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{{short description|Extinct language in U.S. states of Florida and Georgia}}
{{multiple issues|{{Lead extra info|date=August 2021}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=October 2021}}}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Timucua
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|tjm|tiˈmuːkwa|}}
| states           = United States
| region           = Florida, Southeastern Georgia, Eastern Texas
| extinct          = late 18th century
| familycolor      = american
| family           = [[Language isolate]]
| dia1             = Timucua proper
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Spanish alphabet]])
| iso3             = tjm
| linglist         = tjm
| glotto           = timu1245
| glottorefname    = Timucua
| map              = Timucua lang.png
| mapcaption       = Pre-contact distribution of the Timucua language.<br />The Tawasa dialect, if it was Timucua, would have been geographically isolated in Alabama
| notice           = IPA
| dia2             = Potano
| dia3             = Itafi/Icafui
| dia4             = Yufera
| dia5             = Mocama
| dia7             = Tucururu
| dia6             = Agua Salada
| dia8             = Agua Fresca/Agua Dulce
| dia9             = Acuera
| dia11            = [[Tawasa language|Tawasa]]?
| dia10            = Oconi
| ethnicity        = [[Timucua]]
}}

'''Timucua''' is a [[language isolate]] formerly spoken in northern and central [[Florida]] and southern [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] by the [[Timucua]] peoples. Timucua was the primary language used in the area at the time of [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonization in Florida]]. Differences among the nine or ten Timucua [[dialect]]s were slight, and appeared to serve mostly to delineate band or [[tribal]] boundaries. Some linguists suggest that the [[Tawasa people|Tawasa]] of what is now northern [[Alabama]] may have spoken Timucua, but this is disputed.

Most of what is known of the language comes from the works of [[Francisco Pareja]], a [[Franciscan]] missionary who came to [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]] in 1595. During his 31 years living with the Timucua, he developed a writing system for the language. From 1612 to 1628, he published several Spanish–Timucua [[catechism]]s, as well as a [[grammar]] of the Timucua language. Including his seven surviving works, only ten primary sources of information about the Timucua language survive, including two catechisms written in Timucua and Spanish by Gregorio de Movilla in 1635, and a [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-translated Timucuan letter to the Spanish [[Monarchy of Spain|Crown]] dated 1688.

In 1763 the British took over Florida from Spain following the [[Seven Years' War]], in exchange for ceding Cuba to them. Most Spanish colonists and mission Indians, including the few remaining Timucua speakers, left for [[Cuba]], near [[Havana]]. The language group is now [[Language death|extinct]].

In December 2024, linguistic anthropologist George Aaron Broadwell published a comprehensive reference grammar for the Timucua language, "<nowiki>''</nowiki>Timucua: A Text-Based Reference Grammar,<nowiki>''</nowiki>" with University of Nebraska Press.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Broadwell |first=George Aaron |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.22730740 |title=The Timucua Language: A Text-Based Reference Grammar |date=2024 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-1-4962-3778-1}}</ref>

==Linguistic relations==
Timucua is an isolate, not demonstrably related [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetically]] to any of the languages spoken in North America, nor does it show evidence of large amounts of lexical borrowings from them. The primary published hypotheses for relationships are with the [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]] languages (Swanton (1929), Crawford (1988), and Broadwell (2015), and with various South American families (including [[Cariban languages|Cariban]], [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan]], [[Chibchan languages]], and [[Warao language|Warao]]) Granberry (1993). These hypotheses have not been widely accepted.

==Dialects==
Father Pareja named nine or ten dialects, each spoken by one or more [[Timucua#Tribes|tribes]] in northeast Florida and southeast [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]:

#''Timucua proper'' – [[Northern Utina]] tribe, between the lower (northern) [[St. Johns River]] and the [[Suwannee River]], north of the [[Santa Fe River (Florida)|Santa Fe River]] in Florida and into southern Georgia.
#''Potano'' – [[Potano]] and possibly the [[Yustaga]] and Ocale tribes, between the [[Aucilla River]] and the Suwannee River in Florida and extending into southern Georgia, but not along the coast of the [[Gulf of Mexico]] (with the possible exception of the mouth of the Suwannee River), between the Suwannee River and the [[Oklawaha River]] south of the Santa Fe River, extending south into the area between the Oklawaha and the [[Withlacoochee River (Florida)|Withlacoochee]] rivers.
#''Itafi'' (or ''Icafui'') – [[Icafui]]/Cascange and [[Ibi people|Ibi]] tribes, in southeast Georgia, along the coast north of [[Cumberland Island]] north to the [[Altamaha River]] and inland west of the [[Yufera people|Yufera tribe]].
#''Yufera'' – Yufera tribe, in southeast Georgia, on the mainland west of Cumberland Island.
#''Mocama'' (Timucua for 'ocean') (called ''Agua Salada'' in Hann 1996 and elsewhere) – [[Mocama]], including the [[Tacatacuru]] (on [[Cumberland Island]] in Georgia) and the [[Saturiwa]] (in what is now [[Jacksonville]]) tribes, along the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast of Florida from the [[St. Marys River (Florida/Georgia)|St. Marys River]] to below the mouth of the St. Johns River, including the lowest part of the St. Johns River.
#''Agua Salada'' (Spanish for 'salt water' (''Maritime'' in Hann 1996) – tribal affiliation unclear, the Atlantic coast in the vicinity of [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]] and inland to the adjacent stretch of the St. Johns River.
#''Tucururu'' – uncertain, possibly in south-central Florida (a village called ''Tucuru'' was "forty [[league (unit)|leagues]] from St. Augustine").
#''Agua Fresca'' (or ''Agua Dulce''; Spanish for "fresh water") – [[Agua Dulce people]] (Agua Fresca, or "Freshwater"), including the Utina chiefdom, along the lower St. Johns River, north of [[Lake George (Florida)|Lake George]].
#''Acuera'' – [[Acuera]] tribe, on the upper reaches of the [[Oklawaha River]] and around [[Lake Weir]].
#''Oconi'' – [[Oconi]] tribe (not to be confused with the [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]] speaking Oconee tribe), "three days travel" from Cumberland Island, possibly around the [[Okefenokee Swamp]].<ref>Milanich 1995:80–82.<br>Hann 1996:.<br>Granberry 1993:3–8</ref>

All of the linguistic documentation is from the Mocama and Potano dialects.

Scholars do not agree as to the number of dialects. Some scholars, including [[Jerald T. Milanich]] and [[Edgar H. Sturtevant]], have taken Pareja's ''Agua Salada'' (saltwater) as an alternate name for the well-attested [[Mocama]] dialect (''mocama'' is Timucua for "ocean"). As such, Mocama is often referred to as Agua Salada in the literature. This suggestion would put the number of dialects attested by Pareja at nine. Others, including Julian Granberry, argue that the two names referred to separate dialects, with Agua Salada being spoken in an unknown area of coastal Florida.<ref>Granberry 1993: 6</ref>

Additionally, [[John R. Swanton]] identified the language spoken by the [[Tawasa]] of [[Alabama]] as a dialect of Timucua. This identification was based on a 60-word vocabulary list compiled from a man named Lamhatty, who was recorded in Virginia in 1708. Lamhatty did not speak any language known in Virginia, but was said to have related that he had been kidnapped by the [[Tuscarora people|Tuscarora]] nine months earlier from a town called Towasa, and sold to colonists in Virginia. Lamhatty has been identified as a Timucua speaker, but John Hann calls the evidence of his origin as a Tawasa "tenuous".<ref>Hann 1996, pp. 6, 131–134.</ref>

==Phonology==
Timucua was written by Franciscan missionaries in the 17th century based on Spanish orthography. The reconstruction of the sounds is thus based on interpreting Spanish orthography. The charts below give the reconstituted phonemic units in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] (in brackets) and their general orthography (in plain text).

===Consonants===
Timucua had 14 [[consonant]]s:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|- 
! rowspan="2" | &nbsp;
! rowspan="2" | [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatoalveolar|Palato-<br>alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- 
! <small>plain</small>
! [[labialization|<small>labial</small>]]
|-
!  | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| '''p''' {{IPAblink|p}}&nbsp;'''b''' {{IPAblink|b}}
| '''t''' {{IPAblink|t}} ({{IPAblink|d}})
| &nbsp;
| '''c''', '''q''' {{IPAblink|k}}
| '''qu''' {{IPAblink|kʷ}}
| &nbsp;
|-
!  | [[Affricate]]
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| '''ch''' {{IPAblink|tʃ}}
| colspan="2"| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
!  | [[Fricative]]
| '''f''' {{IPAblink|f}}
| '''s''' {{IPAblink|s}}
| &nbsp;
| colspan="2"| &nbsp;
| '''h''' {{IPAblink|h}}
|-
!  | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| '''m''' {{IPAblink|m}}
| '''n''' {{IPAblink|n}}
| &nbsp;
| colspan="2"| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
!  | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
| &nbsp;
| '''r''' {{IPAblink|r}}
| &nbsp;
| colspan="2"| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
!  | [[Approximant]]
| ({{IPAblink|w}})
| '''l''' {{IPAblink|l}}
| '''y''' {{IPAblink|j}}
| colspan="2"| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|}

* {{IPA|/k/}} is represented with a ''c'' when followed by an {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, or {{IPA|/u/}}; otherwise, it is represented by a ''q''
* There is no true voiced stop; {{IPA|[d]}} only occurs as an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/t/}} after {{IPA|/n/}}
* {{IPA|[ɡ]}} existed in Timucua only in Spanish loanwords like ''"gato"'' and perhaps as the voiced form of [k] after [n] in words like ''chequetangala'' "fourteen"
* The labial glide {{IPA|[w]}} is said to be heard only after labialized consonants.
* Sounds in question, like {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/b/}}, indicate possible alternative phonetic values arising from the original Spanish orthography; /b/ is spelled with <b, u, v> in Spanish sources and <ou> in French sources. While it is also possible that sounds /f/ and /b/, are heard as bilabial fricatives [ɸ] and [β], there is only little evidence for this claim.
* The only [[consonant cluster]]s were intersyllabic {{IPA|/nt/}} and {{IPA|/st/}}, resulting from vowel contractions.
* [[Gemination|Geminate consonant]] clusters did not occur

===Vowels===
Timucua had 5 [[vowel]]s, which could be long or short:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|- 
! &nbsp;
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-	
!  | [[Close vowel|High]]
| '''i'''  {{IPAblink|i}}
| '''u'''  {{IPAblink|u}}
|-
!  | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| '''e'''  {{IPAblink|e}}~{{IPAblink|æ}} 
| '''o'''  {{IPAblink|o}}~{{IPAblink|ɔ}}
|-
!  | [[Open vowel|Low]]
| colspan="2" | '''a'''  {{IPAblink|a}}
|}

* Vowel clusters were limited to intersyllabic {{IPA|/iu/}}, {{IPA|/ia/}}, {{IPA|/ua/}}, {{IPA|/ai/}}
* Timucua had no true [[diphthong]]s.

===Syllable structure===
Syllables in Timucua were of the form CV, V, and occasionally VC (which never occurred in word-final position).

===Stress===
Words of one, two, or three syllables have primary stress on the first syllable. In words of more than three syllables, the first syllable receives a primary stress while every syllable after receives a secondary stress, unless there was an [[enclitic]] present, which normally took the primary stress.

Examples:
* ''yobo'' [yóbò] 'stone'
* ''nipita'' [nípìtà] 'mouth'
* ''atimucu'' [átìmûkù] 'frost'
* ''holatamaquí'' [hôlàtâmàkʷí] 'and the chief'

===Phonological processes===
There are two phonological processes in Timucua: automatic alteration and reduplication.

====Alteration====
There are two types of alteration, both of which only involve vowels: assimilation and substitution.
* Assimilations occur across morpheme boundaries when the first morpheme ends in a vowel and the second morpheme begins with a vowel. Examples: ''tera'' 'good' + ''acola'' 'very' → ''teracola'' 'very good'; ''coloma'' 'here' + ''uqua'' 'not' → ''colomaqua'' 'not here.'
* Substitutions also occur across morpheme boundaries. Regressive substitutions involve only the "low" vowels ({{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/a/}}, and {{IPA|/o/}}) in the first-morpheme position, and can occur even if there is a consonant present between the vowels. The last vowel of the first morpheme is then either raised or backed. Other regressive substitutions involve the combination of suffixes, and their effects on the vowels vary from pair to pair. Non-regressive substitutions, on the other hand, affect the ''second vowel'' of the morpheme pair. Examples: ''ite'' 'father' + ''-ye'' 'your' → ''itaye'' 'your father' (regressive); ''ibine'' 'water' + ''-ma'' 'the' + ''-la'' 'proximate time' → ''ibinemola'' 'it is the water' (regressive, suffix combination); ''ucu'' 'drink' + ''-no'' 'action designator' → ''ucunu'' 'to drink' (non-regressive).

These can in turn be either regressive or non-regressive. In regressive alterations, the first vowel of the second morpheme changes the last vowel of the first morpheme. Regressive assimilations are only conditioned by phonological factors while substitutions take into account semantic information.

Non-regressive alterations are all substitutions, and involve both phonological and semantic factors.

====Reduplication====
Reduplication repeats entire morphemes or lexemes to indicate the intensity of an action or to place emphasis on the word.

Example: ''noro'' 'devotion' + ''mo'' 'do' + ''-ta'' 'durative' → ''noronoromota'' 'do it with great devotion.'

==Morphology==

Timucua was a [[synthetic language]].

===Bases===
These morphemes contained both [[Semantics|semantic]] and [[semiotics|semiological]] information (non-base morphemes only contained semiological information). They could occur as either free bases, which did not need [[affix]]es, and bound bases, which ''only'' occurred with affixes. However, free bases could be designated different parts of speech (verbs, nouns, etc.) based on the affixes attached, and sometimes can be used indifferently as any one with no change.

===Affixes===
Timucua had three types of [[Bound morpheme|bound]] affix morphemes: prefixes, suffixes, and [[enclitic]]s.

====Prefixes====
Timucua only had five prefixes: ''ni-'' and ''ho-'', '1st person,' ''ho-'' 'pronoun,' ''chi-'' '2nd person,' and ''na-'' 'instrumental noun'

====Suffixes====
Timucua used suffixes far more often, and it is the primary affix used for derivation, part-of-speech designation, and inflection. Most Timucua suffixes were attached to verbs.

====Enclitics====
Enclitics were also used often in Timucua. Unlike suffixes and prefixes, they were not required to fill a specific slot, and enclitics usually bore the primary stress of a word.

===Pronouns===
Only the 1st and 2nd person singular are independent pronouns—all other pronominal information is given in particles or nouns. There is no gender distinction or grammatical case. The word ''oqe'', for example, can be 'she, her, to her, he, him, to him, it, to it,' etc. without the aid of context.

===Nouns===
There are nine morphemic slots within the "noun matrix":
* 1 – Base
* 2 – Possessive Pronoun
* 3 – Pronoun Plural
* 4A – Base Plural
* 4B – Combining Form
* 5 – 'The'
* 6 – [[Grammatical particle|Particles]]
* 7 – Enclitics
* 8 – Reflexive

Only slot 1 and 4A ''must'' be filled in order for the [[lexeme]] to be a noun.

===Verbs===
Timucua verbs contain many subtleties not present in English or even in other indigenous languages of the United States. However, there is no temporal aspect to Timucua verbs – there is no past tense, no future tense, etc. Verbs have 13 morphemic slots, but it is rare to find a verb with all 13 filled, although those with 8 or 9 are frequently used.

# Subject pronoun
# Object pronoun
# Base (verb)
# Transitive-Causative
# Reflexive/Reciprocal
# Action designation
# Subject pronoun plural
# Aspect (Durative, Bounded, Potential)
# Status ([[perfective aspect|Perfective]], [[Conditional mood|Conditional]])
# Emphasis (Habitual, Punctual-Intensive)
# Locus (Proximate, Distant)
# Mode (Indicative, [[Optative]], [[Subjunctive]], [[imperative mood|Imperative]])
# Subject pronouns (optional and rare – found only in questions)

===Particles===
Particles are the small number of free bases that occur with either no affixes or only with the pluralizer ''-ca''. They function as nominals, adverbials, prepositions, and demonstratives. They are frequently added onto one another, onto enclitics, and onto other bases. A few examples are the following:
* ''amiro'' 'much, many'
* ''becha'' 'tomorrow'
* ''ocho'' 'behind'
* ''na'' 'this'
* '' michu'' 'that'
* ''tulu'' 'immediately'
* ''quana'' 'for, with'
* ''pu'', ''u'', ''ya'' 'no'

==Syntax==
According to Granberry, "Without fuller data ... it is of course difficult to provide a thorough statement on Timucua syntax."<ref name="Granberry 1993:13-17">Granberry (1993:13–17)</ref>

Timucua was an SOV language; that is, the phrasal word order was subject–object–verb, unlike the English order of subject–verb–object. There are six parts of speech: [[verb]]s, [[noun]]s, [[pronoun]]s, [[grammatical modifier|modifiers]] (there is no difference between [[adjective]]s and [[adverb]]s in Timucua), [[demonstrative]]s, and [[grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]]. As these are not usually specifically marked, a word's part of speech is generally determined by its relationship with and location within the phrase.

===Phrases===
Phrases typically consist of two [[lexeme]]s, with one acting as the "head-word," defining the function, and the other performing a [[syntax|syntactic]] operation. The most frequently-occurring lexeme, or in some cases just the lexeme that occurs first, is the "head-word." All phrases are either verb phrases (e.g. Noun + Finite Verb, Pronoun + Non-Finite Verb, etc.) or noun phrases (e.g. Noun + Modifier, Determiner + Noun, etc.). If the non-head lexeme occurs ''after'' the "head-word," then it modifies the "head-word." If it occurs ''before'', different operations occur depending on the lexeme's part of speech and whether it is located in a verb or noun phrase. For example, a particle occurring before the "head-word" in a noun phrase becomes a demonstrative, and a non-finite verb in a verb phrase becomes a modifier.

===Clauses===
Clauses in Timucua are: [[subject (grammar)|subjects]], [[complement (linguistics)|complements]] (direct or indirect object), [[predicate (grammar)|predicates]], and clause [[grammatical modifier|modifiers]].

===Sentences===
Timucua sentences typically contained a single independent clause, although they occasionally occurred with subordinate clauses acting as modifiers.

==Sample vocabulary==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Vocabulary<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.native-languages.org/timucua_words.htm |title=Vocabulary Words in Native American Languages: Timucua |access-date=2006-07-11 |archive-date=2006-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720015113/http://www.native-languages.org/timucua_words.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://volusiahistory.com/beliefs.htm Timucua Language and Beliefs: Sample Words] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928162813/http://volusiahistory.com/beliefs.htm |date=2007-09-28 }}</ref>{{ref|vocab2}}
! English !! Timucua 
|-
| one
| yaha 
|-
| two
| yucha
|-
| three
| hapu
|-
| man
| biro
|-
| woman
| nia
|-
| dog
| efa
|-
| sun
| ela
|-
| moon
| acu
|-
| water
| ibi
|-
| door    
| ucuchua
|-
| fire
| taca
|-
| tobacco
| hinino
|-
| bread
| pesolo
|-
| drink
| ucu
|}

===Sample text===
Here is a sample from Fr. Pareja's ''Confessionario'', featuring a priest's interview of Timucua speakers preparing for conversion. It is given below in Timucua and early modern [[Castilian Spanish]] from the original, as well as an English translation.<ref>[http://volusiahistory.com/beliefs.htm Timucua Language and Beliefs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928162813/http://volusiahistory.com/beliefs.htm |date=2007-09-28 }}</ref>

::'''Hachipileco, cacaleheco, chulufi eyolehecote, nahebuasota, caquenchabequestela, mota una yaruru catemate, caquenihabe, quintela manta bohobicho?'''
::''La graja canta o otra aue, y el cuerpo me parece que me tiembla, señal es que viene gente que ay algo de nuebo, as lo assi creydo?''
::Do you believe that when the crow or another bird sings and the body is trembling, that is a signal that people are coming or something important is about to happen?

==See also==
* [[Timucua]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

== Primary sources ==

* Pareja, Francisco. (1612a) ''Cathecismo en lengua castellana, y Timuquana. En el qual se contiene lo que se les puede enseñar a los adultos que an de ser baptizados.'' Mexico City: Impresa de la Viuda de Pedro Balli. [http://dcmny.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A2261#page/1/mode/2up Digital version from New York Historical Society]
* Pareja, Francisco. (1612b) ''Catechismo y breve exposición de la doctrina christiana. Mexico City: Casa de la viuda de Pedro Balli.'' [http://dcmny.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A2428#page/1/mode/2up Digital version from the New York Historical Society]
* Pareja, Francisco. (1613) ''Confessionario en lengua castellana y timuquana con unos consejos para animar al penitente.'' Mexico City: Emprenta de la viuda de Diego Lopez Daualos. [http://dcmny.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A3281#page/1/mode/2up Digital version from the New York Historical Society]
* Pareja, Francisco. (1614). ''Arte y pronunciación en lengua timvquana y castellana''. Mexico: Emprenta de Ioan Ruyz. {{Google books|3aITAAAAQAAJ|Digital version}}
* Pareja, Francisco. (1627a). ''Catecismo en lengua timuquana y castellana en el qual se instruyen y cathequizan los adultos infieles que an de ser Christianos.'' Mexico City: Emprenta de Ioan Ruyz. {{Google books|MMw_q3P3sNIC|Digital version}} and [https://bibliotecadigital.aecid.es/bibliodig/i18n/consulta/registro.do?id=749 AECID Digital Library]
* Pareja, Francisco. (1627b). ''Cathecismo y Examen para los que comulgan. En lengua castellana y timuquana.'' Mexico City: Imprenta de Iuan Ruyz. [http://library.asc.ox.ac.uk/epbs/r_9_22_1.php Digital version from All Souls College]
*Pareja, Francisco. (1628). ''IIII. parte del catecismo, en lengua Timuquana, y castellana. En que se trata el modo de oyr Missa, y sus ceremonias.'' Mexico City: Imprenta de Iuan Ruyz. [https://library.asc.ox.ac.uk/epbs/r_9_22.php Digital version from All Souls College]
*Movilla, Gregorio de. (1635a) ''Explicacion de la Doctrina que compuso el cardenal Belarmino, por mandado del Señor Papa Clemente viii. Traducida en Lengua Floridana: por el Padre Fr. Gregorio de Movilla.'' Mexico: Imprenta de Iuan Ruyz. [http://dcmny.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A2783#page/1/mode/2up Digital version from the New York Historical Society]
*Movilla, Gregorio de. (1635b) ''Forma breue de administrar los sacramentos a los Indios, y Españoles que viuen entre ellos … lo q[ue] estaua en le[n]gua Mexicana traducido en lengua Florida.'' Mexico:  R [http://dcmny.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A3212#page/1/mode/2up Digital version from the New York Historical Society]

==References==
* Adams, Lucien and Julien Vinson, eds. (1886) Arte de la lengua timuquana, compuesto en 1614 por el padre Francisco Pareja, y publicado conforme al ejemplar original único. Paris: Maisonneuve Frères et Ch. Leclerc.
* Broadwell, George Aaron. (2015) Timucua -ta: Muskogean parallels. New perspectives on language variety in the South: Historical and contemporary approaches, ed. Michael D Picone and Catherine Evans Davies, pp.&nbsp;72–81. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama.B
* Broadwell, George Aaron (2024). The Timucua Language: A Text-Based Reference Grammar. University of Nebraska Press.
* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509427-1}}.
* Crawford, James. (1975). ''Southeastern Indian languages''. In J. Crawford (Ed.), ''Studies in southeastern Indian languages'' (pp.&nbsp;1–120). Athens, GA: University of Georgia.
* Dubcovsky, Alejandra and George Aaron Broadwell. (2017) Writing Timucua: Recovering and interrogating indigenous authorship. Early American Studies 15:409–441.
* Gatschet, Albert. (1877) The Timucua language. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 16:1–17.
* Gatschet, Albert. (1878) The Timucua language. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 17:490–504.
* Gatschet, Albert. (1880) The Timucua language. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 18:465–502.
* Gatschet, Albert and Raoul de la Grasserie. (1890) Textes en langue timucua avec traduction analytique. Paris: Maisonneuve.
* Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). ''Languages''. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. {{ISBN|0-16-048774-9}}.
* Granberry, Julian. (1990). "A grammatical sketch of Timucua", ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''56'', 60–101.
* Granberry, Julian. (1993). ''A Grammar and Dictionary of the Timucua Language'' (3rd ed.). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. (1st edition 1984).
* Granberry, Julian. (1956). "Timucua I: Prosodics and Phonemics of the Mocama Dialect",  ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''22'', 97–105.
* Hann, John H. (1996) ''A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions'', Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. {{ISBN|0-8130-1424-7}}
* Milanich, Jerald T. (1995) ''Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe'', Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. {{ISBN|0-8130-1360-7}}
* Milanch, Jerald T. (2004). "Timucua", In R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), ''Southeast'' (p.&nbsp;219–228). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 17) (W. C. Sturtevant, Gen. Ed.). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. {{ISBN|0-16-072300-0}}.
* Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-23228-7}} (hbk); {{ISBN|0-521-29875-X}}.
* Mooney, James. (1910). "Timucua", Bureau of American Ethnology, bulletin (No. 30.2, p.&nbsp;752).
* Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). ''[[Handbook of North American Indians]]'' (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1, 16, 18–20 not yet published).
* Swanton, John R. (1946). ''The Indians of the southeastern United States''. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 137). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

==External links==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has a word list at '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Timucua word list|Appendix:Timucua word list]]'''''}}
*[https://www.wm.edu/as/linguistics/news/linguists-research-timucua,-a-language-with-no-speakers.php Linguists research Timucua, a language with no speakers]
*[http://www.native-languages.org/timucua.htm Timucua Language Resources]
*[https://hebuano.com/ Hebuano, a Timucua Language Resource Guide]
*[http://timucua.webonary.org Timucua-Spanish-English Online Dictionary]
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{{Language families}}
{{North American languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Timucua Language}}
[[Category:Timucua language| ]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southeast]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of North America]]
[[Category:Native American history of Alabama]]
[[Category:Native American history of Florida]]
[[Category:Native American history of Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Language isolates of North America]]
[[Category:Languages extinct in the 18th century]]