpg|thumb|A recreation of [[Edward I]]'s bedchamber in the river-side St Thomas's Tower above [[Traitors' Gate]]<ref>{{Citation |title=Medieval Palace |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/medievalpalace.aspx |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |accessdate=19 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530014315/http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/medievalpalace.aspx |archivedate=30 May 2010}}</ref>]]
The Tower of London has become established as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country. It has been a tourist attraction since at least the Elizabethan period, when it was one of the sights of London that foreign visitors wrote about. Its most popular attractions were the Royal Menagerie and displays of armour. The [[Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom|Crown Jewels]] also garner much interest, and have been on public display since 1669. The Tower steadily gained popularity with tourists through the 19th century, despite the opposition of the Duke of Wellington to visitors. Numbers became so high that by 1851 a purpose-built ticket office was erected. By the end of the century, over 500,000 were visiting the castle every year.<ref name="Parnell 1993 111">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=111}}</ref>

Over the 18th and 19th centuries, the palatial buildings were slowly adapted for other uses and demolished. Only the Wakefield and St Thomas's Towers survived.<ref name="I&P 54-55" /> The 18th century marked an increasing interest in England's medieval past. One of the effects was the emergence of [[Gothic Revival architecture]]. In the Tower's architecture, this was manifest when the New Horse Armoury was built in 1825 against the south face of the White Tower. It featured elements of Gothic Revival architecture such as battlements. Other buildings were remodelled to match the style and the Waterloo Barracks were described as "castellated Gothic of the 15th century".<ref name="I&P 117">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=117}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=96}}</ref> Between 1845 and 1885 institutions such as the Mint which had inhabited the castle for centuries moved to other sites; many of the post-medieval structures left vacant were demolished. In 1855, the War Office took over responsibility for manufacture and storage of weapons from the Ordnance Office, which was gradually phased out of the castle. At the same time, there was greater interest in the history of the Tower of London.<ref name="I&P 117" />

Public interest was partly fuelled by contemporary writers, of whom the work of [[William Harrison Ainsworth]] was particularly influential. In ''[[The Tower of London (novel)|The Tower of London: A Historical Romance]]'' he created a vivid image of underground torture chambers and devices for extracting confessions that stuck in the public imagination.<ref name="I&P 91" /> Ainsworth also played another role in the Tower's history, as he suggested that Beauchamp Tower should be opened to the public so they could see the inscriptions of 16th- and 17th-century prisoners. Working on the suggestion, [[Anthony Salvin]] refurbished the tower and led a further programme for a comprehensive restoration at the behest of [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]]. Salvin was succeeded in the work by [[John Taylor (architect)|John Taylor]]. When a feature did not meet his expectations of medieval architecture Taylor would ruthlessly remove it; as a result, several important buildings within the castle were pulled down and in some cases post-medieval internal decoration removed.<ref>{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|pp=118–121}}</ref>

[[File:Tower of London main entrance, 2009.jpg|thumb|The main entrance to the Tower of London. Today the castle is a popular tourist attraction.]]
Although only one bomb fell on the Tower of London in the First World War (it landed harmlessly in the moat), the Second World War left a greater mark. On 23 September 1940, during [[the Blitz]], high-explosive bombs damaged the castle, destroying several buildings and narrowly missing the White Tower. After the war, the damage was repaired and the Tower of London was reopened to the public.<ref name="I&P 124">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=124}}</ref>

A [[1974 Tower of London bombing|1974 bombing]] in the White Tower [[Mortar (weapon)|Mortar]] Room left one person dead and 41 injured. No one claimed responsibility for the blast, but the police investigated suspicions that the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] was behind it.<ref>{{Citation |title=On This Day 1974: Bomb blast at the Tower of London |date=17 July 1974 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/17/newsid_2514000/2514429.stm |publisher=[[BBC News Online]]}}</ref>

In the 21st century, tourism is the Tower's primary role, with the remaining routine military activities, under the [[Royal Logistic Corps]], having wound down in the latter half of the 20th century and moved out of the castle.<ref name="I&P 124" /> However, the Tower is still home to the regimental headquarters of the [[Royal Regiment of Fusiliers]], and the museum dedicated to it and its predecessor, the [[Royal Fusiliers]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Regimental History |url=http://www.army.mod.uk/infantry/regiments/5452.aspx |work=British Army website |year=2010 |publisher=Royal Regiment of Fusiliers |accessdate=16 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100905220948/http://www.army.mod.uk/infantry/regiments/5452.aspx |archivedate=5 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Royal Regiment of Fusiliers (London) Museum |url=http://www.armymuseums.org.uk/museums/0000000114-Royal-Regiment-of-Fusiliers-London-Museum.htm |publisher=Army Museums Ogilby Trust |accessdate=16 June 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726064711/http://www.armymuseums.org.uk/museums/0000000114-Royal-Regiment-of-Fusiliers-London-Museum.htm |archivedate=26 July 2011}}</ref> Also, a detachment of the unit providing the [[King's Guard]] at Buckingham Palace still mounts a guard at the Tower, and with the [[Yeomen Warders]], takes part in the [[Ceremony of the Keys (London)|Ceremony of the Keys]] each day.<ref>{{Citation |title=The Ceremony of the Keys |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/WhatsOn/ceremonyofthekeys.aspx |year=2004–2010 |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |accessdate=16 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604032857/http://www.hrp.org.uk/toweroflondon/whatson/ceremonyofthekeys.aspx |archivedate=4 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=The Queen's Guard |url=http://www.army.mod.uk/events/ceremonial/1071.aspx |year=2010 |publisher=British Army |accessdate=16 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906233400/http://www.army.mod.uk/events/ceremonial/1071.aspx |archivedate=6 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Yeomen Warders |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/RoyalEventsandCeremonies/Ceremonialbodies/YeomenWarders.aspx |year=2008–2009 |publisher=Royal Household of the United Kingdom |accessdate=16 June 2010}}</ref> On several occasions through the year [[21-gun salute#United Kingdom|gun salutes]] are fired from the Tower by the [[Honourable Artillery Company]], these consist of 62 rounds for royal occasions, and 41 on other occasions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Gun salutes |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/RoyalEventsandCeremonies/GunSalutes/Gunsalutes.aspx |year=2008–2009 |publisher=Royal Household of the United Kingdom |accessdate=16 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317070617/http://www.royal.gov.uk/RoyalEventsandCeremonies/GunSalutes/Gunsalutes.aspx |archivedate=17 March 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Jubilee and Munin, Ravens, Tower of London 2016-04-30.jpg|Two of the [[Ravens of the Tower of London|ravens]]|thumb]]
Since 1990, the Tower of London has been cared for by an independent charity, [[Historic Royal Palaces]], which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown.<ref>{{Citation |title=Cause and principles |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/aboutus/whoweare/causeandprinciples.aspx |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |accessdate=30 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222002931/http://www.hrp.org.uk/aboutus/whoweare/causeandprinciples.aspx |archivedate=22 December 2009}}</ref> In 1988, the Tower of London was added to the [[UNESCO]] list of [[World Heritage Site]]s, in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site.<ref>{{Citation |title=UNESCO Constitution |url=http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=15244&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |accessdate=17 August 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329170647/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D15244%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |archivedate=29 March 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Tower of London |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/488 |publisher=UNESCO |accessdate=28 July 2009}}</ref> However, recent developments, such as the construction of skyscrapers nearby, have pushed the Tower towards being added to the United Nations' Heritage in Danger List.<ref>{{Citation |title=UNESCO warning on Tower of London |date=21 October 2006 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/6072580.stm |publisher=[[BBC News Online]]}}</ref> The remains of the medieval palace have been open to the public since 2006 where visitors can explore the restored chambers.<ref>{{Citation |title=Medieval Palace: Press Release |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/NewsAndMedia/Pressresources/tolpressresources/pressreleasemedievalTower.aspx |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |accessdate=19 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221042706/http://www.hrp.org.uk/NewsAndMedia/Pressresources/tolpressresources/pressreleasemedievalTower.aspx |archivedate=21 December 2007}}</ref> Although the position of Constable of the Tower remains the highest position held at the Tower,<ref>{{Citation |title=The Constable of the Tower |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/palacepeople/TheConstableoftheTower.aspx |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |accessdate=27 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130201029/http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/palacepeople/TheConstableoftheTower.aspx |archivedate=30 November 2009}}</ref> the responsibility of day-to-day administration is delegated to the [[Resident Governor of the Tower of London and Keeper of the Jewel House|Resident Governor]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Maj Gen Keith Cima: Resident Governor HM Tower of London |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/aboutus/whoweare/MajorGeneralKeithCima_.aspx |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206190019/http://www.hrp.org.uk/aboutus/whoweare/MajorGeneralKeithCima_.aspx |accessdate=27 September 2010 |archivedate=6 December 2008}}</ref> The Constable is appointed for a five-year term; this is primarily a ceremonial post today but the Constable is also a trustee of Historic Royal Palaces and of the Royal Armouries. General Sir [[Gordon Messenger]] was appointed Constable in 2022.<ref>{{Citation |title=General Sir Gordon makes history as first Royal Marine in charge of Tower of London |date=7 April 2022 |url=https://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/news/2022/april/07/20220407-general-sir-gordon-makes-history-as-first-rm-in-charge-of-tower-of-london |publisher=Royal Navy}}</ref>

At least [[Ravens of the Tower of London|six ravens are kept at the Tower]] at all times, in accordance with the belief that if they are absent, the kingdom will fall.<ref>{{harvnb|Jerome|2006|pp=148–149}}</ref> They are under the care of the [[Ravenmaster]], one of the [[Yeoman Warders]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Why the Tower of London has a ravenmaster — a man charged with keeping at least six ravens at the castle at all times |date=30 September 2018 |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/world/meet-the-ravenmaster |work=[[National Post]] |accessdate=1 October 2018}}</ref> As well as having ceremonial duties, the Yeoman Warders provide guided tours around the Tower.<ref name="Yeoman Warders" /><ref name="Parnell 1993 117" />

==Garrison==
{{See also|Tower division}}
The Yeomen Warders provided the permanent garrison of the Tower, but the [[Constable of the Tower]] could call upon the men of the [[Tower division|Tower Hamlets]] to supplement them when necessary. The [[Tower division|Tower Hamlets, aka Tower Division]] of [[Ossulstone Hundred|Middlesex's Ossulstone Hundred]] was an area, significantly larger than the [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets|modern London Borough of the same name]], which owed military service to the Constable in his ''ex officio'' role as [[Lord Lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets]].<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th Edition, 1993. Article on Tower Hamlets</ref>

The earliest surviving reference to the inhabitants of the Tower Hamlets having a duty to provide a guard for the Tower of London is from 1554, during the reign of [[Mary I]], but the relationship is thought to go back much further. Some believe the connection goes back to the time of the Conqueror.<ref name="stepney">{{Cite book |title=The Metropolitan Borough of Stepney, Official Guide |date=1962 |publisher=Ed J Burrows & Co |edition=10th |pages=25–29}}</ref> <!--but others suggest it came later in the medieval period when the Hamlets had a higher population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Powers |first=M.J. |date=December 1965 |journal=East London Papers: A Journal of History, Social Studies and Art |publisher=University House |volume=8 |issue=2 |page=68}}</ref>--> The duty is likely to have had its origin in the rights and obligations of the [[Stepney#Manor and Ancient Parish|Manor of Stepney]] which covered most or all of the Hamlets area.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/middx/vol11/pp1-7 |title=A History of the County of Middlesex |publisher=T F T Baker |year=1998 |editor-last=Bethnal Green |volume=11 |pages=1–7 |chapter=Stepney: Early Stepney |via=British History Online |accessdate=3 December 2021}}</ref><ref name=stepney/>

==Crown Jewels==
{{See also|Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom|Jewel House}}
[[File:Saint Edward's Crown.jpg|thumb|upright|[[St Edward's Crown]]]]
The tradition of housing the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London probably dates from the reign of Henry III (1216–1272). The Jewel House was built specifically to house the royal regalia, including jewels, plate, and symbols of royalty such as the crown, sceptre, and sword. When money needed to be raised, the treasure could be pawned by the monarch. The treasure allowed the monarch independence from the aristocracy and consequently was closely guarded. A new position for "keeper of the jewels, armouries and other things" was created,<ref name="Wilson 29">{{harvnb|Wilson|1998|p=29}}</ref> which was well rewarded; in the reign of Edward III (1327–1377) the holder was paid 12d a day. The position grew to include other duties including purchasing royal jewels, gold, and silver, and appointing royal goldsmiths and jewellers.<ref name="Wilson 29" />

In 1649, during the [[English Commonwealth]] following [[Regicide of Charles I of England|Charles I's execution]], the contents of the Jewel House were disposed of along with other royal properties, as decreed by Cromwell. Metal items were sent to the Mint to be melted down and re-used, and the crowns were "totallie<!-- this is the spelling used by the original document--> broken and defaced".<ref name="I&P 106">{{harvnb|Impey|Parnell|2000|p=106}}</ref>

When the monarchy was [[Restoration (England)|restored]] in 1660, the only surviving items of the coronation regalia were a 12th-century spoon and three ceremonial swords. (Some pieces that had been sold were later returned to the Crown.)<ref>{{Cite web |title=British Crown Jewels |url=https://royalexhibitions.co.uk/crown-jewels-2/ |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815165715/https://royalexhibitions.co.uk/crown-jewels-2/ |archivedate=15 August 2018 |accessdate=23 August 2017 |publisher=Royal Exhibitions}}</ref> Detailed records of old regalia survived, and replacements were made for the coronation of Charles II in 1661 based on drawings from the time of Charles I. For the coronation of Charles II, gems were rented because the treasury could not afford to replace them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibson |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB7BBAAAQBAJ&q=tower+of+london+jewels+1660&pg=PT16 |title=A Brief History of Britain 1660 – 1851 |date=23 June 2011 |publisher=Little, Brown Book Group |isbn=9781849018159 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

In 1669, the Jewel House was demolished<ref name="Parnell 1993 67" /> and the Crown Jewels moved into Martin Tower (until 1841).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rennison |first=Nick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWBquVNVZMUC&q=crown+jewels+tower+of+london+jewels+1669&pg=PA32 |title=The Book Of Lists London |date=31 August 2010 |publisher=Canongate Books |isbn=9781847676665 |via=Google Books}}</ref> They were displayed here for viewing by the paying public. This was exploited two years later when Colonel [[Thomas Blood]] attempted to steal them.<ref name="Parnell 1993 111" /> Blood and his accomplices bound and gagged the Jewel House keeper. Although they laid their hands on the Imperial State Crown, Sceptre and Orb, they were foiled when the keeper's son turned up unexpectedly and raised the alarm.<ref name="I&P 106" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Colonel Blood's raid |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/anattempttostealthecrownjewels.aspx |publisher=[[Historic Royal Palaces]] |accessdate=22 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706133644/http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/anattempttostealthecrownjewels.aspx |archivedate=6 July 2010}}</ref>

Since 1994, the Crown Jewels have been on display in the [[Jewel House]] in the Waterloo Block. Some of the pieces were once regularly used by Queen Elizabeth II. The display includes 23,578 gemstones, the 800-year-old Coronation Spoon, St Edward's Crown (traditionally placed on a monarch's head at the moment of crowning) and the Imperial State Crown.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Royal Collection at The Tower of London: Jewel House |url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/near-you/jewel-house#/ |website=www.royalcollection.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Humphreys |first=Rob |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=96NlZrT5UkYC&q=crown+jewels+tower+of+london+on+display+waterloo+block&pg=PT373 |title=The Rough Guide to London |date=4 January 2010 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=9781405384759 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Crown Jewels |url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/tower-of-london/explore/the-crown-jewels/#gs.WFXa90k |website=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref>

=={{anchor|Royal Menagerie, Tower of London}}Royal Menagerie==
[[File:Elephant sculpture by Kendra Haste, Tower of London.jpg|thumb|Wire elephant sculpture at the tower by [[Kendra Haste]]]]
There is evidence that [[John, King of England|King John]] (1166–1216) first started keeping wild animals at the Tower.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kristen Deiter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvGTAgAAQBAJ&q=tower+of+london+menagerie&pg=PA34 |title=The Tower of London in English Renaissance Drama: Icon of Opposition |date=23 February 2011 |isbn=9781135894061 |page=34| publisher=Routledge }}</ref><ref name="independent1">{{Cite news |last=Steve Connor |date=25 March 2008 |title=Royal Menagerie lions uncovered |work=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/royal-menagerie-lions-uncovered-800351.html |url-status=dead |accessdate=22 August 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924191557/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/royal-menagerie-lions-uncovered-800351.html |archivedate=24 September 2017}}</ref> Records of 1210–1212 show payments to lion keepers.<ref name="royalarmouries">{{Cite web |title=Menagerie |url=https://royalarmouries.org/power-house/institutions-of-the-tower/menagerie |accessdate=21 July 2017 |publisher=Royal Armouries}}{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The Royal [[Menagerie]] is frequently referenced during the reign of [[Henry III of England|Henry III]]. Holy Roman Emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] presented Henry with three [[leopard]]s, {{circa|1235}}, which were kept in the Tower.<ref name="natgeo">{{Cite web |date=11 November 2005 |title=Medieval Lion Skulls Reveal Secrets of Tower of London "Zoo" |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1103_051103_tower_lions.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051105025912/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1103_051103_tower_lions.html |url-status=dead |archivedate=5 November 2005 |website=National Geographic}}</ref> In 1252, the sheriffs<!-- are these the [[Sheriffs of the City of London]]?--> were ordered to pay fourpence a day towards the upkeep of the [[White bear of Henry III|King's polar bear]], a gift from [[Haakon IV of Norway]] in the same year; the bear attracted a great deal of attention from Londoners when it went fishing in the [[Thames]] while tied to the land by a chain.<ref name="Parnell 1993 54" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Historic Royal Palaces |title=Discover The Incredible Tales Of The Tower Of London's Royal Beasts |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerofLondon/Stories/Palacehighlights/RoyalBeasts/Stories |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204153554/http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerofLondon/Stories/Palacehighlights/RoyalBeasts/Stories |archivedate=4 December 2013 |website=hrp.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4LBNDQAAQBAJ&q=polar+bear+tower+of+london+fished+in+the+thames&pg=PP143 |title=Henry III: The Son of Magna Carta |date=2016 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |isbn=9781445653587}}</ref> In 1254 or 1255, Henry III received [[Elephant of Henry III|an African elephant]] from [[Louis IX]] of France depicted by [[Matthew Paris]] in his {{lang|la|[[Chronica Majora]]}}. A wooden structure was built to house the elephant, measuring {{cvt|12.2|x|6.1|m}}.<ref name="royalarmouries" /><ref name="Parnell 1993 54">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=54}}</ref> The animal died in 1258, possibly because it was given red wine, but also perhaps because of the cold [[climate of England]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mount |first=Toni |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WcZ5DAAAQBAJ&q=tower+of+london+african+elephant+Louis+IX&pg=PT180 |title=A Year in the Life of Medieval England |date=15 May 2016 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |isbn=9781445652405 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
In 1288, [[Edward I]] added a [[lion]] and a [[lynx]] and appointed the first official Keeper of the animals.<ref name="books.google.ca">{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Nigel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AuvepzgkYMgC&q=tower+of+london+menagerie+Edward+III+added+several+animals&pg=PA23 |title=Tower: An Epic History of the Tower of London |date=2 October 2012 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=9781250018144 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
[[Edward III]] added other types of animals, two lions, a leopard and two [[European wildcat|wildcats]]. Under subsequent kings, the number of animals grew to include additional cats of various types, [[jackal]]s, [[hyena]]s, and an old [[brown bear]], Max, gifted to [[Henry VIII]] by [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximilian]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=William Harrison Ainsworth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WxQlAAAAMAAJ&q=tower+of+london+menagerie&pg=PA249 |title=The Tower of London: An Historical Romance |year=1858 |page=249}}</ref> In 1436, during the time of [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], all the lions died and the employment of Keeper William Kerby was terminated.<ref name="books.google.ca" />

Historical records indicate that a semi-circular structure or [[barbican]] was built by Edward I in 1277; this area was later named the Lion Tower, to the immediate west of the Middle Tower. Records from 1335 indicate the purchase of a lock and key for the lions and leopards, also suggesting they were located near the western entrance of the Tower. By the 1500s that area was called the Menagerie.<ref name="royalarmouries" /> Between 1604 and 1606 the Menagerie was extensively refurbished and an exercise yard was created in the moat area beside the Lion Tower. An overhead platform was added for viewing of the lions by the royals, during [[lion baiting]], for example in the time of [[James VI and I|James I]]. Reports from 1657 include mention of six lions, increasing to 11 by 1708, in addition to other types of cats, [[eagle]]s, [[owl]]s and a jackal.<ref name="royalarmouries" />
[[File:Skull of a Barbary Lion (25297910567).jpg|thumb|Skull of a [[Barbary lion]] that was kept at Tower of London, [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]]]]
By the 18th century, the menagerie was open to the public; admission cost three half-pence or a cat or dog to be fed to the lions. By the end of the century, that had increased to 9 pence.<ref name="royalarmouries" /><ref>{{harvnb|Blunt|1976|p=17}}</ref> A particularly famous inhabitant was [[Old Martin]], a large [[grizzly bear]] given to [[George III]] by the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] in 1811.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Tower of London: Discover The Wild Beasts That Once Roamed The Royal Menagerie |url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/tower-of-london/visit-us/top-things-to-see-and-do/royal-beasts/the-royal-menagerie/the-beasts-within/#gs.pK8nWJ0 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325025611/http://www.hrp.org.uk/tower-of-london/visit-us/top-things-to-see-and-do/royal-beasts/the-royal-menagerie/the-beasts-within/#gs.pK8nWJ0 |archivedate=25 March 2017 |accessdate=24 March 2017 |publisher=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kennedy |first=Maev |date=18 October 1999 |title=Tower's old grizzly back on show |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/oct/18/maevkennedy}}</ref> An 1800 inventory also listed a [[tiger]], leopards, a hyena, a large [[baboon]], various types of [[monkey]]s, [[wolves]], and "other animals".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kisling |first=Vernon N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ulbMBQAAQBAJ&q=tower+of+london+menagerie+opened+as+a+zoo+public+shillings&pg=PA51 |title=Zoo and Aquarium History: Ancient Animal Collections To Zoological Gardens |date=18 September 2000 |isbn=9781420039245 |page=51|publisher=CRC Press }}</ref> By 1822, however, the collection included only a grizzly bear, an elephant, and some birds. Additional animals were then introduced.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Edward Turner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p1RjAAAAcAAJ&q=tower+of+london+menagerie&pg=PR15 |title=The Tower Menagerie: Comprising the Natural History of the Animals Contained ... |year=1829 |page=15 |accessdate=21 July 2017}}</ref> In 1828, there were over 280 representing at least 60 species as the new keeper Alfred Copps was actively acquiring animals.<ref>{{Cite book |title=African History at the Tower of London |publisher=Tower Hamlets African and Caribbean Mental Health Organisation |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-9551368-7-0 |location=Tower Hamlets |page=16}}</ref>

After the death of [[George IV]] in 1830, a decision was made to close down the Menagerie on the orders of the [[Duke of Wellington]].<ref name="bbc">{{Cite news |date=24 October 2005 |title=Big cats prowled London's tower |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4371908.stm}}</ref> In 1831, most of the stock was moved to the [[London Zoo]] which had opened in 1828.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Michael Allaby |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtKZ12YN9qcC&q=tower+of+london+menagerie+opened+as+a+zoo&pg=PT68 |title=Animals: From Mythology to Zoology |year=2010 |isbn=9780816061013 |page=68| publisher=Infobase }}</ref> This decision was made after an incident, although sources vary as to the specifics: either a lion was accused of biting a soldier,<ref name="Parnell 94">{{harvnb|Parnell|1993|p=94}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Parnell |first=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIJnAAAAMAAJ&q=geoffrey+parnell+tower+of+London+Menagerie+1835 |title=Book of the Tower of London |date=2 December 1993 |publisher=B. T. Batsford |isbn=9780713468649 |ref=none |via=Google Books}}</ref> or Ensign Seymour had been bitten by a monkey.<ref name="royalarmouries" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kennedy |first=Maev |date=18 October 1999 |title=Tower's old grizzly back on show |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/oct/18/maevkennedy}}</ref> The last of the animals left in 1835, relocated to [[Regent's Park]]. The Menagerie buildings were removed in 1852 but the Keeper of the Royal Menagerie was entitled to use the Lion Tower as a house for life. Consequently, even though the animals had long since left the building, the tower was not demolished until the death of Copps, the last keeper, in 1853.<ref name="Parnell 94" />

In 1999, physical evidence of lion cages was found, one being {{cvt|2|x|3|metres}} in size, very small for a lion that can grow to be {{cvt|2.5|m|}} long.<ref name=natgeo/> In 2008, the skulls of two male [[Barbary lion]]s (now extinct in the wild) from northwest Africa were found in the moat area of the Tower. Radiocarbon tests dated them from 1280 to 1385 and 1420–1480.<ref name="independent1" /> In 2011, an exhibition was hosted at the Tower with fine wire sculptures by [[Kendra Haste]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Royal Beasts at Tower of London |url=http://www.viewlondon.co.uk/whatson/royal-beasts-at-tower-of-london-article-10531.html |publisher=View London |accessdate=14 April 2011}}</ref>

== In folklore ==
The Tower of London has been represented in popular culture in many ways. As a result of 16th- and 19th-century writers, the Tower has a reputation as a grim fortress, a place of torture and execution.<ref name="I&P 91"/>

One of the earliest traditions associated with the Tower was that it was built by [[Julius Caesar]]; the story was popular amongst writers and antiquaries. The earliest recorded attribution of the Tower to the Roman ruler dates to the mid-14th&nbsp;century in a poem by [[Thomas Grey (chronicler)|Sir Thomas Gray]].<ref>{{harvnb|Nearing|1948|p=229}}</ref> The origin of the myth is uncertain, although it may be related to the fact that the Tower was built in the corner of London's Roman walls. Another possibility is that someone misread a passage from [[Gervase of Tilbury]] in which he says Caesar built a tower at Odnea in France. Gervase wrote Odnea as Dodres, which is close to the French for London, Londres.<ref>{{harvnb|Nearing|1948|pp=231–232}}</ref> Today, the story survives in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard&nbsp;II]]'' and ''[[Richard III (play)|Richard&nbsp;III]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|Nearing|1948|p=228}}</ref> and as late as the 18th&nbsp;century some still regarded the Tower as built by Caesar.<ref>{{harvnb|Nearing|1948|p=233}}</ref>

[[Anne Boleyn]] was beheaded in 1536 for treason against [[Henry VIII]]; her ghost supposedly haunts the [[Church of St Peter ad Vincula]] in the Tower, where she is buried, and has been said to walk around the [[White Tower (Tower of London)|White Tower]] carrying her head under her arm.<ref>{{harvnb|Farson|1978|pp=14–16}}</ref> This haunting is commemorated in the 1934 comic song "[[With Her Head Tucked Underneath Her Arm]]". Other reported ghosts include [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], [[Lady Jane Grey]], [[Margaret Pole]], and the [[Princes in the Tower]].<ref name="Hole">{{harvnb|Hole|1951|pp=61–62, 155}}</ref> In January 1816, a sentry on guard outside the Jewel House claimed to have witnessed an apparition of a bear advancing towards him, and reportedly died of fright a few days later.<ref name="Hole" /> In October 1817, a tubular, glowing apparition was claimed to have been seen in the [[Jewel House]] by the [[Keeper of the Crown Jewels]], [[Edmund Lenthal Swifte]]. He said that the apparition hovered over the shoulder of his wife, leading her to exclaim: "Oh, Christ! It has seized me!" Other nameless and formless terrors have been reported, more recently, by night staff at the Tower.<ref>{{harvnb|Roud|2009|pp=60–61}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|London|Law|England|United Kingdom}}
* [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
* [[Constable of the Tower]]
* [[List of buildings that survived the Great Fire of London]]
* [[List of castles in England]]
* [[List of prisoners of the Tower of London]]
* [[Zammitello Palace]], built in imitation of the Tower of London

==References==
===Explanatory notes===
{{Reflist|group="nb"}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|20em}}

=== General bibliography ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Allen Brown |first=Reginald |title=Allen Brown's English Castles |date=1976 |publisher=The Boydell Press |isbn=978-1-84383-069-6 |orig-date=1954}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Allen Brown |first1=Reginald |title=Tower of London, Greater London: Department of the Environment Official Handbook |last2=Curnow |first2=P |date=1984 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |isbn=978-0-11-671148-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Matthew |title=Campaigns of the Norman Conquest |date=2001 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-228-9 |series=Essential Histories}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Black |first=Ernest |url=https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8145&context=penn_law_review |title=Torture under English Law |date=1927 |journal=University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register |volume=75 |pages=344–348 |doi=10.2307/3307506 |issue=4|jstor=3307506 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Blunt |first=Wilfred |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_241893313 |title=The Ark in the Park: The Zoo in the Nineteenth Century |date=1976 |publisher=Hamish Hamilton |isbn=978-0-241-89331-9 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bowle |first=John Edward |title=Henry VIII: A Biography |date=1964 |publisher=Allen & Unwin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cathcart King |first=David James |title=The Castle in England and Wales: an Interpretative History |date=1988 |publisher=Croom Helm |isbn=978-0-918400-08-6}}
* {{Cite ODNB |last=Collinson |first=Patrick |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8636 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |date=2004 |chapter=Elizabeth I (1533–1603), Queen of England and Ireland|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8636 }} {{subscription required}}
* {{Cite book |last=Costain |first=Thomas |title=The Three Edwards |date=1958 |publisher=Garden City}}
* {{Cite book |last=Creighton |first=Oliver |title=Castles and Landscapes |date=2002 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-5896-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Farson |first=Daniel |title=Ghosts in Fact and Fiction |date=1978 |publisher=Hamlyn Young Books |isbn=978-0-600-34053-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Friar |first=Stephen |title=The Sutton Companion to Castles |date=2003 |publisher=Sutton Publishing |isbn=978-0-7509-3994-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gillingham |first=John |title=Richard I |date=2002 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-09404-6 |orig-date=1999 |authorlink=John Gillingham}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hole |first=Christina |title=Haunted England: A Survey of English Ghost-Lore |date=1951 |publisher=Batsford |edition=3}}
* {{Cite ODNB |last=Horrox |first=Rosemary |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8521 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |date=2004 |chapter=Edward V (1470–1483), king of England and lord of Ireland|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8521 }} {{subscription required}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Impey |first1=Edward |url=https://archive.org/details/toweroflondon00edwa |title=The Tower of London: The Official Illustrated History |last2=Parnell |first2=Geoffrey |date=2000 |publisher=Merrell Publishers in association with [[Historic Royal Palaces]] |isbn=978-1-85894-106-6 |author-link=Edward Impey |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jerome |first=Fiona |title=Tales from the Tower: Secrets and Stories from a Gory and Glorious Past |date=2006 |publisher=Think Publishing |isbn=978-1-84525-026-3}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Lapper |first1=Ivan |title=The Tower of London: A 2000-year History |last2=Parnell |first2=Geoffrey |date=2000 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-170-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Liddiard |first=Robert |title=Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500 |date=2005 |publisher=Windgather Press |isbn=978-0-9545575-2-2}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Michette |first1=Martin |last2=Viles |first2=Heather |last3=Vlachou |first3=Constantina |last4=Angus |first4=Ian |date=2020-08-08 |title=The many faces of Reigate Stone: an assessment of variability in historic masonry based on Medieval London's principal freestone |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10116551/1/Michette_s40494-020-00424-w.pdf |journal=Heritage Science |volume=8 |issue=1 |doi=10.1186/s40494-020-00424-w |issn=2050-7445 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nearing |first=Homer Jr. |chapter=Julius Caesar and the Tower of London |date=April 1948 |title=Modern Language Notes |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |volume=63 |pages=228–233 |doi=10.2307/2908562 |issue=4|jstor=2908562 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Osbourne |first=Mike |title=Defending London: A Military History from Conquest to Cold War |date=2012 |publisher=The History Press |isbn=978-0-7524-6465-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Parnell |first=Geoffrey |title=The Tower of London |date=1993 |publisher=Batsford |isbn=978-0-7134-6864-9}}
* {{Cite ODNB |last=Plowden |first=Alison |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8154 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |date=2004 |chapter=Grey (married name Dudley), Lady Jane (1537–1554)|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8154 }} {{subscription required}}
* {{Cite book |last=Roud |first=Steve |title=London Lore: The Legends and Traditions of the World's Most Vibrant City |date=2009 |publisher=Arrow Books |isbn=978-0-09-951986-7 |orig-date=2008}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sax |first=Boria |url=http://www.animalsandsociety.org/assets/library/737_s4.pdf |title=How Ravens Came to the Tower of London |date=2007 |journal=Society and Animals |volume=15 |pages=269–283 |doi=10.1163/156853007X217203 |url-status=dead |issue=3 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727122825/http://www.animalsandsociety.org/assets/library/737_s4.pdf |archivedate=27 July 2011}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sellers |first=Leonard |title=Shot in the Tower:The Story of the Spies executed in the Tower of London during the First World War |date=1997 |publisher=Leo Cooper |isbn=978-1-84884-026-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Strickland |first=Agnes |title=Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman Conquest. Volume II |date=1840 |publisher=Henry Colburn |volume=II}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thurley |first=Simon |title=Houses of Power: The Places that Shaped the Tudor World |date=2017 |publisher=Bantam Press |isbn=9781473510807 |author-link=Simon Thurley}}

*{{Cite book |last=Tinniswood |first=Adrian |author-link = Adrian Tinniswood|title=By Permission of Heaven: The Story of the Great Fire of London |url=https://archive.org/details/bypermissionofhe0000tinn_h3d3/page/n5/mode/2up |url-access=registration |year=2003 |publisher=Jonathan Cape |isbn=0-224-06226-3}}

* {{Cite book |last=Vince |first=Alan |title=Saxon London: An Archaeological Investigation |date=1990 |publisher=Seaby |isbn=978-1-85264-019-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |title=Henry VIII: The King and His Court |date=2008 |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0-345-43708-2 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Derek |title=The Tower of London: A Thousand Years |date=1998 |publisher=Allison & Busby |isbn=978-0-7490-0332-6 |edition=2nd |orig-date=1978}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Edward Turner |title=The Tower Menagerie: Comprising the Natural History of the Animals Contained in that Establishment; with Anecdotes of their Characters and History |date=1829 |publisher=Robert Jennings}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harman |first=A. |title=Sketches of the Tower of London as a Fortress, a Prison, and a Palace |date=1864 |publisher=J. Wheeler}}
* {{Cite book |last=Parnell |first=Geoffrey |title=The Tower of London: Past & Present |date=2009 |publisher=History Press |isbn=978-0-7524-5036-0}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-Tower_of_London-article.ogg|date=2018-05-04}}
{{Commons and category}}
{{Wikivoyage-listing|London/City of London}}
* {{official website|http://www.hrp.org.uk/tower-of-london/}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100511080832/http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/buildinghistory/bibliography.aspx Further reading recommended by Historic Royal Palaces] (archived 11 May 2010)
* [http://www.gatehouse-gazetteer.info/English%20sites/1904.html Bibliography of sources relating to the Tower of London]
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Tower of London, The |short=x}}

{{London history}}
{{Royal palaces in the United Kingdom}}
{{World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom}}
{{Prisons in London}}
{{City of London gates}}
{{London landmarks}}
{{London museums and galleries}}
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{{Featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tower Of London}}
[[Category:Tower of London| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard-->
[[Category:Castles in London]]
[[Category:Defunct prisons in London]]
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[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1078]]
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