View source for Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

{{Short description|Period of Ancient Egypt (1077–664 BCE)}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = 
| conventional_long_name = Third Intermediate Period of Egypt
| common_name            = Third Intermediate Period of Egypt
| era                    = 
| government_type        = Monarchy
| year_start             = {{Circa|1077 BC}}&nbsp;
| year_end               = &nbsp;{{Circa|664 BC}}
| event_pre              = 
| date_pre               = 
| event_start            = Began
| date_start             = 
| event_end              = Ended
| date_end               = 
| image_flag             = 
| image_coat             = 
| image_map              = Third Intermediate Period map.svg
| image_map_caption      = Political factions fractured ancient Egypt during the Third Intermediate Period. The boundaries above show the political situation during the mid-8th century BC.
| p1                     = New Kingdom of Egypt
| s1                     = Late Period of ancient Egypt
| capital                = *[[Tanis]]<br>({{Circa|1077}}–943 BC, [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt]])
*[[Bubastis]]<br>({{Circa|943}}–716 BC, [[Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt]])
*[[Heracleopolis Magna]]<br>({{circa|837}}–728 BC, [[Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt]])
*[[Sais]]<br>({{circa|732}}–720 BC, [[Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt]])
*[[Napata]]<br>({{circa|744}}–656 BC, [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt]])
| national_motto         = 
| national_anthem        = 
| common_languages       = [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]]
| religion               = [[Ancient Egyptian religion]]
| currency               = 
| leader1                = [[Smendes]] (first)
| year_leader1           = {{Circa|1077}}–1052 BC
| leader2                = [[Tantamani]] (last)
| year_leader2           = {{circa|664}}–656 BC
| title_leader           = [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh]]
| today                  = [[Egypt]]<br/>
[[Sudan]]
}}

{{Egyptian Dynasty list}}

The '''Third Intermediate Period''' of [[ancient Egypt]] began with the death of [[Pharaoh]] [[Ramesses XI]] in 1077&nbsp;BC, which ended the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]], and was eventually followed by the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]]. Various points are offered as the beginning for the latter era, though it is most often regarded as dating from the foundation of the [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-Sixth Dynasty]] by [[Psamtik I]] in 664 BC, following the departure of the [[Nubia]]n [[Kingdom of Kush|Kushite]] rulers of the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-fifth Dynasty]] after they were driven out by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyria]]ns under King [[Ashurbanipal]]. The use of the [[Periodization of Ancient Egypt|term "Third Intermediate Period"]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Schneider|first=Thomas|author-link=Thomas Schneider (Egyptologist)|editor=Klaus-Peter Adam|title=Historiographie in der Antike|pages=181–197|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BTMAu2LRbVUC&pg=PA182|date=27 August 2008|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-020672-2|chapter=Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention, and Beyond|access-date=26 December 2019|archive-date=18 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218114034/https://books.google.com/books?id=BTMAu2LRbVUC&pg=PA182|url-status=live}}</ref> based on the analogy of the well-known [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First]] and [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate]] Periods, was popular by 1978, when British Egyptologist [[Kenneth Kitchen]] used the term for the title of his book on the period. While Kitchen argued that the period was 'far from being chaotic' and hoped that his work would lead to the abolishment of the term, with his own preference being the 'Post-Imperial epoch', his use of the term as a title seems only to have entrenched its use.<ref name=":0" />

The period was ruled by non-native Egyptians and is viewed as one of decline and political instability including division of the state, coinciding with the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]] of civilizations in the [[ancient Near East]] and [[Eastern Mediterranean]] (including the [[Greek Dark Ages]]).

==History==

=== Twenty-first Dynasty ===
{{Main|Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt}}

The period of the [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-first Dynasty]] is characterized by the country's fracturing kingship. Already during [[Ramesses XI]]'s reign, the [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt]] was losing its grip on the city of [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], whose priests were becoming increasingly powerful. After his death, his successor, [[Smendes I]], ruled from the city of [[Tanis, Egypt|Tanis]], but was mostly active only in Lower Egypt, which he controlled. Meanwhile, the [[High Priests of Amun at Thebes]] ruled Middle and Upper Egypt in all but name.<ref name=":0">Kenneth A. Kitchen, ''The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC)'', 3rd edition, 1986, Warminster: Aris & Phillips Ltd, pp.xi-xii, 531.</ref> However, this division was less significant than it seems, since both the priests and pharaohs came from the same family.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

=== Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasty ===
{{Main|Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt}}

The country was firmly reunited by the [[Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-second Dynasty]] founded by [[Shoshenq I]] in 945 BC (or 943&nbsp;BC), who descended from [[Meshwesh]] immigrants, originally from [[ancient Libya]].{{efn|The term "Libya" in Egyptology generally refers to the vast areas west of the [[Nile valley]] and [[Nile delta|delta]], including the western [[oasis|oases]], but may also extend to parts of the western delta and [[Middle Egypt]], influenced by multiple desert or cattle-herding cultural groups occupying these areas on a nomadic or semi-permanent basis leading up to a period of renewed migration during the New Kingdom, recognized by Egyptians with specific names, one being [[Libu]] and another Meshwesh.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Searching for the 'Archaeogically Invisible': Libyans in Dakhleh Oasis in the Third Intermediate Period|journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt|volume=46|year=2010|last=Hubschmann|first=Caroline|pages=173-187|publisher=American Research Center in Egypt|jstor=41431578}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Elusive “Libyans”: Identities, Lifestyles and Mobile Populations in NE Africa (late 4th–early 2nd millennium BCE)|journal=Journal of Egyptian History|last=García|first=Juan Carlos Moreno|volume=11|issue=1-2|year=2018|publisher=Brill|pages=147-184|doi=10.1163/18741665-12340046}}</ref>}} This brought stability to the country for well over a century, but after the reign of [[Osorkon II]], particularly, the country had effectively split into two states, with [[Shoshenq III]] of the Twenty-second Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC while [[Takelot II]] and his son Osorkon (the future [[Osorkon III]]) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt. In Thebes, a civil war engulfed the city, pitting the forces of [[Pedubast I]], who had proclaimed himself pharaoh, against the existing line of [[Takelot II]]/Osorkon B. The two factions squabbled continuously and the conflict was only resolved in Year 39 of Shoshenq III when Osorkon B comprehensively defeated his enemies. He proceeded to found the Upper Egyptian Libyan [[Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-third Dynasty]] of [[Osorkon III]] – [[Takelot III]] – [[Rudamun]], but this kingdom quickly fragmented after Rudamun's death, with the rise of local city states under kings such as [[Peftjaubast]] of [[Heracleopolis Magna|Herakleopolis]], [[Nimlot of Hermopolis]], and [[Ini (pharaoh)|Ini]] at Thebes.

=== Twenty-fourth Dynasty ===
{{main|Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt}}
The [[Nubian people|Nubian]] kingdom to the south took full advantage of this division and the ensuing political instability. Prior to [[Piye]]'s Year 20 campaign into Egypt, the previous Nubian ruler – [[Kashta]] – had already extended his kingdom's influence into Thebes when he compelled Shepenupet, the serving Divine Adoratice of Amun and Takelot III's sister, to adopt his own daughter Amenirdis, to be her successor. Then, 20 years later, around 732 BC his successor, [[Piye]], marched north and defeated the combined forces of several native Egyptian rulers: Peftjaubast, [[Osorkon IV]] of Tanis, [[Iuput II]] of Leontopolis and [[Tefnakht]] of Sais.

=== Twenty-fifth Dynasty ===
{{Main|Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt}}
[[File:Rulers of Kush, Kerma Museum.jpg|thumb|left|25th Dynasty]]
Piye established the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-fifth Dynasty]] and appointed the defeated rulers as his provincial governors. He was succeeded first by his brother, [[Shabaka]], and then by his two sons [[Shebitku]] and [[Taharqa]]. The reunited Nile valley empire of the 25th Dynasty was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. Pharaohs of the dynasty, among them Taharqa, built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bonnet|first=Charles|title=The Nubian Pharaohs|year=2006|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|location=New York|isbn=978-977-416-010-3|pages=142–154}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Diop|first=Cheikh Anta|title=The African Origin of Civilization|year=1974|publisher=Lawrence Hill Books|location=Chicago, Illinois|isbn=1-55652-072-7|pages=219–221}}</ref> The 25th&nbsp;Dynasty ended with its rulers retreating to their spiritual homeland at [[Napata]].  It was there (at El-Kurru and Nuri) that all 25th Dynasty pharaohs were buried under the first [[Nubian pyramids|pyramids]] to be constructed in the Nile valley in hundreds of years.<ref name="Emberling 2011 10">{{cite book|last=Emberling|first=Geoff|title=Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa|year=2011|publisher=Institute for the Study of the Ancient World|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-615-48102-9|pages=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mokhtar|first=G.|title=General History of Africa|year=1990|publisher=University of California Press|location=California, USA|isbn=0-520-06697-9|pages=161–163}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Emberling|first=Geoff|title=Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa|year=2011|publisher=Institute for the Study of the Ancient World|location=New York|isbn=978-0-615-48102-9|pages=9–11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Silverman|first=David|title=Ancient Egypt|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-19-521270-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36 36–37]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36}}</ref>  The Napatan dynasty led to the [[Kingdom of Kush]], which flourished in [[Napata]] and [[Meroe]] until at least the 2nd century AD.<ref name="Emberling 2011 10"/>

The international prestige of Egypt had declined considerably by this time. The country's international allies had fallen firmly into the sphere of influence of [[Assyria]] and from about 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would be war between the two states as Esarhaddon had realised that a conquest of Lower Egypt was necessary to protect Assyrian interests in the Levant.

Despite Egypt's size and wealth, Assyria had a greater supply of timber, while Egypt had a chronic shortage, allowing Assyria to produce more charcoal needed for iron-smelting and thus giving Assyria a greater supply of iron weaponry. This disparity became critical during the Assyrian invasions of Egypt over the period 670–663 BC.<ref name=KS05>{{cite book |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |title=History of Africa |year=2005 |publisher=Macmillan Education |location=Oxford |isbn=0-333-59957-8 |page=40}}</ref>  Consequently, pharaoh [[Taharqa]]'s reign, and that of his successor [[Tantamani]], were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians. In 664 BC the Assyrians delivered a mortal blow, [[Sack of Thebes|sacking Thebes]] and [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]. Following these events, and starting with [[Atlanersa]], no Kushite ruler would ever rule over Egypt again.

=== End of the Third Intermediate Period ===

Upper Egypt remained for a time under the rule of Taharqa and Tantamani, whilst Lower Egypt was ruled from 664&nbsp;BC by the nascent [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|26th Dynasty]], client kings established by the Assyrians. In 663 BC, Tantamani launched a full-scale invasion of Lower Egypt, taking Memphis in April of this year, killing [[Necho I]] of Sais in the process as Necho had remained loyal to Ashurbanipal. Tantamani barely had the time to receive the submission of some Delta kinglets and expel the remaining Assyrians that a large army led by Ashurbanipal and Necho's son [[Psamtik I]] came back. Tantamani was defeated north of Memphis and [[Sack of Thebes|Thebes was thoroughly sacked]] shortly after. The Kushite king withdrew to Nubia while the Assyrian influence in Upper Egypt quickly waned. Permanently weakened by the sack, Thebes peacefully submitted itself to Psamtik's fleet in 656 BC. To affirm his authority, Psamtik  placed his daughter in position to be the future [[Divine Adoratrice of Amun]], thereby also submitting the priesthood of Amun and effectively uniting Egypt. Tantamani's successor [[Atlanersa]] was in no position to attempt a reconquest of Egypt as Psamtik also secured the southern border at [[Elephantine]] and may even have sent a military campaign to [[Napata]]. Concurrently, Psamtik managed to free himself from the Assyrian vassalage while remaining on good terms with Ashurbanipal, possibly owing to an ongoing rebellion in Babylon. By doing so, he brought  increased stability to the country during his 54-year reign from the city of [[Sais, Egypt|Sais]] beginning the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt]].

== Historiography ==
The historiography of this period is disputed for a variety of reasons. Firstly, there is a dispute about the utility of a very artificial term that covers an extremely long and complicated period of Egyptian history. The Third Intermediate Period includes long periods of stability as well as chronic instability and civil conflict: its very name rather clouds this fact. Secondly, there are significant problems of chronology stemming from several areas, there are the difficulties in dating that are common to all of [[Egyptian chronology]] and are compounded by synchronisms with Biblical archaeology that also contain heavily disputed dates. 
==Fringe theories==
[[Peter James (historian)|Peter James]], along with several other academics, argued contra [[Kenneth Kitchen|Kitchen]] that the period lasted less than 200 years, starting later than 850 BC but ending at the conventional date, as the five dynasties had many years of overlap.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1991|title=Centuries of Darkness: Context, Methodology and Implications [Review Feature]|url=https://www.centuries.co.uk/CoDreviewfeature1991.pdf|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=228ff|doi=10.1017/S0959774300000378|s2cid=246638930|issn=1474-0540|access-date=2018-02-11|archive-date=2018-02-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212083513/https://www.centuries.co.uk/CoDreviewfeature1991.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>  Some theorists such as [[David Rohl]] have controversial theories about the family relationships of the dynasties comprising the period.

==See also==
* [[Late Bronze Age collapse]]
== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

=== Bibliography ===
* Dodson, Aidan Mark. 2001. "Third Intermediate Period." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt'', edited by Donald Bruce Redford. Vol. 3 of 3 vols. Oxford, New York, and Cairo: Oxford University Press and The American University in Cairo Press. 388–394.
* Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson. [1996]. ''The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC)''. 3rd ed. Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited.
* Myśliwiec, Karol. 2000. ''The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.'' Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.
* Porter, Robert M. 2008. ''A Network of 22nd–26th Dynasty Genealogies'', JARCE 44, 153–157.
* Taylor, John H. 2000. “The Third Intermediate Period (1069–664 BC).” In ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 330–368.

==External links==
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tipd/hd_tipd.htm Allen, James, and Marsha Hill. "Egypt in the Third Intermediate Period (1070–712 B.C.)"], In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. (October 2004)
;Images
{{Commons category|position=left|Egyptian third intermediate period|<br>Egyptian third intermediate period}}
*[http://artabase.net/exhibition/1886-body-parts-ancient-egyptian-fragments-and-amulets#photogallery_image_3 Artabase.net: Face from a Coffin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910075641/http://www.artabase.net/exhibition/1886-body-parts-ancient-egyptian-fragments-and-amulets#photogallery_image_3 |date=2014-09-10 }}
*[http://artabase.net/exhibition/1886-body-parts-ancient-egyptian-fragments-and-amulets#photogallery_image_8 Artabase.net: Right Hand from an Anthropoid Coffin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910075641/http://www.artabase.net/exhibition/1886-body-parts-ancient-egyptian-fragments-and-amulets#photogallery_image_8 |date=2014-09-10 }}
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[[Category:Third Intermediate Period of Egypt| ]]
[[Category:Dynasties of ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Iron Age Africa|Egypt 1070BCE]]
[[Category:11th century BC in Egypt]]
[[Category:10th century BC in Egypt]]
[[Category:9th century BC in Egypt]]
[[Category:8th century BC in Egypt]]
[[Category:7th century BC in Egypt]]
[[Category:Late Bronze Age collapse]]