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{{short description|Roman emperor prior to the Splitting of Rome into East and West from 379 to 395}}
{{other uses|Theodosius I (disambiguation)}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Theodosius the Great
| image        = Bust of Theodosius I.jpg
| image_size   = 
| alt          = 
| caption      = Bust of an emperor found in [[Aphrodisias]] ([[Aydın]], [[Turkey]]), most likely Theodosius I<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ruiz |first1=María Pilar García |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xo8cEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 |title=Emperors and Emperorship in Late Antiquity |last2=Puertas |first2=Alberto J. Quiroga |date=2021|publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-44692-2 |pages=160, 165}}</ref>{{efn-lr|The head was found near a headless statue and a columnar base honoring "Flavius Claudius Theodosius" (originally [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]]).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lenaghan |first=J. |date=2012a|title=High imperial togate statue and re-cut portrait head of emperor. Aphrodisias (Caria). |url=http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=568|website=Last Statues of Antiquity|id=LSA-196}}</ref>{{sfn|Smith|Ratté|pp=243–244}} The portrait is incompatible with busts identified as [[Theodosius II]], which have more youthful attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efLuB7QPDm8C&pg=PA28 |title=Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Ar |date=1977 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |pages=28–29|isbn=9780870991790 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lenaghan |first=J. |date=2012b|title=Portrait head of Emperor, Theodosius II (?). Unknown provenance. Fifth century. |url=http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=825 |access-date= |website=Last Statues of Antiquity |id=LSA-453}}</ref>}}
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]]
| reign        = 19 January 379 – {{awrap|17 January 395}}{{efn-lr|Initially emperor of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]; sole Roman emperor from [[6 September 394]].}}
| reign-type   = ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]''
| predecessor  = [[Valens]]
| successor    = {{ubl|[[Arcadius]] ([[Eastern Roman Empire|East]])|[[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] ([[Western Roman Empire|West]])}}
| suc-type     = Successors
| regent       = {{Collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}
| [[Gratian]] (379–383)
| [[Valentinian II]] (379–392)
| Arcadius (383–395)
| [[Magnus Maximus]] (383–388)
| [[Victor (emperor)|Victor]] (384–388)
| [[Eugenius]] (392–394)
| Honorius (393–395)
}}
| reg-type     = Co-rulers
| birth_date   = 11 January 347
| birth_place  = [[Coca, Segovia|Cauca]]<ref>[[Hydatius]] and [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]]</ref> or [[Italica]],<ref>[[Marcellinus Comes]] and [[Jordanes]]</ref> in [[Hispania]] (present-day [[Spain]])
| death_date   = 17 January 395 (aged 48)
| death_place  = [[Mediolanum]], Roman Empire
| burial_place = [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], Constantinople, Roman Empire
| spouse       = {{ubl|[[Aelia Flaccilla]] ({{married-in|376–386}})|[[Galla (wife of Theodosius I)|Galla]] ({{married-in|387–394}})}}
| issue        = {{ubl|[[Arcadius]]|[[Pulcheria (daughter of Theodosius I)|Pulcheria]]|[[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]]|Gratian|[[Galla Placidia]]|John}}
| full name    = 
| regnal name  = [[Imperator]] [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Flavia gens|Flavius]] Theodosius [[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]{{efn-lr|The name "Flavius" had become a status marker for men of non-senatorial background who rose to eminence as a result of imperial service.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|pp=36–40}} }}
| dynasty      = [[Theodosian dynasty|Theodosian]]
| father       = [[Theodosius the Elder]]
| mother       = Thermantia
| religion     = [[Nicene Christianity]]
}}

'''Theodosius I''' ({{langx|grc|Θεοδόσιος}} {{Transliteration|grc|Theodosios}}; 11 January 347&nbsp;–  17 January 395), also known as '''Theodosius the Great''', was [[Roman emperor]] from 379 to 395. He won two civil wars and was instrumental in establishing the [[Nicene Creed]] as the orthodox doctrine for [[Nicene Christianity]]. Theodosius was the last emperor to rule the entire [[Roman Empire]] before its administration was permanently split between the [[Western Roman Empire]] and the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. He ended the [[Gothic War (376–382)]], but did so on terms disadvantageous to the empire, with the Goths remaining and politically autonomous within Roman territory, albeit as nominal allies.

Born in [[Hispania]], Theodosius was the son of a high-ranking general of the same name, [[Theodosius the Elder]], under whose guidance he rose through the ranks of the [[Roman army]]. Theodosius held independent command in [[Moesia]] in 374, where he had some success against the invading [[Sarmatians]]. Not long afterwards, he was forced into retirement, and his father was executed under obscure circumstances. Theodosius soon regained his position following a series of intrigues and executions at Emperor [[Gratian]]'s court. In 379, after the eastern Roman emperor [[Valens]] was killed at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] against the [[Goths]], Gratian appointed Theodosius as a successor with orders to take charge of the military emergency. The new emperor's resources and depleted armies were not sufficient to drive the invaders out; in 382 the Goths were allowed to settle south of the [[Danube]] as autonomous allies of the empire. In 386, Theodosius signed a treaty with the [[Sasanian Empire]] which partitioned the long-disputed [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] and secured a durable peace between the two powers.<ref name=wwcw386>Simon Hornblower, ''Who's Who in the Classical World'' (Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 386–387</ref>

Theodosius was a strong adherent of the Christian doctrine of [[consubstantiality]] and an opponent of [[Arianism]]. He convened a council of bishops at the [[First Council of Constantinople]] in 381, which confirmed the former as orthodoxy and the latter as a heresy. Although Theodosius interfered little in the functioning of traditional pagan cults and appointed non-Christians to high offices, he failed to prevent or punish the damaging of several Hellenistic temples of classical antiquity, such as the [[Serapeum of Alexandria]], by Christian zealots. 

During the earlier part of his reign, Theodosius ruled the eastern provinces, while the west was overseen by the emperor Gratian (and nominally with [[Valentinian II]], his young co-emperor). In 386, he married Valentinian's sister, [[Galla (wife of Theodosius I)|Galla]], the marriage [[Arranged marriage|arranged]] to consolidate Theodosius' political and military power.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schwarcz |first=Andreas |date=2003 |title=Marriage and Power Politics in the Fifth Century |journal=Medieval Prosopography |volume=24 |pages=37}}</ref> Theodosius sponsored several measures to improve [[Constantinople]], his capital and main place of residence—notably his expansion of the [[Forum Tauri]], which became the biggest public square known in antiquity.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lippold |first=Adolf|year=2022 |title=Theodosius I |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Theodosius-I |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]}}</ref> Theodosius marched west twice, in 388 and 394, after Gratian and then Valentinian had been killed and replaced by the usurper [[Magnus Maximus]] and [[Eugenius]]. Theodosius's final military victory in September 394 made him ruler of the entire empire; he died however only a few months later and was succeeded by his two young sons (and by that stage co-emperors): [[Arcadius]] in the eastern half of the empire and [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] in the west.

Theodosius was said to have been a diligent administrator, austere in his habits, merciful, and a devout Christian.<ref>''[[Epitome de Caesaribus]]'' 48. 8–19</ref><ref>Gibbon, ''Decline and Fall'', chapter 27</ref> In the centuries after his death, Theodosius was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism; however, modern scholars tend to see this as an interpretation of history by Christian writers more than as an accurate representation of actual history. He is fairly credited with presiding over a revival in classical art that some historians have termed a "Theodosian renaissance".<ref>''Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity'', pp. 1482, 1484</ref> Although his pacification of the Goths secured peace for the Empire during his lifetime, their status as an autonomous entity within Roman borders caused problems for succeeding emperors. Theodosius has also received criticism for defending his own dynastic interests at the cost of two civil wars.{{sfn|Woods|2023|loc=Family and Succession}} His two sons proved weak and incapable rulers, and they presided over a period marked by foreign invasions and court intrigues, seriously weakening the empire(s). However, the descendants of Theodosius did rule the Roman world for the next six decades, and the east–west division endured—until the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in the late 5th century.

==Background==
Theodosius was born in [[Hispania]]{{efn-lr|According to [[Hydatius]] and [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], he was born at "Cauca in [[Gallaecia]]", while [[Marcellinus Comes]] and [[Jordanes]] place his birth at [[Italica]] in [[Hispania Baetica]], the same place as the emperor [[Trajan]]. Authors have tended to reject Italica, arguing that this probably arose due to a confusion or fabrication resulting from the fact that Theodosius was widely associated with the image of Trajan.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} After reviewing the sources, Gorbea favors Cauca over Italica. However, he acknowledges that modern critics are divided on the issue.<ref>Martín Almagro Gorbea (2000). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=m7LqEeTUyxQC El disco de Teodosio]''</ref> Hebblewhite accepted that Theodosius was born at Cauca in Gallaecia without stating any reason for rejecting Italica.{{Sfn|Hebblewhite|pp=15, 25 (note 1)}}}} on 11 January, probably in the year 347.{{sfn|Lippold|loc=col. 838}} His father of the same name, [[Theodosius the Elder]] was a successful and high-ranking general (''[[magister militum|magister equitum]]'') under the western Roman emperor [[Valentinian I]], and his mother was called Thermantia.{{sfn|Hebblewhite|p=15}} The family appear to have been minor landed aristocrats in Hispania, although it is not clear if this social status went back several generations or if Theodosius the Elder was simply awarded land there for his military service.{{sfnm|1a1=Hebblewhite|1pp=15, 25 (note 3)|2a1=McLynn|2y=2005|2p=100}} Their roots to Hispania were nevertheless probably long-standing, since various relatives of the future emperor Theodosius are likewise attested as being from there, and Theodosius himself was ubiquitously associated in the ancient literary sources and panegyrics with the image of fellow Spanish-born emperor [[Trajan]].{{sfn|Hebblewhite|pp=15, 25 (notes 2, 3)}} Theodosius, however, never again visited the Iberian peninsula after becoming emperor.{{sfn|McLynn|2005|p=77}}

Very little is recorded of the upbringing of Theodosius. The 5th-century author [[Theodoret]] claimed the future emperor grew up and was educated in his Iberian homeland, but his testimony is unreliable. One modern historian instead thinks Theodosius must have grown up among the army, participating in his father's campaigns throughout the provinces, as was customary at the time for families with a tradition of military service.{{sfn|McLynn|2005|pp=100, 102–103}} One source says he received a decent education and developed a particular interest in history, which Theodosius then valued as a guide to his own conduct throughout life.{{sfn|Lippold|loc=col. 839}}

==Career==
[[File:Illyricum & Dacia - AD 400.png|thumb|upright=2|Theodosius was commander of the army in ''Moesia I'' in 374. His dismissal may have been connected to the accession of the emperor [[Valentinian II]], which took place at [[Aquincum]] (Budapest) in nearby [[Pannonia Valeria]], in 375.{{sfn|Errington|1996a|pp=440–441}}]]
Theodosius is first attested accompanying his father to [[Roman Britain|Britain]] on his expedition in 368–369 to suppress the "[[Great Conspiracy]]", a concerted Celtic and Germanic invasion of the island provinces.{{sfnm|1a1=McLynn|1y=2005|1p=100|2a1=Lippold|2loc=col. 839}} After probably serving in his father's staff on further campaigns,{{sfnm|1a1=Hebblewhite|1pp=15–16|2a1=Lippold|2loc=col. 839}} Theodosius received his first independent command by 374 when he was appointed the ''[[dux]]'' (commanding officer) of the province of [[Moesia Prima]] in the [[Danube]].{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=1996a|1p=443|2a1=McLynn|2y=2005|2pp=91, 92}} In the autumn of 374, he successfully repulsed an incursion of [[Sarmatians]] on his sector of the frontier and forced them into submission.{{sfnm|1a1=Lippold|1loc=col. 839|2a1=McLynn|2y=2005|2pp=91–92}} Not long afterwards, however, under mysterious circumstances, Theodosius's father suddenly fell from imperial favor and was executed; it was at this time too that the future emperor felt compelled to retire to his estates in Hispania.{{sfnm|1a1=Lippold|1loc=coll. 839–840|2a1=Hebblewhite|2p=16}}

Although these events are poorly documented, historians usually attribute this fall from grace to the machinations of a court faction led by [[Maximinus (praetorian prefect)|Maximinus]], a senior civilian official.{{sfnm|1a1=Lippold|1loc=col. 840|2a1=Kelly|2pp=398–400|3a1=Rodgers|3pp=82–83|4a1=Errington|4y=2006|4p=29}} According to another theory, the future emperor Theodosius lost his father, or his military post, or both, in the purges of high officials that resulted from the accession of the 4-year-old emperor [[Valentinian II]] in November 375.{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=1996a|1pp=443–445|2a1=Hebblewhite|2pp=21–22|3a1=Kelly|3p=400}} Theodosius's period away from service in Hispania, during which he was said to have received threats from those responsible for his father's death,{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=1996a|1p=444|2a1=McLynn|2y=2005|2pp=88–89}} did not last long, however, as Maximinus, the probable culprit, was himself removed from power around April 376 and then executed.{{sfn|Errington|1996a|p=448}} The emperor [[Gratian]] immediately began replacing Maximinus and his associates with relatives of Theodosius in key government positions, indicating the family's full rehabilitation, and by 377 Theodosius himself had regained his command against the Sarmatians.{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=1996a|1pp=448, 449|2a1=McLynn|2y=2005|2p=91}}{{efn-lr|Whether or not Maximinus was the actual culprit, Theodosius seems to have believed so, since he never sought out his father's enemies after becoming emperor.{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=1996a|1p=446|2a1=Hebblewhite|2pp=22–23}} Maximinus is the only person to be explicitly blamed in any ancient source.{{sfn|Lippold|loc=col. 840}} Although most historians believe that the order was issued in name of the 16-year-old emperor [[Gratian]], some consider the possibility that the command instead came from Gratian's father, [[Valentinian I]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kelly|1pp=398–399|2a1=Lippold|2loc=col. 840|3a1=Rodgers|3p=82}} Hebblewhite blames not Maximinus but [[Merobaudes (magister peditum)|Merobaudes]], the officer responsible for the unauthorized elevation of [[Valentinian II]] in 375, for the execution of Theodosius senior, and implies that Maximinus and his clique at court were scapegoated.{{sfn|Hebblewhite|pp=22–23}} }}

Theodosius's renewed term of office seems to have gone uneventfully,{{sfn|McLynn|2005|pp=91–93}} until news arrived that the eastern Roman emperor, [[Valens]], had been killed at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in August 378 against invading [[Goths]]. The disastrous defeat left much of Rome's military leadership dead, discredited, or barbarian in origin, with the result that Theodosius, notwithstanding his own modest record, became the establishment's choice to replace Valens and assume control of the crisis.{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=1996a|1pp=450–452|2a1=Hebblewhite|2pp=18, 23, 24}} With the begrudging consent of the western emperor Gratian, Theodosius was formally [[invested with the purple]] by a council of officials at [[Sirmium]] on 19 January 379.{{sfnm|1a1=McLynn|1y=2005|1pp=92–94|2a1=Hebblewhite|2pp=23–25}}

== Reign ==
[[File:Roman empire 395.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The administrative divisions of the [[Roman Empire]] in 395, under Theodosius I.]]
[[File:Valentinianus Solidus 621120.jpg|thumb|''Solidus'' of Valentinian II showing Valentinian II and Theodosius I on the reverse, each holding a ''mappa'']]

===Gothic War (376–382)===
The immediate problem facing Theodosius upon his accession was how to check the bands of Goths that were laying waste to the Balkans, with an army that had been severely depleted of manpower following the debacle at Adrianople.{{sfn|Hebblewhite|pp=30–31}} The western emperor Gratian, who seems to have provided only little immediate assistance,{{sfn|McLynn|2005|p=94}} surrendered to Theodosius control of the [[praetorian prefecture of Illyricum]] for the duration of the conflict, giving his new colleague full charge of the war effort.{{sfn|Woods|2023|loc=Foreign Policy}} Theodosius implemented stern and desperate recruiting measures, resorting to the conscription of farmers and miners.{{sfn|Hebblewhite|p=31}} Punishments were instituted for harboring deserters and furnishing unfit recruits, and even self-mutilation did not exempt men from service.{{sfnm|1a1=Curran|1p=101|2a1=Hebblewhite|2p=32}} Theodosius also admitted large numbers of non-Roman auxiliaries into the army, even Gothic deserters from beyond the Danube.{{sfn|Curran|p=102}} Some of these foreign recruits were exchanged with more reliable Roman garrison troops stationed in [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]].{{sfn|Errington|1996b|pp=5–6}}

In the second half of 379, Theodosius and his generals, based at [[Thessalonica]], won some minor victories over individual bands of raiders. However, they suffered at least one serious defeat in 380, which was blamed on the treachery of the new barbarian recruits.{{sfnm|1a1=Hebblewhite|1p=33|2a1=Woods|2y=2023|2loc="Foreign Policy"}} During the autumn of 380, a life-threatening illness, from which Theodosius recovered, prompted him to request [[baptism]]. Some obscure victories were recorded in official sources around this time, however, and, in November 380, the military situation was found to be sufficiently stable for Theodosius to move his court to [[Constantinople]].{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=1996b|1pp=16–17|2a1=Hebblewhite|2p=33}} There, the emperor enjoyed a propaganda victory when, in January 381, he received the visit and submission of a minor Gothic leader, [[Athanaric]].{{sfnm|1a1=Woods|1y=2023|1loc="Foreign Policy"|2a1=Hebblewhite|2p=34}} By this point, however, Theodosius seems to have no longer believed that the Goths could be completely ejected from Roman territory.{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=1996b|1p=18|2a1=Hebblewhite|2p=34}} After Athanaric died that very same month, the emperor gave him a funeral with full honors, impressing his entourage and signaling to the enemy that the Empire was disposed to negotiate terms.{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=2006|1p=63|2a1=Hebblewhite|2p=34}} During the campaigning season of 381, reinforcements from Gratian drove the Goths out of the [[Diocese of Macedonia]] and [[Ancient Thessaly|Thessaly]] into the [[Diocese of Thrace]], while, in the latter sector, Theodosius or one of his generals repulsed an incursion by a group of [[Sciri]] and [[Huns]] across the Danube.{{sfn|Errington|1996b|pp=17, 19}}

Following negotiations which likely lasted at least several months, the Romans and Goths finally concluded a settlement on 3 October 382.{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=1996b|1pp=19–20|2a1=Hebblewhite|2pp=35, 36}} In return for military service to Rome, the Goths were allowed to settle some tracts of Roman land south of the Danube. The terms were unusually favorable to the Goths, reflecting the fact that they were entrenched in Roman territory and had not been driven out.{{sfnm|1a1=Errington|1y=2006|1pp=64–66|2a1=Hebblewhite|2pp=36–37, 39}} Namely, instead of fully submitting to Roman authority, they were allowed to remain autonomous under their own leaders, and thus could remain a strong, unified community or force. The Goths now settled within the Empire would fight for the Romans, but largely as a national contingent, as opposed to being fully integrated into the Roman forces.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=34}}

[[File:The Roman Empire ca 400 AD (Danube provinces).png|left|thumb|Roman provinces along the Ister ([[Danube]]), showing the [[Roman dioceses]] of [[Diocese of Thrace|Thrace]], [[Diocese of Dacia|Dacia]], [[Diocese of Pannonia|Pannonia]] and [[Italia Annonaria]] on the empire's northern frontier]]

=== 383–384 ===
[[File:Theodosiusi658cng.jpg|thumb|''Solidus'' of Theodosius, showing both him and his co-emperor [[Valentinian II]] ({{Reign|375|392}}) enthroned on the reverse, each crowned by [[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]] and together holding an [[Globus cruciger|orb]] {{Smallcaps|victoria {{abbreviation|augg|augusti}}}} ("''the Victory of the Augusti''")]]According to the ''[[Chronicon Paschale]]'', Theodosius celebrated his ''quinquennalia'' on 19 January 383 at Constantinople; on this occasion he raised his eldest son [[Arcadius]] to co-emperor (''augustus'').{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} Sometime in 383, Gratian's wife Constantia died.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=319–320|loc="Gratianus"}} Gratian remarried, wedding [[Laeta]], whose father was a ''[[consularis]]'' of [[Roman Syria]].<ref name=":2">{{Citation|last1=Bond| first1=Sarah|title=Gratian |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-2105|work=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity |year=2018|editor-last=Nicholson|editor-first=Oliver|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-866277-8|access-date=25 October 2020|last2=Nicholson|first2=Oliver}}</ref> Early 383 saw the acclamation of [[Magnus Maximus]] as emperor in Britain and the appointment of [[Themistius]] as ''[[praefectus urbi]]'' in Constantinople.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} On 25 August 383, according to the ''Consularia Constantinopolitana'', Gratian was killed at [[Lugdunum]] ([[Lyon]]) by [[Andragathius]], the ''[[magister equitum]]'' of the rebel emperor during the rebellion of Magnus Maximus.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=319–320|loc="Gratianus"}} Constantia's body arrived in Constantinople on 12 September that year and was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles on 1 December.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=319–320|loc="Gratianus"}} Gratian was deified as {{Langx|la|Divus Gratianus|lit=the Divine Gratian}}.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=319–320|loc="Gratianus"}}

Theodosius, unable to do much about Maximus due to ongoing military inadequacy, opened negotiations with the Persian emperor [[Shapur III]] ({{Reign|383|388}}) of the [[Sasanian Empire]].{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=41}} According to the ''Consularia Constantinopolitana'', Theodosius received in Constantinople an embassy from them in 384.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}

In an attempt to curb Maximus's ambitions, Theodosius appointed Flavius Neoterius as the [[Praetorian Prefect of Italy]].{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=42}} In the summer of 384, Theodosius met his co-emperor Valentinian II in northern Italy.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=321–322|loc="Valentinianus II"}}{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} Theodosius brokered a peace agreement between Valentinian and Magnus Maximus which endured for several years.<ref name=":7">{{Citation|last=Bond|first=Sarah|title=Valentinian II|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-4928|work=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity |year=2018|editor-last=Nicholson|editor-first=Oliver|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-866277-8|access-date=25 October 2020}}</ref>

Theodosius I was based in Constantinople, and according to [[Peter Heather]], wanted, "for his own dynastic reasons (for his two sons each eventually to inherit half of the empire), refused to appoint a recognized counterpart in the west. As a result he was faced with rumbling discontent there, as well as dangerous [[usurper]]s, who found plentiful support among the bureaucrats and military officers who felt they were not getting a fair share of the imperial cake."<ref name="Peter Heather">{{cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter |title=The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-532541-6 |edition=illustrated, reprint|pages=29–30}}</ref>

=== Middle reign: 384–387 ===
Theodosius's second son [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] was born on 9 December 384 and titled ''[[nobilissimus puer]]'' (or ''nobilissimus iuvenis'').{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} The death of Aelia Flaccilla, Theodosius's first wife and the mother of Arcadius, Honorius, and Pulcheria, occurred by 386.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} She died at [[Scotumis]] in [[Diocese of Thrace|Thrace]] and was buried at Constantinople, her [[Funeral oration (ancient Greece)|funeral oration]] delivered by [[Gregory of Nyssa]].{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Groß-Albenhausen|first=Kirsten|year=2006|title=Flacilla|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/flacilla-e412010|journal=Brill's New Pauly|language=en}}</ref> A statue of her was dedicated in the [[Byzantine Senate]].<ref name=":1" /> In 384 or 385, Theodosius's niece [[Serena (wife of Stilicho)|Serena]] was married to the ''magister militum'', [[Stilicho]].{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}

[[Image:Forum Theodosius Istanbul March 2008 (18) detail.JPG|thumb|250px|Marble fragment of monumental column to emperor Theodosius I]]
In the beginning of 386, Theodosius's daughter [[Pulcheria (daughter of Theodosius I)|Pulcheria]] also died.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}. Her funeral oration was also delivered by Gregory of Nyssa. That summer, more Goths were defeated, and many were settled in [[Phrygia]].{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} According to the ''Consularia Constantinopolitana'', a [[Roman triumph]] over the Gothic [[Greuthungi]] was then celebrated at Constantinople.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} The same year, work began on the great triumphal column in the [[Forum of Theodosius]] in Constantinople, the [[Column of Theodosius]].{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} The ''Consularia Constantinopolitana'' records that on 19 January 387, Arcadius celebrated his ''quinquennalia'' in Constantinople.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} By the end of the month, there was an uprising or riot in [[Antioch]] (modern [[Antakya]]).{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} The [[Roman–Persian Wars]] concluded with the signing of the [[Peace of Acilisene]] with Persia. By the terms of the agreement, the ancient [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] was divided between the powers.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}

By the end of the 380s, Theodosius and the court were in Milan and northern Italy had settled down to a period of prosperity.{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=135}} Peter Brown says gold was being made in Milan by those who owned land as well as by those who came with the court for government service.{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=135}} Great landowners took advantage of the court's need for food, "turning agrarian produce into gold", while repressing and misusing the poor who grew it and brought it in. According to Brown, modern scholars link the decline of the Roman empire to the avarice of the rich of this era. He quotes Paulinus of Milan as describing these men as creating a court where "everything was up for sale".{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=136, 146}} In the late 380s, [[Ambrose]], the bishop of Milan took the lead in opposing this, presenting the need for the rich to care for the poor as "a necessary consequence of the unity of all Christians".{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=147}} This led to a major development in the political culture of the day called the “advocacy revolution of the later Roman empire".{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=144}} This revolution had been fostered by the imperial government, and it encouraged appeals and denunciations of bad government from below. However, Brown adds that, "in the crucial area of taxation and the treatment of fiscal debtors, the late Roman state [of the 380s and 390s] remained impervious to Christianity".{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=145}}

=== Civil war: 387–388 ===
The peace with Magnus Maximus was broken in 387, and Valentinian escaped to the east with Justina, reaching Thessalonica ([[Thessaloniki]]) in summer or autumn 387 and appealing to Theodosius for aid; Valentinian II's sister [[Galla (wife of Theodosius I)|Galla]] was then married to the eastern emperor at Thessalonica in late autumn.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=321–322|loc="Valentinianus II"}}{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} Theodosius may still have been in Thessalonica when he celebrated his ''decennalia'' (the ten year anniversary of his coming to power) on 19 January 388.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} Theodosius was consul for the second time in 388.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} Galla and Theodosius's first child, a son named Gratian, was born in 388 or 389.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} In summer 388, Theodosius recovered Italy from Magnus Maximus for Valentinian, and in June, the meeting of Christians deemed heretics was banned by Valentinian.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=321–322|loc="Valentinianus II"}}{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}

The armies of Theodosius and Maximus fought at the [[Battle of Poetovio]] in 388, which saw Maximus defeated. On 28 August 388 Maximus was executed.{{sfn|Williams|Friell| 1995|p=64}} Now the ''de facto'' ruler of the Western empire as well, Theodosius celebrated his victory in Rome on 13 June 389 and stayed in [[Milan]] until 391, installing his own loyalists in senior positions including the new ''[[magister militum]]'' of the West, the Frankish general [[Arbogast (magister militum)|Arbogast]].{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=64}} According to the ''Consularia Constantinopolitana'', Arbogast killed [[Flavius Victor]] ({{Reign|384|388}}), Magnus Maximus's young son and co-emperor, in Gaul in August/September that year. ''[[Damnatio memoriae]]'' was pronounced against them, and inscriptions naming them were erased.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}

=== Massacre and its aftermath: 388–391 ===
[[File:Massacre in the Hippodrome of Thessaloniki in 390, 16th century wood engraving.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=16th century engraving of the massacre of Thessalonica in the hippodrome|Massacre in the Hippodrome of Thessaloniki in 390, 16th-century wood engraving]]
The [[Massacre of Thessalonica]] (Thessaloniki) in Greece was a massacre of local civilians by Roman troops. The best estimate of the date is April of 390.<ref name="Harold Allen Drake">{{cite book |last1=Washburn |first1=Daniel |editor1-last=Albu |editor1-first=Emily |editor2-last=Drake |editor2-first=Harold Allen |editor3-last=Latham |editor3-first=Jacob |title=Violence in Late Antiquity Perceptions and Practices |date=2006 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-5498-8 |chapter=18 The Thessalonian Affair in the Fifth Century Histories}}</ref>{{rp|fn.1, 215}} The massacre was most likely a response to an urban riot that led to the murder of a Roman official. What most scholars, such as philosopher Stanislav Doležal, see as the most reliable of the sources is the ''Historia ecclesiastica'' written by [[Sozomen]] about 442; in it Sozomen supplies the identity of the murdered Roman official as Butheric, the commanding general of the field army in Illyricum (magister militum per Illyricum).<ref name="Stanislav Doležal"/>{{rp|91}} According to Sozomen, a popular charioteer tried to rape a cup-bearer, (or possibly Butheric himself), and in response, Butheric arrested and jailed the charioteer.<ref name="Stanislav Doležal"/>{{rp|93–94}}<ref name="Sozomen">Sozomenus, ''Ecclesiastical History 7.25''</ref> The populace demanded the chariot racer's release, and when Butheric refused, a general revolt rose up costing Butheric his life.<ref name="Harold Allen Drake"/>{{rp|216–217}} Doležal says the name "Butheric" indicates he might have been a Goth, and that the general's ethnicity "could have been" a factor in the riot, but none of the early sources actually say so.<ref name="Stanislav Doležal">{{cite journal |last1=Doležal |first1=Stanislav |title=Rethinking a Massacre: What Really Happened in Thessalonica and Milan in 390? |journal=Eirene: Studia Graeca et Latina|issn= 0046-1628 |date=2014|publisher=[[Czech Academy of Sciences]] |volume=50 |issue=1–2 |url=}}</ref>{{rp|92, 96}}

====Sources====
There are no contemporaneous accounts. Church historians [[Sozomen]], [[Theodoret|Theodoret the bishop of Cyrrhus]], [[Socrates of Constantinople]] and [[Tyrannius Rufinus|Rufinus]] wrote the earliest accounts during the fifth century. These are moral accounts emphasizing imperial piety and ecclesial action rather than historical and political details.<ref name="Harold Allen Drake"/>{{rp|215, 218}}<ref>"Biennial Conference on Shifting Frontiers in Late Antiquity (5th : 2003" : University of California, Santa Barbara). ''Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices''. United Kingdom, Ashgate, 2006. p. 223</ref> Further difficulty is created by these events moving into legend in art and literature almost immediately.<ref name="Greenslade">{{cite book |editor1-last=Greenslade |editor1-first=S. L.|title=Early Latin Theology Selections from Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose, and Jerome |date=1956 |publisher=Westminster Press |isbn=978-0-664-24154-4}}</ref>{{rp|251}} Doležal explains that yet another problem is created by aspects of these accounts contradicting one another to the point of being mutually exclusive.<ref name="Harold Allen Drake"/>{{rp|216}} Nonetheless, most classicists accept at least the basic account of the massacre, although they continue to dispute when it happened, who was responsible for it, what motivated it, and what impact it had on subsequent events.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|pp=90, 216}}

====Theodosius's role====
[[File:Anthonis van Dyck 005.jpg|thumb|alt=Anthonis van Dyck|Anthonis Van Dyke's 1619 painting of St. Ambrose blocking the cathedral door, refusing Theodosius's admittance, a "pious fiction" invented by Theodoret ([[National Gallery]]).<ref name="Chestnut"/>]]
Theodosius was not in Thessalonica when the massacre occurred. The court was in Milan.<ref name="Harold Allen Drake"/>{{rp|223}} Several scholars, such as historian [[G. W. Bowersock]] and authors Stephen Williams and Gerard Friell, think that Theodosius ordered the massacre in an excess of "volcanic anger".{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=68}} McLynn also puts all the blame on the Emperor<ref name="Stanislav Doležal"/>{{rp|103}} as does the less dependable fifth century historian, Theodoret.<ref>Theodoretus, ''Ecclesiastical History 5.17''</ref> Other scholars, such as historians Mark Hebblewhite and N. Q. King, do not agree.{{sfn|Hebblewhite|p=103}}<ref name="Noel Quinton King">{{cite book |last1=King |first1=Noel Quinton |title=The Emperor Theodosius and the Establishment of Christianity |date=1960 |publisher=Westminster Press|asin=B0000CL13G |page=68}}</ref> [[Peter Brown (historian)|Peter Brown]] points to the empire's established process of decision making, which required the emperor "to listen to his ministers" before acting.<ref name="Brownpowerandpersuasion">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Peter|title=Power and Persuasion in Late Antiquity: Towards a Christian Empire|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-299-13344-3}}</ref>{{rp|111}} There is some indication in the sources Theodosius did listen to his counselors but received bad or misleading advice.<ref name="Stanislav Doležal"/>{{rp|95–98}}

J. F. Matthews argues that the Emperor first tried to punish the city by selective executions. Peter Brown concurs: "As it was, what was probably planned as a selective killing&nbsp;... got out of hand".<ref>Mathews, J. F. 1997, “Codex Theodosianus 9.40.13 and Nicomachus Flavianus”, Historia: Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte, 46; pp. 202–206.</ref><ref name="Brownpowerandpersuasion"/>{{rp|110}} Doleźal says Sozomen is very specific in saying that in response to the riot, the soldiers made random arrests in the hippodrome to perform a few public executions as a demonstration of imperial disfavor, but the citizenry objected. "The soldiers, realizing that they were surrounded by angry citizens, perhaps panicked&nbsp;... and&nbsp;... forcibly cleared the hippodrome at the cost of several thousands of lives of local inhabitants".<ref name="Stanislav Doležal"/>{{rp|103–104}}  McLynn says Theodosius was “unable to impose discipline upon the faraway troops" and covered that failure by taking responsibility for the massacre on himself, declaring he had given the order then countermanded it too late to stop it.<ref name="Stanislav Doležal"/>{{rp|102–104}}

[[Ambrose]], the bishop of Milan and one of Theodosius's many counselors, was away from court. After being informed of events concerning Thessalonica, he wrote Theodosius a letter offering what McLynn calls a different way for the emperor to "save face" and restore his public image.<ref name="Wolfe Liebeschuetz"/>{{rp|262}} Ambrose urged a semi-public demonstration of penitence, telling the emperor he  will not give Theodosius communion until this is done. [[Wolf Liebeschuetz]] notes that "Theodosius duly complied and came to church without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when Ambrose openly admitted him to communion".<ref name="Wolfe Liebeschuetz">{{cite book |editor1-last=Liebeschuetz |editor1-first=Wolfe |editor2-last=Hill |editor2-first=Carole |title=Ambrose of Milan Political Letters and Speeches |date=2005 |publisher=Liverpool University Press|chapter=Letter on the Massacre at Thessalonica|isbn=978-0-85323-829-4}}</ref>{{rp|262–263}}

Washburn says the image of the mitered prelate braced in the door of the cathedral in Milan blocking Theodosius from entering is a product of the imagination of Theodoret who wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill the gaps in the historical record".<ref name="Chestnut">{{cite journal |last1=Chesnut |first1=Glenn F. |title=The Date of Composition of Theodoret's Church history |journal=Vigiliae Christianae |date=1981 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=245–252 |doi=10.2307/1583142 |jstor=1583142}}</ref><ref name="Harold Allen Drake"/>{{rp|215}} Peter Brown also says there was no dramatic encounter at the church door.<ref name="Brownpowerandpersuasion"/>{{rp|111}} McLynn states that "the encounter at the church door has long been known as a pious fiction".{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=291}}{{sfn|Cameron|pp=63, 64}} Wolf Liebeschuetz says Ambrose advocated a course of action which avoided the kind of public humiliation Theodoret describes, and that is the course Theodosius chose.<ref name="Wolfe Liebeschuetz"/>{{rp|262}}

====Aftermath and historical assessment====
It is only modern scholarship that has begun disputing Theodosius's responsibility for those events.  According to the early twentieth century historian [[Henry Smith Williams]], history's assessment of Theodosius's character has been stained by the massacre of Thessalonica for centuries. Williams describes Theodosius as a virtuous-minded, courageous man, who was vigorous in pursuit of any important goal, but by contrasting the "inhuman massacre of the people of Thessalonica" with "the generous pardon of the citizens of Antioch" after civil war, Williams nevertheless concludes that Theodosius was also "hasty and choleric".<ref name="Henry Smith Williams">{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Henry Smith |title=The Historians' History of the World: A Comprehensive Narrative of the Rise and Development of Nations as Recorded by Over Two Thousand of the Great Writers of All Ages |date=1907 |publisher=Hooper & Jackson, Limited|volume=6|page=529}}</ref>  

From the time [[Edward Gibbon]] wrote his ''Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire'', Ambrose's action after the fact has been cited as an example of the church's dominance over the state in Antiquity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gibbon |first1=Edward |editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=William |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=1857 |publisher=Harper |page=217}}</ref> [[Alan Cameron (classicist)|Alan Cameron]] says "the assumption is so widespread it would be superfluous to cite authorities. But there is not a shred of evidence for Ambrose exerting any such influence over Theodosius".{{sfn|Cameron|pp=60, 63, 131}} Brown says Ambrose was just one among many advisors, and Cameron says there is no evidence Theodosius favored him above anyone else.{{sfn|Cameron|p=64}}

By the time of the Thessalonian affair, Ambrose, an aristocrat and former governor, had been a bishop for 16 years, and during his episcopate, had seen the death of three emperors before Theodosius. These produced significant political storms, yet Ambrose held his place using what McLynn calls his "considerable qualities [and] considerable luck" to survive.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=xxiv}} Theodosius was in his 40s, had been emperor for 11 years, had temporarily settled the Gothic wars, and won a civil war. As a Latin speaking Nicene western leader of the Greek largely Arian East, Boniface Ramsey says he had already left an indelible mark on history.<ref name="Boniface Ramsey">{{cite book |last1=Ramsey |first1=Boniface |title=Ambrose |date=1997 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-11842-2|edition=reprint}}</ref>{{rp|12}}

McLynn asserts that the relationship between Theodosius and Ambrose transformed into myth within a generation of their deaths. He also observes that the documents revealing the relationship between these two formidable men do not show the personal friendship the legends portray. Instead, those documents read more as negotiations between the institutions the men represent: the Roman state and the Italian Church.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=292}}

=== Second civil war: 392–394 ===
In 391, Theodosius left his trusted general [[Arbogastes (magister militum)|Arbogast]], who had served in the Balkans after Adrianople, to be ''magister militum'' for the Western emperor Valentinian II, while Theodosius attempted to rule the entire empire from Constantinople.<ref name="Michael Kulikowski">{{cite book |last=Kulikowski |first=Michael |title=Rome's Gothic Wars: From the Third Century to Alaric |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-45809-2 |page=191}}</ref>{{sfn|Heather|2007|p=212}} On 15 May 392, Valentinian II died at Vienna in Gaul ([[Vienne, Isère|Vienne]]), either by suicide or as part of a plot by Arbogast.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=321–322|loc="Valentinianus II"}} Valentinian had quarrelled publicly with Arbogast, and was found hanged in his room.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=129}} Arbogast announced that this had been a suicide.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=129}} Stephen Williams asserts that Valentinian's death left Arbogast in "an untenable position".{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=129}} He had to carry on governing without the ability to issue edicts and rescripts from a legitimate acclaimed emperor. Arbogast was unable to assume the role of emperor himself because of his non-Roman background.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=129}} Instead, on 22 August 392, Arbogast had Valentinian's master of correspondence, [[Eugenius]], proclaimed emperor in the West at Lugdunum.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=129}}

At least two embassies went to Theodosius to explain events, one of them Christian in make-up, but they received ambivalent replies, and were sent home without achieving their goals.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=129}} Theodosius raised his second son [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] to emperor on 23 January 393, implying the illegality of Eugenius's rule.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995| p=129}} Williams and Friell say that by the spring of 393, the split was complete, and "in April Arbogast and Eugenius at last moved into Italy without resistance".{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=129}} [[Virius Nicomachus Flavianus|Flavianus]], the praetorian prefect of Italy whom Theodosius had appointed, defected to their side. Through early 394, both sides prepared for war.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=130}}

Theodosius gathered a large army, including the Goths whom he had settled in the [[eastern empire]] as ''[[foederati]]'', and [[Caucasus|Caucasian]] and [[Saracen]] [[auxilia]]ries, and marched against Eugenius.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=134}} The battle began on 5 September 394, with Theodosius's full frontal assault on Eugenius's forces.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=133}} Thousands of Goths died, and in Theodosius's camp, the loss of the day decreased morale.<ref name="Kenneth G. Holum">{{cite book |last1=Holum |first1=Kenneth G. |title=Theodosian Empresses Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity |date=1989 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90970-0 |page=6 |chapter=One. Theodosius the Great and His Women}}</ref> It is said by [[Theodoret]] that Theodosius was visited by two "heavenly riders all in white" who gave him courage.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=133}}

The next day, the extremely bloody battle began again and Theodosius's forces were aided by a natural phenomenon known as the [[Bora (wind)|Bora]], which can produce hurricane-strength winds. The Bora blew directly against the forces of Eugenius and disrupted the line.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=133}} Eugenius's camp was stormed; Eugenius was captured and soon after executed.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=533}} According to Socrates Scholasticus, Theodosius defeated Eugenius at the [[Battle of the Frigidus]] (the [[Vipava (river)|Vipava]]) on 6 September 394.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} On 8 September, Arbogast killed himself.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} According to Socrates, on 1 January 395, Honorius arrived in Mediolanum and a victory celebration was held there.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} Zosimus records that, at the end of April 394, Theodosius's wife Galla had died while he was away at war.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}

A number of Christian sources report that Eugenius cultivated the support of the pagan senators by promising to restore the altar of Victory and provide public funds for the maintenance of cults if they would support him and if he won the coming war against Theodosius.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=130}} Cameron notes that the ultimate source for this is Ambrose's biographer [[Paulinus the Deacon]], whom he argues fabricated the entire narrative and deserves no credence.{{sfn|Cameron|pp=74–89}}{{sfn|Hebblewhite|loc=chapter 9}} Historian [[Michele R. Salzman|Michele Renee Salzman]] explains that "two newly relevant texts – John Chrysostom's Homily 6, ''adversus Catharos'' (PG 63: 491–492) and the ''Consultationes Zacchei et Apollonii'', re-dated to the 390s, reinforces the view that religion was not the key ideological element in the events at the time".<ref name="Michele Renee Salzman">{{cite journal |last1=Salzman |first1=Michele Renee |title=Ambrose and the Usurpation of Arbogastes and Eugenius: Reflections on Pagan-Christian Conflict Narratives |journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies |date=2010 |volume=18 |issue=2 |page=191 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/383540/pdf |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|doi=10.1353/earl.0.0320 |s2cid=143665912 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> According to [[Maijastina Kahlos]], Finnish historian and Docent of Latin language and Roman literature at the University of Helsinki, the notion of pagan aristocrats united in a "heroic and cultured resistance" who rose up against the ruthless advance of Christianity in a final battle near Frigidus in 394 is a romantic myth.{{sfn|Kahlos|p=2}}

== Death ==
Theodosius suffered from a disease involving severe [[edema]].{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=139}} He died in [[Mediolanum]] ([[Milan]]) on 17 January 395, and his body lay in state in the palace there for forty days.<ref>Norwich, John Julius (1989) ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', Guild Publishing, p. 116</ref> His funeral was held in the cathedral on 25 February.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} Bishop Ambrose delivered a [[panegyric]] titled ''De obitu Theodosii'' in the presence of [[Stilicho]] and [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] in which Ambrose praised the suppression of paganism by Theodosius.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=139}}

On 8 November 395, his body was transferred to Constantinople, where according to the ''Chronicon Paschale'' he was buried in the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]].{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} He was honored {{Langx|la|Divus Theodosius|lit=the Divine Theodosius|label=as}}.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} He was interred in a [[Porphyry (geology)#Imperial sarcophagi|porphyry sarcophagus]] that was described in the 10th century by [[Constantine VII|Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus]] in his work ''[[De Ceremoniis]]''.{{sfn|Vasiliev|1948|pp=1, 3–26}}

==Marriage and issue==
Theodosius married twice.  

His first wife was [[Aelia Flaccilla]], married in 376 and dead in 386. By her he had three children:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holum |first=Kenneth G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_JUhQwWO6dwC |title=Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity |date=1982 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04162-2 |pages=22 |language=en}}</ref> 
* [[Arcadius]] (377 - 408), Roman emperor;
* [[Pulcheria (daughter of Theodosius I)|Aelia Pulcheria]] (378 - 385);
* [[Honorius]] (384 - 423), Roman emperor.

His second wife was [[Galla (wife of Theodosius)|Galla]], married in 387 and dead in childbirth in 394. By her he had other three children:<ref>Rebenich, Stefan (1985). "Gratian, a Son of Theodosius, and the Birth of Galla Placidia". ''Historia''. 34 (3): 372–385</ref> 
* Gratian (388/389 - ''ante'' 395);
* [[Galla Placidia]] (392/393 - 450), Roman Empress;
* John (394), stillbirth.<ref>Rebenich, Stefan (1985). "Gratian, a Son of Theodosius, and the Birth of Galla Placidia". ''Historia''. 34 (3): 372–385, p.384</ref>

== Honorific ==

Theodosius was initially styled "the Great" simply as a way to differentiate him from his grandson Theodosius II. Later, at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the honorific was deemed merited due to his promotion of Nicene Christianity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hebbelwhite |first1=Mark |title=Theodosius and the Limits of Empire |year=2020 |url=https://www.academia.edu/32192725 |access-date=10 February 2023 |page=Footnote 2|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781315103334 }}</ref>

== Veneration ==
Theodosius the Great is venerated in [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental]] Orthodox Churches:

* 17 January – Eastern Orthodox Church commemoration,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Emperor Theodosius the Great |url=https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2013/01/17/109027-emperor-theodosius-the-great |access-date=17 January 2023 |website=www.oca.org}}</ref><ref name="ФЕОДОСИЙ I ВЕЛИКИЙ – Древо">{{Cite web |title=ФЕОДОСИЙ I ВЕЛИКИЙ – Древо |url=http://drevo-info.ru/articles/1296.html |access-date=17 January 2023 |website=drevo-info.ru |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Благоверный Феодо́сий I Великий, император |url=https://azbyka.ru/days/sv-feodosij-i-velikij-imperator |access-date=17 January 2023 |website=Православный Церковный календарь |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Record {{!}} The Cult of Saints |url=http://csla.history.ox.ac.uk/record.php?recid=E02885 |access-date=17 January 2023 |website=csla.history.ox.ac.uk}}</ref>
* 18 January – Ethiopian Church commemorates Theodosius, the righteous emperor,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Ethiopian Synaxarium |url=https://www.tewahedo.dk/litt/cached/The_Ethiopian_Synaxarium.pdf |access-date=17 January 2023 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825213718/https://www.tewahedo.dk/litt/cached/The_Ethiopian_Synaxarium.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 19 January – [[Armenian Apostolic Church]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Armenian Church News |url=https://armenianchurch.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/E-NEWSLETTER-VOLUME-7-ISSUE-1.pdf}}</ref>

Emperor (king) Theodosius is commemorated in [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian]] [[Anaphora (liturgy)|Anaphora]] with [[List of royal saints and martyrs|saint kings]]: [[Abgar V|Abgar]], [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] and [[Tiridates III of Armenia|Tiridates]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2019 |title=Divine Liturgy |url=https://stjohnarmenianchurch.com/content/divine-liturgy |access-date=17 January 2023 |website=St. John |language=en}}</ref>

In Eastern Orthodox Church he is commemorated as [[ktetor]] of [[Vatopedi]] and donator of Vatopedi icon of the Mother of God.<ref name="ФЕОДОСИЙ I ВЕЛИКИЙ – Древо"/>

==Art patronage==
[[File:Disc of Theodosius.png|thumb|280px|[[Missorium of Theodosius I|Missorium of Theodosius]], found in 1847 in [[Almendralejo]], [[Spain]]]]
[[File:Hippodrome Constantinople 2007 003.jpg|thumb|View of the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople]] with the surviving [[Obelisk of Theodosius]]]]
[[File:The Obelisk of Theodosius, details of the base of the Obelisk of Thutmose III, Hippodrome, Istanbul (8370192180).jpg|thumb|The Obelisk of Theodosius, details of the base of the Obelisk of Thutmose III, Hippodrome, Istanbul (8370192180)]]
According to art historian David Wright, art of the era around the year 400 reflects optimism amongst the traditional polytheists.<ref name="Wright2012">{{cite book |last1=Wright |first1=David |editor1-last=Sevcenko |editor1-first=Ihor |editor2-last=Hutter |editor2-first=Irmgard |title=AETOS: Studies in Honour of Cyril Mango presented to him on April 14, 1998 |date=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-095861-4 |edition=reprint |chapter=The Persistence of Pagan Art Patronage in Fifth-Century Rome}}</ref>{{rp|355}}  This is likely connected to what Ine Jacobs calls a renaissance of classical styles of art in the Theodosian period (AD 379–395) often referred to in modern scholarship as the ''Theodosian renaissance''.<ref name="Ine Jacobs">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Ine |title=The Creation of the Late Antique City: Constantinople and Asia Minor During the 'Theodosian Renaissance' |journal=Byzantion |date=2012 |volume=82 |pages=113–164 |jstor=44173257}}</ref> The ''Forum Tauri'' in Constantinople was renamed and redecorated as the [[Forum of Theodosius]], including a [[column of Theodosius|column]] and a [[triumphal arch]] in his honour.<ref name="Lea Stirling">{{cite journal |last1=Stirling |first1=Lea |author-link=Lea Stirling |title=Theodosian "classicism" – Bente Kiilerich, Late Fourth-Century Classicism in the Plastic Arts: Studies in the So-called Theodosian Renaissance  |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |date=1995 |volume=8 |pages=535–538 |doi=10.1017/S1047759400016433|s2cid=250344855 }}</ref>{{rp|535}} The [[Missorium of Theodosius I|''missorium'']] of Theodosius, the city of Aprodisias's statue of the emperor, the base of the [[Obelisk of Theodosius]], the columns of Theodosius and Arcadius, and the diptych of Probus were all commissioned by the court and reflect a similar renaissance of classicism.<ref name="Lea Stirling"/>{{rp|535}}

According to Armin Wirsching, two obelisks were shipped by the Romans from [[Karnak]] to [[Alexandria]] in 13/12 BC.<ref name="Armin Wirsching">{{cite journal |last1=Wirsching |first1=Armin |title=How the obelisks reached Rome: evidence of Roman double-ships |journal=The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology |date=2007 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=273–283 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-9270.2000.tb01456.x |s2cid=162710923 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2000.tb01456.x|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  In 357, Constantius II had one (that became known as the [[Lateran obelisk]]) shipped to Rome. Wirsching says the Romans had previously watched and learned from the Egyptians how to transport such large heavy objects, so they constructed "a special sea‐going version of the Nile vessels ... – a double‐ship with three hulls".<ref name="Armin Wirsching"/> In 390, Theodosius oversaw the removal of the other to Constantinople.{{sfn|Majeska|1984|p=256}}{{blockquote|The obelisk with its sculpted base in the former Hippodrome of Constantinople is well known as a rare datable work of Late Antique art. A sixth-century source puts the raising of the obelisk in the year 390, and Greek and Latin epigrams on the plinth (the lower part of the base) credit Theodosius I and the urban prefect Proclus with this feat.<ref name="Linda Safran">{{cite journal |last1=Safran |first1=Linda |title=Points of View: The Theodosian Obelisk Base in Context |journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies |date=1993 |volume=34 |issue=4 |url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/5366723/SAFRAN_OBELISKGRBS.pdf?response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DPoints_of_View_The_Theodosian_Obelisk_Ba.pdf&Expires=1621712042&Signature=eT6KQyJ3t~pEDp884LltYND1JrkhFi02Q0PwahxCUvlfZvIBtEINyUCCgGq1FAYLZpp-sSMyTu3pH85l9nMKAbxRBqGSxdfB8c6YkrUKKHWxOivaUrYv6PcN9Y398gPCgiUAfEch26oQ60q-zK65cFr9~Pw9ckvvt-Sywp6s-iTAGQPIB6yDJMy8TBEdvuLOqZxOp5sOUj13TG3BLj1qWMjgLZKtdr2YgrVc3Vt9bkQN-sBB~CzbT0BUn0FogUBTe-h3G6Xd7oC0Ac~iErL4V1SJKMI1Twf2Hh6U-0BK7J1ibTlzU7DmiqB-45MxxXV1xe7tXTzoKVDjOGryXemOIA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522183524/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/5366723/SAFRAN_OBELISKGRBS.pdf?response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DPoints_of_View_The_Theodosian_Obelisk_Ba.pdf&Expires=1621712042&Signature=eT6KQyJ3t~pEDp884LltYND1JrkhFi02Q0PwahxCUvlfZvIBtEINyUCCgGq1FAYLZpp-sSMyTu3pH85l9nMKAbxRBqGSxdfB8c6YkrUKKHWxOivaUrYv6PcN9Y398gPCgiUAfEch26oQ60q-zK65cFr9~Pw9ckvvt-Sywp6s-iTAGQPIB6yDJMy8TBEdvuLOqZxOp5sOUj13TG3BLj1qWMjgLZKtdr2YgrVc3Vt9bkQN-sBB~CzbT0BUn0FogUBTe-h3G6Xd7oC0Ac~iErL4V1SJKMI1Twf2Hh6U-0BK7J1ibTlzU7DmiqB-45MxxXV1xe7tXTzoKVDjOGryXemOIA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 May 2021}}</ref>}} Linda Safran says that relocating the obelisk was motivated by Theodosius's victory over "the tyrants" (most likely Maximus Magnus and his son Victor).<ref name="Linda Safran"/>{{rp|410}} It is now known as the obelisk of Theodosius and still stands in the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople]],{{sfn|Majeska|1984|p=256}} the long [[Roman circus]] that was, at one time, the centre of Constantinople's public life. Re-erecting the monolith was a challenge for the technology that had been honed in the construction of [[siege engine]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lewis |first1=M. J. T. |title=Roman Methods of Transporting and Erecting Obelisks |journal=History of Engineering and Technology |date=1984 |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=87–110 |doi=10.1179/tns.1984.005 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/tns.1984.005?journalCode=yhet19|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The obelisk's white marble base is entirely covered with [[bas-relief]]s documenting Theodosius's imperial household and the engineering feat of removing the obelisk to Constantinople. Theodosius and the imperial family are separated from the nobles among the spectators in the [[imperial box]], with a cover over them as a mark of their status.<ref name="Linda Safran"/> From the perspective of style, it has served as "the key monument in identifying a so-called Theodosian court style, which is usually described as a "renaissance" of earlier Roman classicism".<ref name="Linda Safran"/>{{rp|411}}
[[File:Theodosius colum, Istanbul.jpg|thumb|Theodosius offers a [[laurel wreath]] to the victor, on the marble base of the Obelisk of [[Thutmosis III]] at the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople]].]]

==Religious policy==
{{See also|Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation}}

===Arianism and orthodoxy===
{{Coatrack section|date=April 2025|details=the first five paragraphs are dedicated to theology and little about Theodosius}}
[[File:Homilies of Gregory the Theologian gr. 510, f 491.jpg|thumb|Theodosius appointing [[Gregory of Nazianzus]] as [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch]] in 380. Scene from the 9th-century [[Paris Gregory]].]]
It is traditionally stated that the Arian Controversy, a dispute concerning the nature of the divine trinity, and its accompanying struggles for political influence, started in Alexandria during the reign of [[Constantine the Great]] between a presbyter, [[Arius]] of Alexandria, and his bishop, Alexander of Alexandria. However, “many of the issues raised by the controversy were under lively discussion ''before'' Arius and Alexander publicly clashed.”<ref>Hanson, Richard Patrick Crosland (1988). ''The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy'', 318–381. T. & T. Clark. p. 52 {{ISBN?}}</ref> “The views of Arius were such as … to bring into unavoidable prominence a doctrinal crisis which had gradually been gathering. … He was the spark that started the explosion. But in himself he was of ''no great significance''.”<ref>Hanson, Richard Patrick Crosland (1988). ''The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy'', 318–381. T. & T. Clark. p. xvii</ref>

It is also traditionally stated that Alexander represented orthodoxy and that, when he died, his successor, Athanasius, became the representative of orthodoxy. In reality, “Nicene apologists … turn ‘Arianism' into a self-conscious sect – as if the boundaries of Catholic identity were firmly and clearly drawn in advance. But the whole history of Arius and of Arianism reminds us that this was not so.”<ref>Williams, Rowan, ''Arius: Heresy and Tradition'' (Revised ed.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. (2002), p. 83 {{ISBN?}}</ref> (RW, 83) The Arian Controversy "is not the story of a defence of orthodoxy, but of a ''search'' for orthodoxy."<ref>Hanson, Richard Patrick Crosland (1988). ''The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy'', 318–381. T. & T. Clark. pp. xix–xx {{ISBN?}}</ref>

Arius asserted that God the Father created the Son. This meant the Son, though still seen as divine, was not equal to the Father, because he had a beginning, and was not eternal. "The controversy had spread from Alexandria into almost all the African regions and was considered a disturbance of the public order by the Roman Empire." (Eusebius of Caesarea in [[Life of Constantine|The Life of Constantine]])

Constantine had tried to settle the issues at the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]], but as [[Arnold Hugh Martin Jones]] states: "The rules laid down at Nicaea were not universally accepted".<ref name="Arnold Hugh Martin Jones">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Arnold Hugh Martin |title=The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social Economic and Administrative Survey|volume=2 |date=1986 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-8018-3354-0 |page=880 |edition=Reprint}}</ref> After the [[Nicene Creed]] was formulated in 325, many in the church reacted strongly against the word "[[Homoousion|''homoousios'']]" in the Creed, and therefore Councils at Ariminum (Rimini), Nike (southeast of Adrianople), and Constantinople, held in 359–60 by Emperor Constantius II, formulated creeds that were intended to replace or revise the Nicene Creed; in particular, to find alternatives for "homoousios." These councils are no longer regarded as Ecumenical Councils in the tradition of the Church; their creeds, which are at odds with the Nicene Creed, are known as [[Arian creeds|Arian Creeds]].

During this time, [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]] was at the center of the controversy and became the "champion of orthodoxy" after Alexander died.<ref name="Ray">{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=J. David|title=Nicea and its aftermath: A Historical Survey of the First Ecumenical Council and the Ensuing Conflicts|journal=Ashland Theological Journal| year=2007| url=https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/ashland_theological_journal/39-1_019.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|28–29, 31}} To Athanasius, Arius's interpretation of Jesus's nature ([[Homoiousian]]), that the Father and Son are similar but not identical in substance, could not explain how Jesus could accomplish the redemption of humankind which is the foundational principle of Christianity. "According to Athanasius, God had to become human so that humans could become divine ... That led him to conclude that the divine nature in Jesus was identical to that of the Father, and that Father and Son have the same substance" (''[[Homoousian|homoousios]]'').<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=The Arian controversy|author1-last=Stefon|author1-first=Matt|author2-last=Hillerbrand|author2-first= Hans|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christology/The-Arian-controversy|access-date=16 May 2021|encyclopedia= Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Athanasius's teaching was a major influence in the West, especially on Theodosius I.<ref name="Olson">{{cite book|last=Olson|first=Roger E.|title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition and Reform |publisher=InterVarsity Press |location=Downer's Grove, IN|year=1999|page=172|isbn=978-0-8308-1505-0}}</ref>{{rp|20}}

On 28 February 380, Theodosius, along with [[Gratian]] and Valentinian II, issued the [[Edict of Thessalonica]], a decree addressed to the city of [[Constantinople]], determining that only Christians who believed in the [[consubstantiality]] of [[God the Father]], [[God the Son|Son]] and [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] could style themselves "[[Catholicity|catholic]]" and have their own places of worship officially recognized as "churches"; deviants were labeled heretics and described as "out of their minds and insane".{{sfn|Errington|2006|p=217}}{{sfn|Sáry|2019| p=70}}{{efn-lr|This text has been translated to English by Clyde Pharr in the following way: Emperors Gratian, Valentinian, and Theodosius Augustuses An Edict to the People of the City of Constantinople. It is Our will that all the peoples who are ruled by the administration of Our Clemency shall practice that religion which the divine Peter the Apostle transmitted to the Romans, as the religion which he introduced makes clear even unto this day. It is evident that this is the religion that is followed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic sanctity; that is, according to the apostolic discipline and the evangelic doctrine, we shall believe in the single Deity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, under the concept of equal majesty and of the Holy Trinity. We command that those persons who follow this rule shall embrace the name of Catholic Christians. The rest, however, whom We adjudge demented and insane, shall sustain the infamy of heretical dogmas, their meeting places shall not receive the name of churches, and they shall be smitten first by divine vengeance and secondly by the retribution of Our own initiative, which We shall assume in accordance with the divine judgment. Given on the third day before the kalends of March at Thessalonica in the year of the fifth consulship of Gratian Augustus and the first consulship of Theodosius Augustus. – 28 February 380.<ref>C. Pharr (tr.), ''The Theodosian Code and Novels and the Sirmondian Constitutions'', (Princeton, 1952), 440.</ref>}}

Recent scholarship has tended to reject former views that the edict was a key step in establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Empire, since it was aimed exclusively at Constantinople and seems to have gone largely unnoticed by contemporaries outside the capital.{{sfn|Errington|1997|pp=410–415}}{{sfn|Hebblewhite|p=82}} For example, German ancient historian {{ill|Karl Leo Noethlichs|de}} writes that the Edict of Thessalonica was neither anti-pagan nor [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]]; it did not declare Christianity to be the official religion of the empire; and it gave no advantage to Christians over other faiths.{{sfn|Sáry|2019|pp=72–74; fn. 32, 33, 34; 77}} It is clear from mandates issued in the years after 380 that Theodosius had made no requirement for pagans or Jews to convert to Christianity.{{sfn|Sáry|2019|p=73}}{{efn-lr| Hungarian legal scholar Pál Sáry explains that, "In 393, the emperor was gravely disturbed that the Jewish assemblies had been forbidden in certain places. For this reason, he stated with emphasis that the sect of the Jews was forbidden by no law. It is also important to note that during the reign of Theodosius pagans were continuously appointed to prominent positions and pagan aristocrats remained in high offices."{{sfn|Sáry|2019| p=73}} The Edict applied only to Christians, and within that group, only to Arians.{{sfn|Sáry|2019|pp=73, 77}} It declared those Christians who refused the Nicene faith to be ''infames'', and prohibited them from using Christian churches. Sáry uses this example: "After his arrival in Constantinople, Theodosius offered to confirm the Arian bishop Demophilus in his see, if he would accept the Nicene Creed. After Demophilus refused the offer, the emperor immediately directed him to surrender all his churches to the Catholics."{{sfn|Sáry|2019| p=79}} Christianity became the religion of the Late Empire through a long evolutionary process, of which the Edict of Thessalonica was only a small part.{{sfn|Sáry|2019|pp=77, 78–79}}}} Nonetheless, the edict is the first known secular Roman law to positively define a religious orthodoxy.{{sfn|Errington|2006|p=217}}

According to [[Robinson Thornton]], Theodosius began taking steps to repress Arianism immediately after his baptism in 380.<ref name="Robinson Thornton">{{cite book |last1=Thornton |first1=Robinson |title=St. Ambrose: His Life, Times, and Teaching |date=1879 |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref>{{rp|39}} On 26 November 380, two days after he had arrived in Constantinople, Theodosius expelled the Homoian bishop, [[Demophilus of Constantinople]], and appointed [[Meletius of Antioch|Meletius]] patriarch of Antioch, and [[Gregory of Nazianzus]], one of the [[Cappadocian Fathers]] from [[Cappadocia]] (today in Turkey), patriarch of Constantinople. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop [[Ascholius|Ascholius of Thessalonica]], during a severe illness.{{sfn|Glenn|1995|p=164}}

In May 381, Theodosius summoned [[First Council of Constantinople|a new ecumenical council at Constantinople]] to repair the schism between East and West on the basis of Nicene orthodoxy.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=54}} The council went on to define orthodoxy, including the Third Person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit, as equal to the Father and 'proceeding' from Him.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=55}} The council also "condemned the Apollonarian and Macedonian heresies, clarified jurisdictions of the bishops according to the civil boundaries of dioceses. and ruled that Constantinople was second in precedence to Rome."{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=55}}
[[File:Head of Aphrodite (National Archaeological Museum of Athens, 1-31-2023).jpg|thumb|291x291px|Head of the Greek goddess [[Aphrodite]] with a cross carved into its forehead. Theodosius I supported anti-pagan policies during his reign in favor of [[Nicene Christianity]] as the official state religion.]]

===Policy towards paganism===
{{main|Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I}}

{{See also|Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire}}
Theodosius seems to have adopted a cautious policy toward traditional non-Christian cults, reiterating his Christian predecessors' bans on animal sacrifice, divination, and apostasy, while allowing other pagan practices to be performed publicly and temples to remain open.{{sfn|Kahlos|p=35 (and note 45)}}{{sfn|Errington|2006|pp=245, 251}}{{sfn|Woods|2023|loc=Religious Policy}} He also voiced his support for the preservation of temple buildings, but nonetheless failed to prevent the damaging of many holy sites, images and objects of piety by Christian zealots, some including even his own officials.{{sfn|Woods|2023|loc=Religious Policy}}{{sfn|Errington|2006|p=249}}{{sfn|MacMullen|1984|p=90}} Theodosius also turned pagan holidays into workdays, but the festivals associated with them continued.{{sfn|Graf|pp=229–232}} A number of laws against paganism were issued towards the end of his reign, in 391 and 392, but historians have tended to downplay their practical effects and even the emperor's direct role in them.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|pp=330–333}}{{sfn|Errington|2006|pp=247–248}}{{sfn|Woods|2023|loc=Religious Policy}} Modern scholars think there is little if any evidence Theodosius pursued an active and sustained policy against the traditional cults.{{sfn|Hebblewhite|loc=chapter 8}}{{sfn|Cameron|pp=65–66}}{{sfn|Errington|2006|pp=248–249, 251}}

There is evidence that Theodosius took care to prevent the empire's still substantial pagan population from feeling ill-disposed toward his rule. Following the death in 388 of his praetorian prefect, [[Maternus Cynegius|Cynegius]], who had vandalized a number of pagan shrines in the eastern provinces, Theodosius replaced him with a moderate pagan who subsequently moved to protect the temples.<ref name="Trombley">Trombley, Frank R. Hellenic Religion and Christianization, c. 370–529. Netherlands, Brill Academic Publishers, 2001. {{ISBN?}}</ref>{{rp|53}}{{sfn|Hebblewhite|loc=chapter 8}}{{sfn|Cameron|p=57}} During his first official tour of Italy (389–391), the emperor won over the influential pagan lobby in the Roman Senate by appointing its foremost members to important administrative posts.{{sfn|Cameron|pp=56, 64}} Theodosius also nominated the last pair of pagan consuls in Roman history ([[Eutolmius Tatianus|Tatianus]] and [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus Eusebius|Symmachus]]) in 391.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|p=317}}

====Temple destruction====
{{further information|Christianity and paganism#Temple destruction{{!}} Temple destruction}}
Contemporary archaeology has found that the area with the most destruction against temples by Christians took place in the territory around Constantinople in the diocese of Orientis (the East) under Theodosius's prefect, Maternus Cynegius, where archaeological digs have discovered several destroyed temples. Theodosius officially supported temple preservation, but [[Garth Fowden]] says Cynegius did not limit himself to Theodosius's official policy, but instead, commissioned temple destruction on a wide scale, even employing the military under his command for this purpose.<ref name="Garth Fowden">{{cite journal |last1=Fowden |first1=Garth |title=Bishops and Temples in the Eastern Roman Empire A.D. 320–435 |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |date=1978 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=53–78 |publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/jts/XXIX.1.53 |jstor=23960254}}</ref>{{rp|63}}{{sfn|Bayliss|p=67}} Christopher Haas also says Cynegius oversaw temple closings, the prohibition of sacrifices, and the destruction of temples in Osrhoene, Carrhae, and Beroea.<ref name="Haas2002">{{cite book |last1=Haas |first1=Christopher |title=Alexandria in Late Antiquity Topography and Social Conflict |date=2002 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0801870330}}</ref>{{rp|160–162}}

Earlier scholars believed Cynegius's actions were just part of a tide of violence against temples that continued throughout the 390s.<ref name="Brownpowerandpersuasion"/>{{rp|114}} <ref name="Saradi-Mendelovici">{{cite journal |last=Saradi-Mendelovici |first=Helen |title=Christian Attitudes toward Pagan Monuments in Late Antiquity and Their Legacy in Later Byzantine Centuries |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=44 |date=1990 |pages=47–61 |doi=10.2307/1291617 |jstor=1291617}}</ref>{{rp|47}}<ref name="Grindle1892pp29-30">Grindle, Gilbert (1892) ''The Destruction of Paganism in the Roman Empire'', pp. 29–30.</ref><ref name="LifeStMartin">{{cite web|title=Life of St. Martin |url=http://www.users.csbsju.edu/~eknuth/npnf2-11/sulpitiu/lifeofst.html#14|website=www.users.csbsju.edu|access-date=9 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909225230/http://www.users.csbsju.edu/~eknuth/npnf2-11/sulpitiu/lifeofst.html#14|archive-date=9 September 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Gibbonch28">Gibbon, Edward  ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', ch. 28</ref><ref name="CathEnc1912Theophilus">[[Catholic Encyclopedia]] (1912) article on ''Theophilus'', New Advent Web Site.</ref> However, recent archaeological discoveries have undermined this view. The archaeological evidence for the violent destruction of temples in the fourth and early fifth centuries around the entire Mediterranean is limited to a handful of sites. Temple destruction is attested to in 43 cases in the written sources, but only 4 of them were confirmed by archaeological evidence.{{sfn|Lavan|Mulryan|2011|p=xxiv}} Trombley and MacMullen say part of what creates this discrepancy are details in the historical sources that are commonly ambiguous and unclear.<ref>Trombley, F. R. 1995a. Hellenic Religion and Christianization, c. 370–529. New York. I. 166-8, II. 335–336</ref> For example, Malalas claimed Constantine destroyed all the temples, then he said Theodosius did, then he said Constantine converted them all to churches.<ref Name="Trombley"/>{{rp|246–282}}{{sfn|Bayliss|p=110}} There is no evidence of any desire on the part of the emperor to institute a systematic destruction of temples anywhere in the Theodosian Code, and no evidence in the archaeological record that extensive temple destruction ever took place.{{sfn|Lavan|Mulryan|2011|p=xxx}}<ref name="Garth Fowden"/>{{rp|63}}{{sfn|MacMullen|1984}}

====Theodosian decrees====
According to ''[[The Cambridge Ancient History]]'', the [[Codex Theodosianus|Theodosian Law Code]] is a set of laws, originally dated from Constantine to Theodosius I, that were gathered together, organized by theme, and reissued throughout the empire between 389 and 391.<ref>Curran, John (1998). "From Jovian to Theodosius". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. XIII (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 78–110. {{ISBN|978-0521302005}}.</ref>  [[Jill Harries]] explains that, in their original forms, these laws were created by different emperors and governors to resolve the issues of a particular place at a particular time. They were not intended as general laws.{{sfn|Harries|Wood|1993|pp=5–16|loc="Introduction"'}}  Local politics and culture had produced divergent attitudes, and as a result, these laws present a series of conflicting opinions: for example, some laws called for the complete destruction of the temples and others for their preservation.<ref name="Saradi-Mendelovici"/>{{rp|47}} French historian of Antiquity, {{ill|Philippe Fleury|fr}}, observes that ''[[Ammianus Marcellinus]]'' says this legal complexity produced corruption, forgery of rescripts, falsified appeals, and costly judicial delays.<ref name="Fleury">Philippe Fleury. Les textes techniques de l’Antiquité. Sources, études et perspectives. Euphrosyne. Revista de filologia clássica, 1990, pp. 359–394. ffhal-01609488f</ref>

The Theodosian Law Code has long been one of the principal historical sources for the study of Late Antiquity.<ref name="Lepelly">Lepelley, C. 1992. "The survival and fall of the classical city in Late Roman Africa". In J. Rich (ed.) ''The City in Late Antiquity''. London and New York, pp. 50–76.</ref> Gibbon described the Theodosian decrees, in his ''Memoires'', as a work of history rather than jurisprudence.<ref>Roland Quinault, [[Rosamond McKitterick]]. Edward Gibbon and Empire. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-521-52505-3}} p. 25</ref> Brown says the language of these laws is uniformly vehement, and penalties are harsh and frequently horrifying, leading some historians, such as [[Ramsay MacMullen]], to see them as a 'declaration of war' on traditional religious practices.<ref name="Ramsay MacMullen1981">{{cite book |last1=MacMullen |first1=Ramsay |title=Paganism in the Roman Empire |date=1981 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-02984-0 |edition=unabridged}}</ref>{{rp|100}}<ref name="Brownconflict">Brown, Peter. "Christianization and religious conflict". The Cambridge Ancient History 13 (1998): 337–425.</ref>{{rp|638}} It is a common belief the laws marked a turning point in the decline of paganism.<ref name="Trombley"/>{{rp|12}}

Yet, many contemporary scholars such as Lepelly, Brown and Cameron, question the use of the Code, a legal document, not an actual historical work, for understanding history.<ref name="Lepelly"/>{{sfn|Harries|Wood|1993|pp=95|loc="Introductory Note"}} One of many problems with using the Theodosian Code as a record of history is described by archaeologists Luke Lavan and Michael Mulryan. They explain that the Code can be seen to document "Christian ambition" but not historic reality.{{sfn|Lavan|Mulryan|2011|p=xxii}}<ref name="Lepelly"/> The overtly violent fourth century that one would expect to find from taking the laws at face value is not supported by archaeological evidence from around the Mediterranean.<ref name="Mulryan">{{cite journal|last=Mulryan|first=Michael|title='Paganism' In Late Antiquity: Regional Studies And Material Culture|journal=Brill|year=2011|pages=41–86|isbn=9789004210394 |url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004210394/Bej.9789004192379.i-643_003.xml}}</ref>{{rp|41}}{{sfn|Lavan|Mulryan|2011|pp=xxi, 138}}{{sfn|Errington|1997|p=398}}

====End of paganism====
The picture of Theodosius as "the most pious emperor", who presided over the end of paganism through the aggressive application of law and coercion – a view which [[Robert Malcolm Errington|R. Malcolm Errington]]  says "has dominated the European historical tradition almost to this day" – was first written by Theodoret who, in Errington's view, had a habit of ignoring facts and cherry picking.{{sfn|Errington|1997|p=409}} In the centuries following his death, Theodosius gained a reputation as the champion of orthodoxy and the vanquisher of paganism, but modern historians see this as a later interpretation of history by Christian writers rather than actual history.{{sfn|Errington|2006|pp=248–249}}{{sfn|Cameron|p=74}}{{sfn|Hebblewhite|loc=chapter 8}}{{Efn-lr|Cameron explains that, since Theodosius's predecessors [[Constantine I|Constantine]], [[Constantius II|Constantius]], and [[Valens]] had all been [[semi-Arian]]s, it fell to the orthodox Theodosius to receive from Christian literary tradition most of the credit for the final triumph of Christianity.{{sfn|Cameron|p=74 (and note 177)}} Numerous literary sources, both Christian and even pagan, attributed to Theodosius – probably mistakenly, possibly intentionally – initiatives such as the withdrawal of state funding to pagan cults (this measure belongs to [[Gratian]]) and the demolition of temples (for which there is no primary evidence in the law codes or  archaeology).{{sfn|Cameron|pp=46–47, 72}} Theodosius has long been associated with the ending of the Vestal virgins, but twenty-first century scholarship asserts they continued until 415 and suffered no more under Theodosius than they had since Gratian restricted their finances.{{sfn|Testa|2007|p=260}}

Theodosius also probably did not discontinue the [[ancient Olympic Games]], whose last recorded celebration was in 393. Archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held after this date.<ref name="Perrottet2004">{{cite book|author=Tony Perrottet|title=The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games|url=https://archive.org/details/nakedolympicstru00perr|url-access=registration|access-date=1 April 2013|year= 2004|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|isbn=978-1-58836-382-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nakedolympicstru00perr/page/190 190]–}}</ref><ref>Hamlet, Ingomar. "Theodosius I. And The Olympic Games". Nikephoros 17 (2004): pp. 53–75.</ref> {{ill|Sofie Remijsen|nl}} says there are several reasons to conclude the Olympic games continued after Theodosius I, and came to an end under [[Theodosius II]], by accident, instead. There are two extant scholia on Lucian that connect the end of the games with a fire that burned down the temple of the [[Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens|Olympian Zeus]] during Theodosius II's reign.<ref name="Remijsen">{{cite book |last1=Remijsen |first1=Sofie |title=The End of Greek Athletics in Late Antiquity |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>{{rp|49}} }}

An increase in the variety and abundance of sources has brought about the reinterpretation of religion of this era.{{sfn|Kahlos|p=2}} According to Salzman: "Although the debate on the death of paganism continues, scholars ...by and large, concur that the once dominant notion of overt pagan-Christian religious conflict cannot fully explain the texts and artifacts or the social, religious, and political realities of Late Antique Rome".<ref name="Sághy">''Pagans and Christians in Late Antique Rome: Conflict, Competition, and Coexistence in the Fourth Century''. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2016. {{ISBN?}}</ref>{{rp|2}}

Scholars agree that Theodosius gathered copious legislation on religious subjects, and that he continued the practices of his predecessors, prohibiting sacrifices with the intent of divining the future in December of 380, issuing a decree against heretics on 10 January 381, and an edict against [[Manichaeism]] in May of that same year.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}}<ref name="Tilley1996">{{cite book |editor1-last=Tilley |editor1-first=Maureen A. |title=Donatist Martyr Stories The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa |date=1996 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-0-85323-931-4}}</ref>{{rp|xxiv}} Theodosius convened the [[First Council of Constantinople]], the second [[ecumenical council]] after Constantine's [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325; and the Constantinopolitan council which ended on 9 July.{{Sfn|Kienast|pp=323–326|loc="Theodosius I"}} What is important about this, according to Errington, is how much this 'copious legislation' was applied and used, which would show how dependable it is as a reflection of actual history.{{sfn|Errington|1997|p=398}}

Brown asserts that Christians still comprised a minority of the overall population, and local authorities were still mostly pagan and lax in imposing anti-pagan laws; even Christian bishops frequently obstructed their application.{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=639}} Harries says, "The contents of the Code provide details from the canvas but are an unreliable guide, in isolation, to the character of the picture as a whole".{{sfn|Harries|Wood|1993|pp=95|loc="Introductory Note"}} Previously undervalued similarities in language, society, religion, and the arts, as well as current archaeological research, indicate paganism slowly declined, and that it was not forcefully overthrown by Theodosius I in the fourth century.<ref name="OHLA-2015">''The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity''. United Kingdom, Oxford University Press, 2015.</ref>{{rp|xv}}

Maijastina Kahlos writes that the fourth century Roman empire contained a wide variety of religions, cults, sects, beliefs and practices and they all generally co-existed without incident.{{sfn|Kahlos|p=3}} Coexistence did occasionally lead to violence, but such outbreaks were relatively infrequent and localized.{{sfn|Kahlos|p=3}} [[Jan N. Bremmer]] says that "religious violence in Late Antiquity is mostly restricted to violent rhetoric: 'in Antiquity, not all religious violence was that religious, and not all religious violence was that violent'".<ref name="Bremmer">{{cite book|author-last=Bremmer|author-first=Jan N. |editor1-last=Raschle |editor1-first=Christian R. |editor2-last=Dijkstra |editor2-first=Jitse H. F. |title=Religious Violence in the Ancient World From Classical Athens to Late Antiquity |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-84921-0|chapter=2}}</ref>{{rp|9}}

The Christian church believed that victory over "false gods" had begun with Jesus and was completed through the conversion of Constantine; it was a victory that took place in heaven, rather than on earth, since Christians were only about 15–18% of the empire's population in the early 300s.<ref name="Stark1996">{{cite book |last1=Stark |first1=Rodney |title=The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History |date=1996 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02749-4 |edition=1st}}</ref>{{rp|7}}{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=xxxii}} Brown indicates that, as a result of this "triumphalism," paganism was seen as vanquished, and Salzman adds that judging by the sheer number of laws, heresy was a much higher priority than paganism for Christians in the fourth and fifth centuries.{{sfn|Brown|1993|p=90}}{{sfn|Brown|1998|pp=634, 640, 651}}<ref name="Salzman2">{{cite journal |last=Salzman |first=Michele Renee |title=The Evidence for the Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity in Book 16 of the 'Theodosian Code' |journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte |volume=42 |issue=3 |date=1993 |pages=362–378 |jstor=4436297}}</ref>{{rp|375}}

Lavan says Christian writers gave the narrative of victory high visibility, but that it does not necessarily correlate to actual conversion rates. There are many signs that a healthy paganism continued into the fifth century, and in some places, into the sixth and beyond.<ref name="Boin">Boin, Douglas. A Social and Cultural History of Late Antiquity. United Kingdom, Wiley, 2018.</ref>{{rp|108–110}}{{sfn|Cameron|pp=4, 112}}{{sfn|Lavan|Mulryan|2011|p=8}}<ref name="Irmscher">{{cite journal|last=Irmscher |first=Johannes|year=1988|title=Non-christians and sectarians under Justinian: the fate of the inculpated |publisher=Parcourir les Collections |journal=Collection de l'Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l'Antiquité|volume=367|pages=165–167|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ista_0000-0000_1988_ant_367_1_1722}}</ref>{{Rp|165–167}}<ref name="Mulryan"/>{{rp|41, 156}} According to Brown, Christians objected to anything that called the triumphal narrative into question, and that included the mistreatment of non-Christians. Archaeology indicates that in most regions away from the imperial court, the end of paganism was both gradual and untraumatic.<ref name="Mulryan"/>{{rp|156, 221}}<ref name="Sághy"/>{{rp|5, 41}} The ''Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity'' says that "Torture and murder were not the inevitable result of the rise of Christianity."<ref name="OHLA-2015"/>{{rp|861}} Instead, there was fluidity in the boundaries between the communities and "coexistence with a competitive spirit."<ref name="Sághy"/>{{rp|7}} Brown says that "In most areas, polytheists were not molested, and, apart from a few ugly incidents of local violence, Jewish communities also enjoyed a century of stable, even privileged, existence."{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=643}}

While conceding that Theodosius's reign may have been a watershed in the decline of the old religions, Cameron downplays the role of the emperor's 'copious legislation' as limited in effect, and writes that Theodosius did 'certainly not' ban paganism.{{sfn|Cameron|pp=60, 65, 68–73}} In his 2020 biography of Theodosius, Mark Hebblewhite concludes that Theodosius never saw or advertised himself as a destroyer of the old cults; rather, the emperor's efforts to promote Christianity were cautious,{{sfn|Errington|2006|p=251}} 'targeted, tactical, and nuanced', and intended to prevent political instability and religious discord.{{sfn|Hebblewhite|loc=chapter 8}}

==See also==
{{portal|Byzantine Empire}}
* [[Battle of Frigidus]]
* ''[[Edict of Thessalonica|De fide Catolica]]''
* [[Galla Placidia]], daughter of Theodosius
* [[List of Byzantine emperors]]
* [[Roman emperors family tree]]
* [[Saint Fana]]
* [[Serena (wife of Stilicho)|Serena]], niece of Theodosius and wife of [[Flavius Stilicho]]
* [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], pagan historian from the time of [[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius I]]

==Notes==
{{notelist-lr}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|30em}}

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==Further reading==
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Theodosius (emperors)|volume=26|first=Maximilian Otto Bismarck|last=Caspari}}
* Brown, Peter (2003). ''The Rise of Western Christendom'', pp.&nbsp;73–74
* Burns, Thomas S. (1994). ''Barbarians within the Gates of Rome. A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians (ca. 375–425)''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, {{ISBN|0-253-31288-4}}.
* Ernesti, Jörg (1998). ''Princeps Christianus und Kaiser aller Römer. Theodosius der Große im Lichte zeitgenössischer Quellen'' [Princeps Christianus and Emperor of all Romans. Theodosius the Great in the Light of the contemporary Sources]. Paderborn: Schöningh, {{ISBN|3-506-76275-3}}.
* King, N.Q. (1961). ''The Emperor Theodosius and the Establishment of Christianity.'' SCM Press: London.
* Leppin, Hartmut (2003). ''Theodosius der Große. Auf dem Weg zum christlichen Imperium'' [Theodosius the Great. On the Way to the christian Empire]. Darmstadt: Primus, {{ISBN|3-89678-471-4}}.
* {{cite DCBL|wstitle=Theodosius I., the Great|first=George Thomas|last= Stokes}}

==External links==
* {{BBKL|t/theodosios_r_k_i|band=11|autor=Josef Rist|artikel=Theodosios I., römischer Kaiser (379–395)|spalten=989–994}}
* This [http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/imperial-laws-364/ list of Roman laws of the fourth century] shows laws passed by Theodosius I relating to Christianity.

{{S-start}}
{{S-reg}}
{{S-bef |before= [[Gratian]] and [[Valens]]}}
{{S-ttl |title = [[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]
        |years = 379–395
        |with  = [[Gratian]], [[Valentinian II]], Honorius,<br/>[[Magnus Maximus]], [[Victor (emperor)|Victor]], [[Eugenius]], Arcadius}}
{{S-aft |after = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] and [[Arcadius]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef |before= [[Ausonius]] |before2=[[Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius|Q. Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius]]}}
{{s-ttl |title = [[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] |years=380 |regent1=[[Gratian|Gratian Augustus]] V}}
{{s-aft |after = [[Syagrius (consul 381)|Syagrius]]|after2=[[Flavius Julius Eucherius|Eucherius]]}}
{{s-bef |before= [[Valentinian II|Valentinian Augustus]] III|before2=[[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]]}}
{{s-ttl |title = [[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] II| years=388 |regent1=[[Maternus Cynegius]]}}
{{s-aft |after = [[Timasius]] |after2=[[Promotus]]}}
{{s-bef |before= [[Arcadius|Arcadius Augustus]] II|before2=[[Rufinus (consul 392)|Rufinus]]}}
{{s-ttl |title = [[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] III|years=393 |regent1=[[Abundantius (consul)|Abundantius]]}}
{{s-aft |after = [[Arcadius|Arcadius Augustus]] III |after2=[[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] II}}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Theodosius 01}}
[[Category:Theodosius I| ]]
[[Category:347 births]]
[[Category:395 deaths]]
[[Category:4th-century Christians]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman consuls]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans in Britain]]
[[Category:Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles]]
[[Category:Byzantine royal saints]]
[[Category:Deified Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Christian royal saints]]
[[Category:Gothic War (376–382)]]
[[Category:People excommunicated by Christian churches]]
[[Category:Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Romans from Hispania]]
[[Category:Theodosian dynasty]]
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