View source for Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world

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{{cleanup|date=September 2011}}
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<!-- The cut-off point is c. 1800. Please do not add entries after this date. -->
This '''timeline of science and engineering''' in the '''[[Muslim world]]''' covers the time period from the eighth century AD to the introduction of [[History of Europe|European]] science to the Muslim world in the nineteenth century. All year dates are given according to the [[Gregorian calendar]] except where noted.

==Eighth century==
;[[Astronomer]]s and [[Astrology|astrologers]]

* '''d 777 CE''' [[Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī]]  '''Ibrahim ibn Habib ibn Sulayman ibn [[Samura ibn Jundab]] [[Banu Fazara|al-Fazari]]''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: إبراهيم بن حبيب بن سليمان بن سمرة بن جندب الفزاري‎) (died 777 CE) was an 8th-century Muslim mathematician and astronomer at the [[Abbasid]] court of the Caliph [[Al-Mansur]] (r. 754–775). He should not be confused with his son [[Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī]], also an astronomer. He composed various astronomical writings ("on the [[astrolabe]]", "on the armillary spheres", "on the calendar").
* '''d 796''' '''Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Habib ibn Sulayman ibn [[Samra ibn Jundab]] [[Banu Fazara|al-Fazari]]''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: إبراهيم بن حبيب بن سليمان بن سمرة بن جندب الفزاري‎) (died 796 or 806) was a [[Muslim]] [[philosopher]], [[mathematician]] and [[astronomer]]. He is not to be confused with his father [[Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī]], also an astronomer and mathematician. Some sources refer to him as an [[Arab]], other sources state that he was a [[Persian people|Persian]]. Al-Fazārī translated many scientific books into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]. He is credited to have built the first [[astrolabe]] in the [[Islamic world]]. Along with [[Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq]] and his father he helped translate the Indian astronomical text by [[Brahmagupta]] (fl. 7th century), the ''[[Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta]]'', into Arabic as ''Az-Zīj ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab''., or the ''[[Sindhind]]''. This translation was possibly the vehicle by means of which the [[Hindu numerals]] were transmitted from [[India]] to Islam.

;[[Biologist]]s, [[neuroscientist]]s, and [[psychologist]]s

* '''(654–728)''' [[Ibn Sirin]] '''Muhammad Ibn Sirin''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: محمد بن سيرين‎) (born in [[Basra]]) was a [[Muslim]] mystic and interpreter of dreams who lived in the 8th century. He was a contemporary of [[Anas ibn Malik]]. Once regarded as the same person as [[Achmet (oneiromancer)|Achmet son of Seirim]], this is no longer believed to be true, as shown by [[Maria Mavroudi]].
*

;[[Mathematics]]

*'''780{{Snd}}850:''' '''[[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi|al-Khwarizmi]]''' Developed the "calculus of resolution and juxtaposition" (''hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala''), more briefly referred to as al-jabr, or [[algebra]].

==Ninth century==
[[File:Conica of Apollonius of Perga fol. 162b and 164a.jpg|thumbnail|right|The Conica of [[Apollonius of Perga]], "the great geometer", translated into Arabic in the ninth century]]
;Chemistry

* '''801{{Snd}}873:''' [[al-Kindi]] writes on the [[distillation]] of wine as that of [[rose water]] and gives 107 recipes for [[Perfume|perfumes]], in his book Kitab Kimia al-'otoor wa al-tas`eedat (Book of the Chemistry of Perfumes and Distillations.){{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}
*'''865{{Snd}}925:''' [[Abu Bakr al-Razi|al-Razi]] wrote on Naft (naphta or petroleum) and its distillates in his book "[[Kitab sirr al-asrar]]" (book of the secret of secrets.) When choosing a site to build Baghdad's hospital, he hung pieces of fresh meat in different parts of the city. The location where the meat took the longest to [[Decomposition|rot]] was the one he chose for building the hospital. Advocated that patients not be told their real condition so that [[fear]] or [[despair (emotion)|despair]] do not affect the [[healing]] process. Wrote on [[alkali]], [[caustic soda]], soap and [[glycerine]]. Gave descriptions of equipment processes and methods in his book Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets).

;Mathematics

*'''826{{Snd}}901:''' [[Thābit ibn Qurra|Thabit ibn Qurra]] (Latinized, Thebit.) Studied at Baghdad's House of Wisdom under the [[Banu Musa]] brothers. Discovered a theorem that enables pairs of [[amicable number]]s to be found.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}} Later, [[Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi|al-Baghdadi]] (b. 980) developed a variant of the theorem.

;Miscellaneous

*'''''c''. 810:''' [[House of Wisdom|Bayt al-Hikma]] ([[House of Wisdom]]) set up in Baghdad. There [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[India]]n mathematical and astronomy works are translated into [[Arabic language|Arabic]].
*'''810{{Snd}}887:''' [[Abbas ibn Firnas]]. [[Planetarium]], artificial crystals. According to one account that was written seven centuries after his death, Ibn Firnas was injured during an elevated winged trial flight.

==Tenth century==
By this century, three [[numeral system|systems of counting]] are used in the Arab world. Finger-reckoning arithmetic, with numerals written entirely in words, used by the business community; the [[sexagesimal|sexagesimal system]], a remnant originating with the [[Babylonians]], with numerals denoted by letters of the [[arabic alphabet]] and used by Arab mathematicians in astronomical work; and the [[Indian numerals|Indian numeral system]], which was used with various sets of symbols. Its arithmetic at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld [[blackboard]]) because "the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded."

;Chemistry

*'''957:''' Abul Hasan Ali [[Masudi|Al-Masudi]], wrote on the reaction of alkali water with zaj ([[vitriol]]) water giving [[sulfuric acid]].

;Mathematics

*'''920:''' [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi|al-Uqlidisi]]. Modified arithmetic methods for the Indian numeral system to make it possible for pen and paper use. Hitherto, doing calculations with the Indian numerals necessitated the use of a dust board as noted earlier.
*'''940:''' Born [[Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani]]. Wrote several [[treatise]]s using the finger-counting system of arithmetic and was also an expert on the Indian numerals system. About the Indian system, he wrote: "[It] did not find application in business circles and among the population of the Eastern [[Caliphate]] for a long time."<ref name="St Andrews" /> Using the Indian numeral system, abu'l Wafa was able to extract [[Square root|root]]s.
*'''980:''' [[Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi|al-Baghdadi]] Studied a slight variant of [[Thabit ibn Qurra]]'s theorem on [[amicable number]]s.<ref name=" St Andrews" /> Al-Baghdadi also wrote about and compared the three systems of counting and arithmetic used in the region during this period.

==Eleventh century ==
;Mathematics

*'''1048{{Snd}}1131:''' [[Omar Khayyam]]. Persian mathematician and poet. "Gave a complete classification of [[cubic equation]]s with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting [[conic section]]s."<ref name="St Andrews" /> Extracted [[Square root|root]]s using the decimal system (the Indian numeral system).

==Twelfth century ==
;Cartography

*'''1100–1165:''' [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]], aka Idris al-Saqalli aka al-sharif al-idrissi of [[Andalusia]] and [[Sicily]]. Known for having drawn some of the most advanced [[Early world maps|ancient world maps]].

;Mathematics

*'''1130–1180:''' [[Al-Samawal al-Maghribi|Al-Samawal]]. An important member of al-Karaji's school of algebra. Gave this definition of [[algebra]]: "[it is concerned] with operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known."<ref name="St Andrews" />
*'''1135:''' [[Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi]]. Follows al-Khayyam's application of algebra of geometry, rather than follow the general development that came through al-Karaji's school of algebra. Wrote a treatise on [[cubic equation]]s which <ref name="Rasheed" />{{Page needed|date=October 2011}} describes thus: "[the treatise] represents an essential contribution to another [[algebra]] which aimed to study [[curve]]s by means of [[equation]]s, thus inaugurating the beginning of [[algebraic geometry]]." (quoted in <ref name="St Andrews" /> ).

==Thirteenth century ==
;Chemistry

*[[Al-Jawbari]] describes the preparation of [[rose water]] in the work "Book of Selected Disclosure of Secrets" (Kitab kashf al-Asrar).
* Materials; [[Glass production|glassmaking]]: Arabic manuscript on the manufacture of false [[gemstone]]s and [[Synthetic diamond|diamonds]]. Also describes spirits of [[alum]], spirits of [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]] and spirits of salts ([[hydrochloric acid]]).
* An Arabic manuscript written in [[Syriac language|Syriac]] script gives description of various chemical materials and their properties such as [[sulfuric acid]], [[sal-ammoniac]], [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]] and zaj ([[vitriol]]).

;Mathematics

*'''1260:''' [[al-Farisi]]. Gave a new proof of [[Thabit ibn Qurra]]'s theorem, introducing important new ideas concerning [[factorization]] and combinatorial methods. He also gave the pair of [[amicable number]]s 17296, 18416 which have also been joint attributed to [[Fermat]] as well as [[Thabit ibn Qurra]].<ref name="amicable" />

;Astronomy
[[File:Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_1164_fol_19b-20a.jpg|thumb|Manuscript of ''al-Mulakhkhas fi al-Hay’ah'' in the [[Khalili Collection of Islamic Art]]]]
* [[Jaghmini]] completed the ''al-Mulakhkhas fi al-Hay’ah'' ("Epitome of plain theoretical astronomy"), an astronomical textbook which spawned many commentaries and whose educational use lasted until the 18th century.<ref name=":0">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=Jaghmīnī: Sharaf al-Dīn Maḥmūd ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿUmar al-Jaghmīnī al-Khwārizmī |encyclopedia=The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |publisher=Springer |location=New York |url=http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Jaghmini_BEA.htm |last=Ragep |first=Sally P. |editor=Thomas Hockey |pages=584–5 |isbn=978-0-387-31022-0 |display-editors=etal}} ([http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Jaghmini_BEA.pdf PDF version])</ref>
;Miscellaneous

*Mechanical engineering: [[Ismail al-Jazari]] described 100 mechanical devices, some 80 of which are trick vessels of various kinds, along with instructions on how to construct them.
* Medicine; Scientific method: [[Ibn Al-Nafis]] (1213–1288) [[Damascus|Damascene]] physician and anatomist. Discovered the lesser [[circulatory system]] (the cycle involving the [[ventricle (heart)|ventricle]]s of the [[heart]] and the [[lung]]s) and described the mechanism of [[breathing]] and its relation to the blood and how it nourishes on air in the lungs. Followed a "constructivist" path of the smaller circulatory system: "blood is purified in the lungs for the continuance of life and providing the body with the ability to work". During his time, the common view was that blood originates in the liver then travels to the right ventricle, then on to the organs of the body; another contemporary view was that blood is filtered through the diaphragm where it mixes with the air coming from the lungs. Ibn al-Nafis discredited all these views including ones by [[Galen]] and [[Avicenna]] (ibn Sina). At least an illustration of his manuscript is still extant. [[William Harvey]] explained the circulatory system without reference to ibn al-Nafis in 1628. Ibn al-Nafis extolled the study of comparative anatomy in his "Explaining the dissection of [Avicenna's] [[Al-Qanoon]]" which includes a preface, and citations of sources. Emphasized the rigours of [[Scientific method|verification by measurement, observation and experiment]]. Subjected conventional wisdom of his time to a critical review and verified it with experiment and observation, discarding errors.{{Fact|date=April 2022}}

==Fourteenth century==
;Astronomy

* '''1393–1449:''' [[Ulugh Beg]] commissions an observatory at [[Samarqand]] in present-day [[Uzbekistan]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}

;Mathematics

*'''1380–1429:''' [[Jamshid al-Kashi|al-Kashi]]. According to,<ref name="St Andrews" /> "contributed to the development of [[decimal fraction]]s not only for approximating [[algebraic number]]s, but also for [[real number]]s such as [[pi]]. His contribution to decimal fractions is so major that for many years he was considered as their inventor. Although not the first to do so, al-Kashi gave an algorithm for calculating [[nth root]]s which is a special case of the methods given many centuries later by [[Paolo Ruffini (mathematician)|Ruffini]] and [[William George Horner|Horner]]."

==Fifteenth century==
;Mathematics

*Ibn al-Banna and [[al-Qalasadi]] used [[Mathematical notation|symbols for mathematics]] "and, although we do not know exactly when their use began, we know that symbols were used at least a century before this."<ref name="St Andrews" />

==Seventeenth century==
;Mathematics

*The Persian mathematician [[Muhammad Baqir Yazdi]] discovered the pair of [[amicable number]]s 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 for which he is jointly credited with [[Descartes]].<ref name="amicable">{{Cite web |url=http://amicable.homepage.dk/apstat.htm#discoverer |title=Various AP Lists and Statistics |access-date=9 November 2006 |archive-date=28 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728163824/http://amicable.homepage.dk/apstat.htm#discoverer |url-status=dead }}</ref>

*A seventeenth-century [[celestial globe]] was made by [[Diya’ ad-din Muhammad]] in [[Lahore]], 1663 (now in [[Pakistan]]).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Celestial globe|url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collection-search-results/|access-date=2020-10-15|website=National Museums Scotland|language=en}}</ref> It is now housed at the [[National Museum of Scotland]]. It is encircled by a meridian ring and a horizon ring.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Savage-Smith|first=Emilie|author-link=Emilie Savage-Smith|title=Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|year=1985|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=67}}</ref> The latitude angle of 32° indicates that the globe was made in the Lahore workshop.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Savage-Smith|first=Emilie|title=Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|year=1985|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=69}}</ref> This specific 'workshop claims 21 signed globes—the largest number from a single shop’ making this globe a good example of Celestial Globe production at its peak.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Savage-Smith|first=Emilie|title=Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|year=1985|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=43}}</ref>

==Modern science==
Muslim scientists made significant contributions to modern science. These include the development of the electroweak unification theory by [[Abdus Salam]], development of femtochemistry by [[Ahmed Zewail]], invention of the graphite anode for lithium-ion battery by [[Rachid Yazami]], invention of quantum dots by [[Moungi Bawendi]], and development of fuzzy set theory by [[Lotfi A. Zadeh]]. Other major contributions include introduction of Kardar–Parisi–Zhang equation by [[Mehran Kardar]], the development of [[Circuit topology]] by [[Alireza Mashaghi]], and the first description of [[Behçet's disease]] by [[Hulusi Behçet]].

Contributions of Muslim scientists have been recognized by 4 Nobel Prizes. [[Abdus Salam]] was the first Muslim to win a Nobel Prize in science. [[Rachid Yazami]] was the first Arab engineer to win the [[Draper Prize]], considered the Nobel in engineering.

==See also==
* [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]]
* [[Islamic Golden Age]]
* [[Science in the medieval Islamic world]]
* [[Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences]]
* [[List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist
|colwidth = 30em
|refs =
<ref name="St Andrews">[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html Arabic Mathematics at the University of St-Andrews, Scotland]</ref>
<ref name="Rasheed">{{Cite book |first = R |last = Rashed |title = The development of Arabic mathematics: between arithmetic and algebra |location = London, England |year = 1994}}</ref>
}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* [[Donald Routledge Hill]] and [[Ahmad Y Hassan]] (1986), ''Islamic technology–an illustrated history'', {{ISBN|0-521-26333-6}}.
* {{Cite book
 |last1 = Rashed
 |first1 = Roshdi
 |last2 = Morelon
 |first2 = Régis
 |year = 1996
 |title = [[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]
 |publisher = [[Routledge]]
 |isbn = 0-415-12410-7
 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.qdl.qa/en/articles-from-our-experts?themes%5B0%5D=630 Qatar Digital Library] - an online portal providing access to previously undigitised [[British Library]] archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science
* [http://www.aina.org/books/hgsptta.htm "How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs"] by [[De Lacy O'Leary]]
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Chronology/index.html St-Andrew's chronology of mathematics]

{{Inventions}}
{{Islamic studies}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Islamic}}
[[Category:Science in the medieval Islamic world]]
[[Category:Timelines of Muslim history|+]]
[[Category:Science timelines]]
[[Category:Technology timelines]]