View source for Three Alls policy

{{Short description|Japanese scorched earth policy in World War II}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = Three Alls Policy
| partof = the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]
| location = [[North China]]: [[Shandong]], [[Hebei]], [[Shanxi]], [[Chahar Province|Chahar]]
| date = Late 1941 - 1942
| type = [[Mass murder]], [[looting]], [[arson]], [[wartime rape]], [[state terrorism]], [[collective punishment]]
| victims = At least 2.7 million civilians murdered
| perps = [[Imperial Japanese Army]]
* General [[Yasuji Okamura]] 
* Major General [[Ryūkichi Tanaka]]
}}
{{Campaignbox Pacific 1941}}
{{Campaignbox Second Sino-Japanese War}}
{{Campaignbox Pacific War}}
{{Japanese colonial campaigns}}
{{Campaignbox World War II}}
The {{Nihongo|'''Three Alls policy'''|三光作戦|Sankō Sakusen|lead=yes|({{zh|c=三光政策|p=Sānguāng Zhèngcè}}}} was a Japanese [[scorched earth]] policy adopted in [[China]] during [[World War II]], the three "alls" being "kill all, burn all, loot all".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fairbank |first1=J. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nBDC2cqb6I0C&pg=PA320 |title=China: A New History |last2=Goldman |first2=M. |date=2006 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=9780674018280 |edition=2nd |page=320}}</ref> This policy was designed as retaliation against the Chinese for the [[Communist Party of China|Communist]]-led [[Hundred Regiments Offensive]] in December 1940.<ref name="Grasso">{{cite book |last1=Grasso |first1=June |last2=Corrin |first2=Jay |last3=Kort |first3=Michael |date=2024 |title=Modernization And Revolution In China: From the Opium Wars to World Power |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1032124896 |page=129}}</ref>

The Chinese expression "Three Alls" was first popularized in [[Japan]] in 1957 when [[Association of Returnees from China|former Japanese soldiers]] released from the [[Fushun War Criminals Management Centre]] wrote a book called {{Nihongo|"The Three Alls: Japanese Confessions of War Crimes in China"|三光、日本人の中国における戦争犯罪の告白|Sankō, Nihonjin no Chūgoku ni okeru sensō hanzai no kokuhaku}} (new edition: Kanki Haruo, 1979) in which Japanese veterans confessed to [[Japanese war crimes|war crimes]] committed under the leadership of General [[Yasuji Okamura]]. The publishers were forced to stop the publication of the book after they had received [[death threats]] from Japanese [[Japanese militarism|militarists]] and [[Japanese nationalism|ultranationalists]].{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=657}}

== Description ==
[[File:Tanaka Ryukichi.jpg|thumb|right|upright|General [[Tanaka Ryukichi]] died in 1972.]]
[[File:Yasuji Okamura.jpg|thumb|right|upright|General [[Yasuji Okamura]] died in 1966.]]

According to American historian [[Herbert P. Bix|Herbert Bix]], the prototype of the ''Sankō Sakusen'' policy were the "annihilation campaigns" launched in late 1938 by the North China Area Army to stamp out the vigorous guerrilla resistance in Hebei province.{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=365}} Emperor [[Hirohito]] gave his approval in an order of 2 December 1938.{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=365}} The Imperial Japanese Army always saw the [[National Revolutionary Army]] and other forces loyal to the [[Kuomintang]] regime as their main enemy in China and tended to ignore the Chinese Communist forces, and by mid-1940, the Communists controlled vast tracts of the Chinese countryside, ruling millions of people.{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=365}} In August 1940, the [[Eighth Route Army]] (created from the [[Chinese Red Army]]) launched the "100 Regiments Campaign", an offensive targeting bridge, railroads, mines, blockade houses and telephone lines in northern China that caused extensive damage.{{sfn|Bix|2000|pp=365-366}} In response to the "100 Regiments" offensive, General [[Ryūkichi Tanaka]], commanding North China Area Army devised a plan for the "total annihilation" of the Communist base areas so that "the enemy could never use them again."{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=366}}

Initiated in 1940 by Major General [[Ryūkichi Tanaka]], the ''Sankō Sakusen'' was implemented in full scale in 1942 in [[north China]] by General [[Yasuji Okamura]] who divided the territory of five provinces ([[Hebei]], [[Shandong]], [[Shaanxi]], [[Shanxi]], [[Chahar Province|Chahar]]) into "pacified", "semi-pacified" and "unpacified" areas.{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=366}} The authorization of the policy was given by [[Imperial General Headquarters]] Order Number 575 on 3 December 1941.{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=366}} Okamura's strategy involved burning down villages, confiscating grain, and mobilizing peasants to construct collective hamlets. It also centered on the digging of vast trench lines and the building of thousands of miles of containment walls and moats, watchtowers and roads to prevent guerrillas from moving around.{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=366}} These operations targeted for destruction "enemies pretending to be local people" and "all males between the ages of fifteen and sixty whom we suspect to be enemies."{{sfn|Bix|2000||loc=p. 365: citing an order drafted by Ryūkichi Tanaka}}

In a study published in 1996, historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta claims that the Three Alls policy, sanctioned by [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] [[Hirohito]] himself, was both directly and indirectly responsible for the deaths of "more than 2.7 million" Chinese [[civilian]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Felton |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Felton |date=2015 |chapter=The Perfect Storm: Japanese military brutality during World War Two |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315719054-10/perfect-storm-mark-felton |title=The Routledge History of Genocide |doi=10.4324/9781315719054-10 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |access-date=24 July 2022 |isbn=9781315719054}}</ref> Drawing on Himeta's works and those of Akira Fujiwara, [[Herbert P. Bix]] wrote that the {{lang|ja-latn|Sankō Sakusen}} far surpassed [[Nanking Massacre|the Rape of Nanking]] not only in terms of numbers, but in brutality as well: "These military operations caused death and suffering on a scale incomparably greater than the totally unplanned orgy of killing in Nanking, which later came to symbolize the war."{{sfn|Bix|2000|p=365}} The effects of the Japanese strategy were further exacerbated by Chinese military tactics, which included the masking of military forces as civilians, or the use of civilians as deterrents against Japanese attacks. In some places, the Japanese also used [[chemical warfare]] against civilian populations in contravention of international agreements they refused to sign at the time.

===Three Alls in Vietnam===
Japan replaced the [[French Indochina|French government]] on 9 March 1945 and started openly looting the Vietnamese even more in addition to taking French owned properties and stole watches, pencils, bicycles, money and clothing in Bac Giang, and Bac Can. The Viet Minh rejected the Japanese demands to cease fighting and support Japan, so the Japanese implemented the Three Alls policy (San Kuang) against the Vietnamese, pillaging, burning, killing, looting, and raping Vietnamese women. The Vietnamese called the Japanese "dwarfed monsters" ([[Wa (name of Japan)|Wa]]) and the Japanese committed these atrocities in Thai Nguyen province at Dinh Hoa, Vo Nhai and Hung Son.

On 17 August 1970, the North Vietnamese National Assembly Chairman Truong Chinh reprinted an article in Vietnamese in Nhan Dan, published in Hanoi titled "Policy of the Japanese Pirates Towards Our People" which was a reprint of his original article written in August 1945 in No. 3 of the ''Communist Magazine'' ({{lang|vi|Tap Chi Cong San}}) with the same title, describing Japanese atrocities like looting, slaughter, and rape against the people of north Vietnam in 1945. He denounced the Japanese claims to have liberated Vietnam from France with the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere announced by Tojo and mentioned how the Japanese looted shrines, temples, eggs, vegetables, straw, rice, chickens, hogs, cattle, vehicles, homes, stole land, built military stations and airstrips, and destroyed cotton fields and vegetable fields for peanut and jute cultivation in Annam and Tonkin.

The Japanese tried to play the Vietnamese against the French and play the Laotians against the Vietnamese by inciting Lao people to kill Vietnamese as Lao murdered seven Vietnamese officials in Luang Prabang and Lao youths were recruited to an anti-Vietnam organization by the Japanese when they took over Luang Prabang. The Japanese spread false rumours that the French were massacring Vietnamese at the time, to distract the Vietnamese from Japanese atrocities.

The Japanese created groups to counter the Viet Minh Communists like {{lang|vi|Vietnam Pao ve doan}} (Vietnam protection group) and {{lang|vi|Vietnam Ai quoc doan}} (Vietnam Patriotic Group) to force Vietnamese into coolie labour, take taxes and rice, and arrested anti-Japanese Vietnamese with their puppet government run by Tran Trong Kim.

The Japanese created the puppet {{lang|vi|Vietnam Phuc quoc quan}} (Vietnam restoration army), and tried to disrupt the Viet Minh's redistribution and confiscation of property of pro-Japanese Vietnamese traitors by disguising themselves as Viet Minh and then attacking people who took letters from them and organizing anti-French rallies and Trung sisters celebrations. Japanese soldiers tried to infiltrate Viet Minh bases with Viet Minh flags and brown trousers during their fighting.

The Japanese murdered, plundered and raped Vietnamese, and beheaded Vietnamese who stole bread and corn while they were starving according to their martial law. They shot a Vietnamese pharmacy student to death outside of his own house when he was coming home from guard duty at a hospital after midnight in Hanoi and also shot a defendant for a political case in the same city. In Thai Nguyen province, Vo Nhai, a Vietnamese boat builder was thrown in a river and had his stomach stabbed by the Japanese under suspicion of helping Viet Minh guerillas. The Japanese slit the abdomen and hung the Dai Tu mayor upside down in Thai Nguyen as well. The Japanese also beat thousands of people in Hanoi for not cooperating. Japanese officers ordered their soldiers to behead and burn Vietnamese.

Some claimed that Taiwanese and Chinese (Manchurian) soldiers in the Japanese army were participating in the atrocities against the Vietnamese but Truong Chinh said that even if it was true Taiwanese and Manchurian soldiers were committing the rapes and killing, their Japanese officers were the ones giving the orders and participating along with them. Truong Chinh said that the Japanese wanted to plunder Asians for their own market and take it from the United States and Great Britain and were imperialists with no intent on liberating Vietnam.<ref>{{cite book |last=Truong |first=Chinh |author-link= |date=19 May 1971 |others=Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service |title=Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17 |series=JPRS (Series) |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Wherever+they+went%2C+the+Japanese+forces+burned+down+homes%2C+murdered+law-abiding+citizens%2C+raped+women%2C+and+stole+possessions.%22&pg=RA2-PA9 |chapter=Policy of the Japanese Pirates Towards Our people, JPRS 53169 19 May 1971 Translations on North Vietnam No. 940 Documents on the August Revolution |publisher=U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. |pages=8–13 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>Article by Truong Chinh, chairman of the National Assembly: "Policy of the Japanese Pirates Towards Our people"; Hanoi, Nhan Dan, Vietnamese, 17 August 1970, pp 1, 3]</ref>

Truong Chinh wrote another article on 12 September 1945, No. 16 in ''Liberation Banner'' (''Co Giai Phong'') which was also reprinted on 16 August 1970 in Nhan Dan. He commemorated the August revolution against the Japanese, after the Japanese surrendered on 15 August 1945 then the Viet Minh started attacking and slaughtering Japanese, and disarming them in a nationwide rebellion on 19 August 1945. The Japanese had already disarmed the French and the Japanese themselves lost morale so the Viet Minh managed to seize control after attacking the Japanese. Viet Minh had begun fighting in 1944, when the French were attacked on Dinh Ca in October 1944 and in Cao Bang and Bac Can French were attacked by Viet Cong in November 1944 and the French and Japanese fought each other on 9 March 1945, so in Tonkin the Viet Cong began disarming French soldiers and attacking the Japanese. In Quang Ngai, Ba To, Yen Bai, and Nghia Lo political the prisoners who the escaped Japanese were attacked by Meo (Hmong) tribesmen and in Hoa Binh and Lang Son by Muong tribesmen. Viet Minh took control of 6 provinces in Tonkin after 9 March 1945 within 2 weeks. The Viet Minh led a brutal campaign against the Japanese where many died from 9 March 1945 to 19 August 1945. Truong Chinh ended the article with a quote from Sun Yatsen, "The revolution is not yet won. All comrades must continue their all out efforts!"<ref>{{cite book |last=Truong |first=Chinh |author-link= |date=1971 |others=Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service |title=Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17 |series=JPRS (Series) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22The+Japanese+were+disarmed+in+many+places%22&pg=RA2-PA13 |publisher=U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. |chapter=Revolution or Coup d'Etat, JPRS 53169 19 May 1971 TRANSLATIONS ON NORTH VIETNAM No. 940 DOCUMENTS ON THE AUGUST REVOLUTION |pages=14–16 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>[Article by Truong Chinh, chairman of the National Assembly: "Revolution or Coup d'Etat"; Hanoi, Nhan Dan, Vietnamese, 16 August 1970, pp 1, 3] *Reprinted from Co Giai Phong [Liberation Banner], No 16, 12 September 1945.</ref>

In Hanoi on 15–20 April 1945 the Tonkin Revolutionary Military Conference of the Viet Minh issued a resolution that was reprinted on pages 1–4 on 25 August 1970 in the Nhan Dan journal. It called for a general uprising, resistance and guerilla warfare against the Japanese by establishing 7 war zones across Vietnam named after past heroes of Vietnam, calling for propaganda to explain to the people that their only way forward was violent resistance against the Japanese and exposing the Vietnamese puppet government that served them. The conference also called for training propagandists and having women spread military propaganda, and target Japanese soldiers with Chinese language leaflets and Japanese language propaganda. The Viet Minh's Vietnamese Liberation Army published the "Resistance against Japan" (Khang Nhat) newspaper. They also called for the creation of a group called "Chinese and Vietnamese Allied against Japan" by sending leaflets to recruit overseas Chinese in Vietnam to their cause. The resolution called on forcing French in Vietnam to recognize Vietnamese independence and for the DeGaulle France (Allied French) to recognize their independence and cooperate with them against Japan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Truong |first=Chinh |author-link= |date=19 May 1971 |others=Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service |title=Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17 |series=JPRS (Series) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22establish+an+organization+of+Chinese+and+Vietnamese+Allied+against+Japan%22&pg=RA2-PA7 |location= |chapter=I. Documents From the August Revolution Resolution of the Tonkin Revolutionary Military Conference, JPRS 53169 19 May 1971 Translations on North Vietnam No. 940 Documents on the August Revolution |publisher=U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. |pages=1–7 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>I. DOCUMENTS FROM THE AUGUST REVOLUTION RESOLUTION OF THE TONKIN REVOLUTIONARY MILITARY CONFERENCE [Except from the Resolution of the Tonkin Revolutionary Military Conference Held Between 15 and 20 April 1945; Hanoi, Nhan Dan, Vietnamese, 25 August 1970, pp 1.4]</ref>

The Japanese forced Vietnamese women to become comfort women and with Burmese, Indonesian, Thai, and Filipino women they made up a notable portion of Asian comfort women in general.{{sfn|Min|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Filipino%2C+Vietnamese%2C+Thai%2C+Indonesian+and+Burmese+women+collectively+also+seem+to+have+made+up+a+significant+proportion+of+the+ACW.%22&pg=PT70 70]}} Japanese use of Malaysian and Vietnamese women as comfort women was corroborated by testimonies.<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite book |last=Tanaka |first=Yuki |author-link= |date=2003 |title=Japan's Comfort Women |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&dq=%22verify+that+other+Asian+women,+such+as+Vietnamese+and+Malaysians,+were+also+exploited+for+the+same+purpose+by+the+Japanese%22&pg=PA60 |location= |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=60 |isbn=1134650124}}
|{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/Mepaynl/status/593405098983878657 |title=Comfort women were Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Burmese, Thai, Dutch, Australian, and Vietnamese women and girls forced into sexual slavery |last=Lee |first=Morgan Pōmaika'i |date=April 29, 2015 |website= |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}
|{{cite book |last1=Stetz |first1=Margaret D. |last2=Oh |first2=Bonnie B. C. |author-link= |date=12 February 2015|title= Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA126 |edition=illustrated |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=126 |isbn=978-1317466253}}
|{{harvnb|Min|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PT70 70]}}
|{{cite book |last=Chen |first=Tina |date=2005 |title=Double Agency: Acts of Impersonation in Asian American Literature and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIeBYY-TpMsC&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA209 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |page=209 |isbn=0804751862}}
|{{cite book |last=Thoma |first=Pamela |editor1-last=Vo |editor1-first=Linda Trinh |editor2-last=Sciachitano |editor2-first=Marian |date=2004 |title=Asian American Women: The Frontiers Reader |edition=illustrated, reprint |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNZ-DsVg5T8C&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA175 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |page=175 |isbn=0803296274 |chapter=Cultural Autobiography, Testimonial, and Asian American Transnational Feminist Coalition in the "Comfort Women of World War II" Conference}}
}}</ref> There were comfort women stations in Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, North Korea, and South Korea.<ref>{{cite book |last= Yoon |first=Bang-Soon L. |editor1-last=Kowner |editor1-first=Rotem |editor2-last=Demel |editor2-first=Walter |author-link= |date=2015 |series=Brill's Series on Modern East Asia in a Global Historical Perspective |title=Race and Racism in Modern East Asia: Interactions, Nationalism, Gender and Lineage |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Tq2CAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA464 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |page=464 |isbn=978-9004292932 |chapter=20: Sexualized Racism, Gender and Nationalism: The Case of Japan's Sexual Enslavement of Korean "Comfort Women" |edition=Reprint}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Qiu |first1=Peipei |last2=Su |first2=Zhiliang |last3=Chen |first3=Lifei |author-link= |date=2014 |title=Chinese Comfort Women: Testimonies from Imperial Japan's Sex Slaves |series=Oxford oral history series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HDyFAwAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA215 |edition=Illustrated |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=215 |isbn=978-0199373895}}</ref> A Korean comfort woman named Kim Ch'un-hui stayed behind in Vietnam and died there when she was 44 in 1963, owning a dairy farm, cafe, US cash, and diamonds worth 200,000 US dollars.<ref>{{cite book |last=Soh |first=C. Sarah |date= 2020 |title=The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan |series=Worlds of Desire: The Chicago Series on Sexuality, Gender, and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ddfkDwAAQBAJ&q=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |pages=159, 279 |isbn=978-0226768045}}</ref> 1 million Vietnamese were starved to death during World War II according to Thomas U. Berger.<ref>{{cite book |last=Berger |first=Thomas U. |date=2012 |title= War, Guilt, and World Politics after World War II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9EwgAwAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA126 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=126 |isbn=978-1139510875}}</ref> 2 billion US dollars worth (1945 values) of damage, 148 million dollars of them due to destruction of industrial plants was incurred by Vietnam. 90% of heavy vehicles and motorcycles, cars and 16 tons of junks as well as railways, port installations were destroyed as well as one third of bridges.<ref>{{cite book |last=Huff |first=Gregg |date= 2020|title=World War II and Southeast Asia: Economy and Society under Japanese Occupation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=waECEAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA386 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=386 |isbn=978-1108916080}}</ref> Some Japanese soldiers married Vietnamese women like Nguyen Thi Xuan and<ref>{{cite news |last=Tran Thi |first=Minh Ha |date=24 February 2017 |title=60 years after Japan army husband fled, Vietnam war bride clings to love |url=https://sg.news.yahoo.com/60-years-japan-army-husband-fled-vietnam-war-074526016.html |work=[[Yahoo! News]] |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |access-date=}}</ref> Nguyen Thi Thu and fathered multiple children with the Vietnamese women who remained behind in Vietnam while the Japanese soldiers themselves returned to Japan in 1955. The official Vietnamese historical narrative view them as children of rape and prostitution.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 July 2016 |title=Ben Valentine: Photographing the Forgotten Vietnamese Widows of Japanese WWII Soldiers |url=https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/23318 |website=Indomemories |doi=10.58079/q5o2 |archive-url= |archive-date= |last1=indomemoires }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Valentine |first=Ben |date=19 July 2016 |title=Photographing the Forgotten Vietnamese Widows of Japanese WWII Soldiers |url=https://hyperallergic.com/306502/photographing-the-forgotten-vietnamese-widows-of-japanese-wwii-soldiers/ |website=Hyperallergic |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref>

On 25 March 2000, the Vietnamese journalist Trần Khuê wrote an article "Dân chủ: Vấn đề của dân tộc và thời đại" where he harshly criticized ethnographers and historians in Ho Chin Minh city's Institute of Social Sciences like Dr. Đinh Văn Liên and Professor Mạc Đường who tried to whitewash Japan's atrocities against the Vietnamese by portraying Japan's aid to the South Vietnamese regime against North Vietnam as humanitarian aid, changing the death toll of 2 million Vietnamese dead at the hands of the Japanese famine to 1 million, and describing the Japanese invasion as a presence and calling Japanese fascists simply Japanese at the Vietnam-Japan international conference. He accused them of changing history in exchange for only a few tens of thousands of dollars, and the Presidium of international Vietnamese studies in Hanoi did not include any Vietnamese women. The Vietnamese professor Văn Tạo and Japanese professor Furuta Moto both conducted a study in the field on the Japanese induced famine of 1945 admitting that Japan killed 2 million Vietnamese by starvation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://hung-viet.org/a5222/doi-thoai-nam-2000 |title=Dân chủ: Vấn đề của dân tộc và thời đại |language=vi |trans-title=Democracy: A Problem of the Nation and the Times |last=Khue |first=Tran |date=25 March 2000 |website=Hưng Việt: TRANG CHÁNH - Trang 1 |publisher=Đối Thoại Năm 2000 |access-date=21 June 2022 |quote= |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref>

=== In popular culture ===
The 2008 movie ''[[The Children of Huang Shi]]'', which covers the Japanese invasion from 1938 to 1945, is set in part during the ''sankō sakusen''.<ref>{{cite news |date=12 February 2007 |url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/the-long-march-of-a-forgotten-english-hero-l9hdw58xdqw |title=The Long March of a forgotten English Hero |work=[[The Times]] |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240801143332/https://www.thetimes.com/article/the-long-march-of-a-forgotten-english-hero-l9hdw58xdqw |archive-date=1 August 2024}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bix |first=Herbert P. |author-link=Herbert P. Bix |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43031388 |title=Hirohito and the making of modern Japan |date=2000 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=0-06-019314-X |edition=1st |location=New York, NY |oclc=43031388}}
* {{cite book |last=Min |first=Pyong Gap |author-link= |date=2021 |title=Korean "Comfort Women": Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement |series=Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ |location= |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |isbn=978-1978814981}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* Fujiwara, Akira (藤原彰). ''The Three Alls Policy and the Northern Chinese Regional Army'' (「三光作戦」と北支那方面軍), Kikan sensô sekinin kenkyû 20, 1998.
* {{cite book |last=Harries |first=Meirion |year=1994 |title=Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army |publisher=[[Random House]] |edition=Reprint |location=New York |isbn=0-679-75303-6}}
* {{himeta-mitsuyoshi-sankou}}

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{{Genocide topics}}

[[Category:Crimes against humanity]]
[[Category:Genocides in Asia]]
[[Category:Looting in Asia]]
[[Category:Japanese war crimes in China]]
[[Category:Second Sino-Japanese War crimes]]
[[Category:Art theft and looting during World War II]]
[[Category:Sexual violence in Asia during World War II]]
[[Category:War crimes in Vietnam]]
[[Category:Looting in China]]
[[Category:Scorched earth operations]]