View source for The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

{{Short description|1872 book by Charles Darwin}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox book
| name          = The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
| image         = Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals title page.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| caption       =
| author        = [[Charles Darwin]]
| illustrator   = 
| country       = United Kingdom 
| cover_artist  =
| language      = English
| subject       = [[Evolutionary theory]], [[human behaviour]]
| publisher     = [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]]
| pub_date      = 1872
| media_type    =
| pages         =
| preceded_by   =
| followed_by   =
}}

'''''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals''''' is [[Charles Darwin|Charles Darwin's]] third major work of evolutionary theory, following ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' (1859) and ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' (1871). Initially intended as a chapter in ''Descent of Man'', ''Expression'' grew in length and was published separately in 1872. Darwin explores the biological aspects of emotional behaviour and the [[Evolution of emotion|animal origins of human characteristics]] like smiling and frowning, shrugging shoulders, lifting eyebrows in surprise, and the baring of teeth in an angry sneer.

A German translation of ''Expression'' appeared in 1872, and Dutch and French versions followed in 1873 and 1874. Though ''Expression'' has never been out of print since its first publication,{{Source needed|date=July 2024}} it has also been described as Darwin's "forgotten masterpiece".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abed |first1=Riadh |last2=St John-Smith |first2=Paul |year=2023 |title=The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals : Darwin's forgotten masterpiece |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S2056467823000464/type/journal_article |journal=BJPsych Advances |language=en |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=192–194 |doi=10.1192/bja.2023.46 |issn=2056-4678|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Darwin's Other Masterpiece |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/darwins-other-masterpiece |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Discover Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Psychologist [[Paul Ekman]] has argued that ''Expression'' is the foundational text for modern scientific psychology.

Before Darwin, human emotional life had posed problems to the traditional philosophical categories of [[Mind–body problem|''mind'' and ''body'']].<ref>see, for example, [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre, Jean-Paul]] (1971) ''Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions'' (with a Preface by [[Mary Warnock, Baroness Warnock|Mary Warnock]]) London: Methuen & Co., originally published (1939) as ''Esquisse d'une théorie des émotions''.{{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=June 2020}}</ref><ref>[[Robert M. Young (academic)|Young, Robert M.]] (1970) ''Mind, Brain and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century'' Oxford: Clarendon Press; reprinted (1990) in ''History of Neuroscience Series'' New York: OUP. {{isbn|9781280524868}}. {{page needed|date=June 2020}}</ref> Darwin's interest in the subject can be traced to his time as an Edinburgh medical student and the 1824 edition of ''Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression'' by [[Charles Bell]], which argued for a spiritual dimension to the subject. In contrast, Darwin's biological approach links emotions to their origins in animal behaviour and allows cultural factors only an auxiliary role in shaping the expression of emotion. This biological emphasis highlights six different emotional states: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust. It also appreciates the universal nature of expression, implying a shared [[Human evolution|evolutionary]] heritage for the entire human species. Darwin also points to the [[Attachment theory|importance of emotional communication]] with children in their psychological development.

Darwin sought out the opinions of some leading psychiatrists, notably [[James Crichton-Browne]], in preparation for the book, which forms his main contribution to [[psychology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |title=The expression of the emotions in man and animals |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511271-9 |editor-last=Ekman |editor-first=Paul |edition=3rd |location=New York Oxford}}</ref>

The book's development involved several innovations: Darwin circulated a questionnaire during his preparatory research; simple psychology experiments on the recognition of emotions with his friends and family;<ref>Snyder, Peter J. ''et al'' (2010) Charles Darwin's Emotional Expression "Experiment" and His Contribution to Modern Neuropharmacology ''Journal of the History of Neurosciences'', '''19:2''', pp. 158–70</ref> and (like [[Guillaume Duchenne de Boulogne|Duchenne de Boulogne]], a physician at the [[Salpêtrière|Salpêtrière Hospital]]) he uses photography in his presentation of scientific information. Darwin's publisher warned him that including the photographs would "make a hole in the profits" of the book.<ref name=":1" />

''Expression'' is also a landmark in the history of book illustration.

==The book's development: biographical aspects==

[[File:Expression of the Emotions Figure 21.png|left|thumb|Figure 21, "Horror and Agony", from a photograph by Guillaume Duchenne de Boulogne ([[commons:The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals|more images]])]]

=== Background ===

In the weeks before [[Coronation of Queen Victoria|Queen Victoria's coronation]] in 1838, Charles Darwin sought medical advice for his [[Charles Darwin's health|mysterious physical symptoms]]. He then travelled to Scotland for rest and a "geologising expedition" but also revisited the old haunts of his undergraduate days. On the day of the coronation, 28 June 1838, Darwin was in [[Edinburgh]]. Two weeks later, he opened a private notebook—''Notebook M''—for philosophical speculation, and, over the next three months, filled it with his ideas about hereditary influences on the psychological aspects of life.<ref name="Barrett 1980 p">{{Cite book |last1=Darwin |first1=Charles |title=Metaphysics, Materialism, & the evolution of mind: the early writings of Charles Darwin |last2=Barrett |first2=Paul H. |last3=Gruber |first3=Howard E. |date=1980 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-13659-2 |location=Chicago |at=p. xii}}</ref> Darwin also made his first attempt at autobiography in August 1838.<ref>Darwin, Charles (2002) ''Autobiographies'', edited by Michael Neve and Sharon Messenger, and introduced by Michael Neve. London: Penguin Classics. In his ''Introduction'' (pp. ix–xxiii), Neve makes a detailed survey of this complex area of Darwin's psychological life.</ref>

Darwin fully grasps his conception of [[natural selection]] towards the end of September 1838, after encountering the sixth edition of the ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population|Essay on Population]]'' (1826) by [[Thomas Malthus]].<ref name="Barrett 1980 p" /><ref>Ospovat, Dov (1981) ''The Development of Darwin's Theory''  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</ref><ref>[[Ernst Mayr|Mayr, Ernst]] (1991) ''One Long Argument: Charles Darwin and the genesis of modern evolutionary thought''   Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press</ref> However, Malthus and his essay are strangely unmentioned in ''Notebook M''.

In ''Notebook M'', Darwin describes conversations with his father—a successful doctor with a special interest in psychiatric problems—about recurring patterns of behavior in successive generations of his patients' families. [[Howard Gruber]] comments that these passages are suggestive concerning the genetics of emotions and thought, and there is emphasis on the continuity between sane and insane.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Darwin |first1=Charles |title=Metaphysics, Materialism, & the evolution of mind: the early writings of Charles Darwin |last2=Barrett |first2=Paul H. |last3=Gruber |first3=Howard E. |date=1980 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-13659-2 |location=Chicago |pages=6–37, 47–48}}</ref>

Darwin was concerned about the materialistic drift in his thinking and the suspicions this might arouse in early [[Victorian England]]. At the time, he was mentally preparing for marriage with his cousin [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]], who held firm Christian beliefs. On 21 September 1838, ''Notebook M'' discloses a "confusing" dream where Darwin found himself involved in a public execution; the corpse had come to life and joked about not running away and facing death like a hero.<ref>Browne, E. Janet (1995) ''Charles Darwin: Voyaging'', London: [[Jonathan Cape]], pp. 383–84.</ref>

Darwin assembled the central features of his evolutionary theory while developing an appreciation of human behavior and family life; during this period, he was experiencing significant emotional turmoil.

A detailed discussion of the significance of ''Notebook M'' can be found in Paul H. Barrett's ''Metaphysics, Materialism and the Evolution of Mind – Early Writings of Charles Darwin'' (1980).

=== Development of the text in 1866–1872 ===

In its public management, Darwin understood that [[Darwinism|his evolutionary theory's]] relevance to human emotional life could provoke an anxious and hostile response.

While preparing the text of ''[[The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication]]'' in 1866, Darwin began to explore topics related to human ancestry, [[sexual selection]], and emotional life. After his initial correspondence with the psychiatrist [[James Crichton-Browne]],<ref>Pearn, Alison M. (2010) "This Excellent Observer..." : the Correspondence between Charles Darwin and James Crichton-Browne, 1869–75, ''History of Psychiatry'', '''21''', 160–75</ref> Darwin set aside his material concerning emotional expression to complete ''Descent of Man'', which covered human ancestry and sexual selection. He finished work on ''The Descent of Man'' on 15 January 1871. Two days later, he began work on ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' and completed most of the text within four months; progress then slowed because of work required on the sixth (and final) edition of ''The Origin of Species'' and criticism from [[St. George Jackson Mivart]]. Darwin finished his work on the proofs on 22 August 1872.

Darwin brings his evolutionary theory close to [[Behavioural sciences|behavioural science]] in ''Expression'', although several commentators have perceived a spectral [[Lamarckism]] within its text.<ref>see, for example, [[Paul Ekman]]'s textual commentary in Darwin, Ekman, Prodger (1998) ''The Expression of the Emotions'', 3rd edition, London: HarperCollins, pp. 45, 54;  and see also "Introduction" by [[Steven Pinker]] (2008) ''The Expression of the Emotions'' London: The Folio Society, pp. xix–xxii.</ref>

=== Universal nature of expression ===

In the book, Darwin notes the universal nature of [[Emotional expression|expressions]]: "The young and the old of widely different races, both with man and animals, express the same state of mind by the same movements." This connection of mental states to the [[Motor system|neurological organisation of movement]], suggested by the words ''motive'' and ''emotion'', is central to Darwin's understanding of emotion.

Darwin displayed several biographical links between his psychological life and [[Animal locomotion|locomotion]]: taking long, solitary walks around [[Shrewsbury]] after his mother died in 1817; in his seashore rambles near Edinburgh with the influential Lamarckian thinker [[Robert Edmond Grant]] in 1826 and 1827;<ref>[[Adrian Desmond|Desmond, Adrian]] (1982) ''Archetypes and Ancestors: Palaeontology in Victorian London 1850–1875'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 116–21</ref><ref>Desmond, Adrian (1989) ''The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine and Reform in Radical London'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press</ref><ref>Stott, Rebecca (2003) ''Darwin and the Barnacle'' London: Faber and Faber</ref> and in laying out the sandwalk, his "thinking path", at [[Down House]] in Kent in 1846.<ref>Boulter, Michael (2006) ''Darwin's Garden: Down House and the Origin of Species'' London: Constable</ref> These aspects of Darwin's personal life are discussed in the psychoanalytic biography ''Charles Darwin, A Biography'' (1990) by [[John Bowlby]].<ref>Bowlby, John (1990)  ''Charles Darwin, A Biography'' London: Hutchinson.</ref>

Darwin contrasts his idea of a shared human and animal ancestry to the ideas of [[Charles Bell]], which are aligned with [[natural theology]]. Bell claimed that facial muscles were designed to express uniquely human feelings. In the fifth edition of ''The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression'' (1865), Bell stated: "Expression is to passion what language is to thought."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bell |first=Sir Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKgaAAAAYAAJ&q=expression+is+to+passion+what+language+is+to+thought |title=The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression: As Connected with the Fine Arts |date=1865 |publisher=Henry G. Bohn |pages=198 |language=en}}</ref> In ''Expression'', Darwin reformulates the issues at play: "The force of language is much aided by the expressive movements of the face and body", suggesting a link between language and psychomotor function.<ref>Bowlby, pp. 6–14</ref>

=== Darwin's sources on emotional expression ===

Darwin attended debates about psychology at the [[Plinian Society]] in December 1826 and March 1827 as a medical student at Edinburgh University. These were prompted by the publication of Charles Bell's ''Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression'' (1824). In his presentations, the [[Edinburgh Phrenological Society|phrenologist]] [[William A.F. Browne]] ridiculed Bell's theological explanations, pointing instead to the similarities of human and animal biology. Both meetings ended in uproar. Darwin revisits these debates 45 years later and refers to Duchenne de Boulogne's {{Lang|fr|[[Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine]]}} as he shifts the debate from philosophical to scientific discourse and highlights the social value of facial expression over vocalisations, tears, and posture.

Darwin's response to Bell's natural theology is discussed in [[Lucy Hartley|Lucy Hartley's]] ''Physiognomy and the Meaning of Expression in Nineteenth Century Culture'' (2001).<ref>[[Lucy Hartley|Hartley, Lucy]] (2001) ''Physiognomy and the Meaning of Expression in Nineteenth Century Culture'' Cambridge University Press; see especially chapter 5: ''Universal expressions: Darwin and the naturalisation of expression'',  pp. 142 - 179.</ref>

In the composition of the book, Darwin drew on a variety of sources:

* His questionnaire (circulated in the early months of 1867) concerning emotional expression in different ethnic groups
* Anthropological memories from his time on {{HMS|Beagle}}
* Conversations with livestock breeders and pigeon fanciers
* Observations on his infant son [[William Erasmus Darwin]] (''A Biographical Sketch of an Infant'', published in 1877 in the philosophical journal ''Mind''), on his family's dogs and cats, and on the orangutans at [[London Zoo]]
* Simple psychology experiments with members of his family concerning the recognition of emotional expression
* The neurological insights of Duchenne de Boulogne, a physician at the [[Salpêtrière|Salpêtrière asylum]] in Paris
* Hundreds of photographs of actors, [[babies]], and children, including photographs by [[Oscar Rejlander]]
* Descriptions of psychiatric patients in [[Stanley Royd Hospital|West Riding Pauper Lunatic Asylum]] in [[Wakefield]]

As a result of his domestic psychology experiments, Darwin reduced the number of commonly observed emotions from Duchenne's calculation of more than sixty [[facial expression]]s to six "core" expressions: anger, fear, surprise, disgust, happiness, and sadness.

Darwin corresponded with James Crichton-Browne, the son of the phrenologist [[William A. F. Browne]] and the then medical director of West Riding Pauper Lunatic Asylum. At the time, Crichton-Browne was publishing ''The West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports''. Recognising the significant contributions of Crichton-Browne, Darwin suggested to him that ''Expression'' "ought to be called by Darwin ''and'' Browne?"<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walmsley |first=Tom |date=December 1993 |title=Psychiatry in descent: Darwin and the Brownes |journal=Psychiatric Bulletin |language=en |volume=17 |issue=12 |pages=748–751 |doi=10.1192/pb.17.12.748 |issn=0955-6036|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Darwin also drew on his personal experience of the symptoms of bereavement and studied the text of [[Henry Maudsley|Henry Maudsley's]] 1870 [[Goulstonian Lecture|Gulstonian Lectures]] on ''Body And Mind''.<ref>[[Henry Maudsley|Maudsley, Henry]] (1870) ''Body And Mind: The Gulstonian Lectures for 1870'' London: Macmillan and Co.</ref>

Darwin considered other approaches to the study of emotions, such as their depiction in the arts—as discussed by the actor [[Henry Siddons]] in his ''Practical Illustrations of Rhetorical Gesture and Action'' (1807) and by the anatomist [[Robert Knox (surgeon)|Robert Knox]] in his ''Manual of Artistic Anatomy'' (1852)—but abandoned these approaches as unreliable. Only a few sections in ''Expression'' mention emotional deception.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ekman |first=Paul |date=2003 |title=Darwin, Deception, and Facial Expression |url=https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1280.010 |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=1000 |issue=1 |pages=205–221 |doi=10.1196/annals.1280.010 |pmid=14766633 |bibcode=2003NYASA1000..205E |issn=0077-8923|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Structure==

[[File:Plate depicting emotions of grief from Charles Darwin's book The Expression of the Emotions.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Illustration of grief from ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'']]

''Expression'' opens with three chapters (1–3) entitled "General Principles of Expression", where Darwin introduces three principles:

# "The principle of serviceable associated Habits" – describes how initially voluntary actions constitute complex expressions of emotion by association of habit.
# "The principle of Antithesis" – explains how opposite mental states induce directly opposing movements.
# "The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous System, independently from the first of the Will, and independently to a certain extent of Habit''" –'' discusses the interplay between physiological reactions (e.g., sweating, muscle trembling, blushing) and emotional experiences.

In the following chapters (4–6), Darwin presents his findings on modes of emotional expression peculiar to particular species, including humans.

Chapters 7–8 contain Darwin's observations on "low spirits" ([[anxiety]], grief, dejection, and [[Despair (emotion)|despair]]) and "high spirits" (joy, love, tender feelings, and devotion). Darwin claims that high spirits, exemplified by joy, find their purest expression in laughter.

Subsequent chapters (9–13) discuss various emotions and their expression. In his discussion of the emotion "disgust", Darwin notes its close links to the sense of smell and conjectures an association with offensive odours. In chapter 13 (which highlights the emotional states of self-attention, shame, shyness, modesty, and blushing), Darwin describes blushing as "the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions".

Darwin closes the book with chapter 14, where he summarises his central argument, demonstrating how human emotions link mental states with bodily movement. He argues that these expressions are genetically determined and derive from purposeful actions observed in animals. He comments on the book's implications, proposing a single origin for the entire human species, with universal human expressions. Darwin emphasises the social value of expression, especially the [[Attachment theory|emotional communication]] between mother and child.

==Illustrations==

[[File:Insane woman from Darwin's Expression of the Emotions. Wellcome L0049513.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Figure 19: "From a photograph of an insane woman, to show the condition of her hair."]]

Because of the limited printing techniques of the 1800s, photographs were usually [[Tipped-in page|tipped]] into the pages of books. This process was expensive and labour-intensive since each photograph had to be printed and tipped in individually. Darwin proposed using [[Heliography|heliotype]] to print the photographs to his publisher—[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]]—believing it would be cheaper.<ref>Darwin Correspondence Project, “Letter no. 7773,” accessed on 17 July 2024, https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-7773.xml</ref> It allowed the illustrations to be bound directly with the pages of text, and the printing plates could be reused, which reduced costs.

The printing company Darwin chose for the photographs proved to be expensive. Robert F. Cooke, [[John Murray III|John Murray III's]] cousin and partner in his publishing company, expressed concern about the increasing production costs and warned Darwin that including the photographs "will make a terrible hole in the profits of each edition".<ref name=":1">Darwin Correspondence Project, “Letter no. 8473,” accessed on 17 July 2024, https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8473.xml</ref><ref name="Darwin1998">{{cite book |author=Charles Darwin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TFRtLZSHMcYC&pg=PA401 |title=The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-977197-4 |pages=401– |quote=Darwin's English publisher, John Murray, was at first opposed to the idea of using photographs to illustrate the book. He advised Darwin that the inclusion of photographs would make Expression a money-losing proposition |access-date=4 August 2013}}</ref> Darwin proceeded with the printing process, and most of ''Expression'' was illustrated by photographic prints—with seven heliotype plates; figures 19–21 were printed using [[Woodcut|woodcuts]].<ref name="Museum2009">{{cite book |author=Phillip Prodger Curator of Photography Peabody Essex Museum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1KI1y3te0tQC&pg=PA109 |title=Darwin's Camera : Art and Photography in the Theory of Evolution |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972230-3 |pages=108–110 |quote=Heliotype was a new photomechanical method of reproduction invented by the photographer Ernest Edwards (1837–1903), for whom Darwin had sat for a portrait in 1868. Although he had no experience in photographic publishing, Darwin suggested this new technique to John Murray. ... heliotype reduced the cost of production considerably, enabling Darwin to afford the unprecedented number of photographs appearing in Expression. |access-date=4 August 2013}}</ref>

The published book contains the work of several artists:

* Engravings of the Darwin family's domestic pets by the zoological illustrator [[T. W. Wood]]
* Drawings and sketches by [[Briton Rivière]], A. May, and [[Joseph Wolf]]
* Portraits by the Swedish photographer [[Oscar Gustave Rejlander|Oscar Rejlander]]
* Anatomical diagrams by [[Charles Bell]] and [[Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle|Friedrich Henle]]
* Illustrative quotations from {{lang|fr|[[Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine]]}}{{Nbsp}}(1862) by the French neurologist Duchenne de Boulogne{{Nbsp}}(1806–1875).<ref>Duchenne (de Boulogne), G.-B., (1990) ''The Mechanism of Human Facial Expression by Guillaume-Benjamin (Amand) Duchenne de Boulogne'' edited and translated by R. Andrew Cuthbertson, Cambridge University Press ''and'' Paris: Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de L'Homme, originally published (1862) Paris: Éditions Jules Renouard, Libraire</ref>

Darwin received dozens of photographs of psychiatric patients from [[James Crichton-Browne]] but only included one—[[Photoengraving|photoengraved]] by James Davis Cooper—titled "Figure 19". It depicts a patient under the care of Dr James Gilchrist at the [[The Crichton|Southern Counties Asylum]] in Dumfries.

==Publication==

Darwin concluded work on the book with a sense of relief. The proofs, tackled by his daughter [[Darwin — Wedgwood family|Henrietta]] ("Ettie") and son [[Leonard Darwin|Leo]], required a major revision, which made Darwin "sick of the subject and myself, and the world".<ref name="BurkhardtSmith1994">{{cite book | author1=Frederick Burkhardt | author2=Sydney Smith | author3=David Kohn |author4=William Montgomery | title=A Calendar of the Correspondence of Charles Darwin, 1821–1882 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4imeaODX9AC&pg=PA366 | year=1994
|publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-43423-2 | pages=366– | quote=To [Leonard Darwin] 29 July [1872] [Down] CD cannot improve style [of Expression] without great changes. 'I am sick of the subject, and myself, and the world'.}}</ref>

''Expression'' was published by John Murray on 26 November 1872 as a sequel to ''The Descent of Man'' and was expected to reach a broad audience in mid-Victorian England. It quickly sold almost 7,000 copies.<ref>Darwin Correspondence Project, “Letter no. 8763,” accessed on 18 July 2024, https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8763.xml "The success of your work 'on Expression' has been so decided & the Sale so rapid that there is no need for further delay in settling with you for the first 7000—copies, although I have still on hand some 500 copies"</ref><ref>Darwin Correspondence Project, “Letter no. 9071,” accessed on 18 July 2024, https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-9071.xml "I have 404 copies left out of the 7000 previously printed & paid for."</ref>

A revised edition was published by Darwin's son in 1890, excluding several revisions suggested by Darwin; these were not published until the 1999 edition, edited by [[Paul Ekman]].<ref name="black">{{citation | pmc = 1279921 | pmid = 12042386 |date=Jun 2002 | author = Black, J | title = Darwin in the world of emotions | volume = 95 | issue = 6 | pages = 311–13 | issn = 0141-0768 | journal = Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |url=http://www.jrsm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12042386 | format = Free full text | doi = 10.1177/014107680209500617 }}</ref>

==Reception==

{{expand section|date=April 2013}}

===Contemporary===

A review in the January 1873 ''[[Quarterly Journal of Science]]'' concluded that "although some parts are a little tedious, from the amount of minute detail required, there is throughout so much of acute observation and amusing anecdote as to render it perhaps more attractive to general readers than any of Mr. Darwin's previous work".<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S220.htm | title=Darwin's 'The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals' | author=Anon | journal=Quarterly Journal of Science |date=January 1873 | pages=113–18}}</ref>

On 24 January 1895, [[James Crichton-Browne]] delivered a lecture "On Emotional Expression" in [[Dumfries]], Scotland, presenting some of his reservations about Darwin's views. He argued for a greater role for the higher [[Cerebral cortex|cortical centres]] in regulating emotional responses and discussed [[Gender and emotional expression|gender differences in emotional expression]].<ref>Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society. (1896). ''Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society'' (Series II, Session 1894-95) (pp. 72–77). Dumfries: The Courier and Herald Offices. Retrieved from https://dgnhas.org.uk/contents_2011</ref>

===Modern===

In a 1998 review of ''Expression'', edited by [[Paul Ekman]], Eric Korn argues in the ''[[London Review of Books]]'' that [[Margaret Mead]] and her followers had claimed and subverted the book before Ekman reinterpreted it. Korn notes that Ekman collected evidence supporting Darwin's views on the universality of human expression of emotions, indirectly challenging Mead's views. Korn challenges Ekman's calling ''Expression'' "Darwin's lost masterpiece", pointing out that the book has never been out of print since 1872.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n23/eric-korn/how-far-down-the-dusky-bosom | title=How far down the dusky bosom? | author=Korn, Eric | journal=London Review of Books | date=November 1998 | volume=20 | issue=23 | pages=23–24}}</ref>

The editors of the Mead Project website comment that ''Expression'' is among the most enduring contributions of 19th-century psychology and argue that although the book lays its foundation on an arguable interpretation of the nature of expression, its ideas continue to influence discussions on emotional experience. The editors cite [[John Dewey|John Dewey's]] comments on the book, writing that Darwin's arguments are "wrong but{{Nbsp}}... compelling".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007 |title=A Mead Project |url=https://brocku.ca/MeadProject/Darwin/Darwin_1872_00.html |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=brocku.ca |at=Editors' notes}}</ref>

In 2003, the [[New York Academy of Sciences]] published ''Emotions Inside Out: 130 Years after Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'', a collection of 37 papers (edited by Paul Ekman) with recent research on the subject.

==Influence==

[[File:Expression of the Emotions Figure 4.png|thumb|Figure 4: "A small dog watching a cat on a table", made from a photograph by [[Oscar Gustave Rejlander]]]]

=== Psychology ===

[[George Romanes]] (1848–1894), an advocate of Darwin in [[comparative psychology]], died prematurely, diminishing Darwin's impact on academic psychology. Darwin's impact was further compromised by [[Wilhelm Wundt|Wilhelm Wundt's]] dimensional approach to emotions and the widespread influence of [[Behaviorism|behaviourism]] during the 20th century.

==== Psychoanalysis ====

[[Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud's]] early publications on the symptoms of [[hysteria]] (with his influential concept of unconscious [[emotional conflict]]) acknowledged debts to Darwin's work on emotional expression.<ref>Sulloway, Frank J. (1979) ''Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend'' London: Burnett Books/Andre Deutsch</ref>

{{blockquote|All these sensations and innervations belong to the field of ''The Expression of the Emotions'', which, as Darwin (1872) has taught us, consists of actions which originally had a meaning and served a purpose. These may now for the most part have become so much weakened that the expression of them in words seems to us to be only a figurative picture of them, whereas in all probability the description was once meant literally; and hysteria is right in restoring the original meaning of the words....|[[Josef Breuer]] and Sigmund Freud| (1895) ''Studies on Hysteria''}}

In 1905, [[Arthur Mitchell (physician)|Arthur Mitchell]], a psychiatrist and former deputy to [[William A. F. Browne|William A.F. Browne]] in the [[Mental Welfare Commission for Scotland|Scottish Lunacy Commission]], published ''About Dreaming, Laughing and Blushing'',<ref>Mitchell, Sir Arthur (1905) ''About Dreaming, Laughing and Blushing'' Edinburgh and London: William Green and Sons. Mitchell (pp. 153–157) provides a useful bibliography on emotional expression at the dawn of the twentieth century.</ref> linking some of Darwin's concerns with those of developing psychology. Psychiatrist [[John Bowlby]] extensively references Darwin's ideas in his presentations on [[attachment theory]].

Darwin's impact on psychoanalysis is discussed in detail by Lucille Ritvo in ''Darwin's Influence on Freud: A Tale of Two Sciences'' (1990).<ref>Ritvo, Lucille B. (1990) ''Darwin's Influence on Freud: A Tale of Two Sciences'' New Haven and London: Yale University Press</ref>

==== Evolutionary psychology ====

[[William James]] followed up Darwin's ideas in his ''What Is An Emotion?'' (1884). In the [[James–Lange theory]] of emotions, James develops Darwin's emphasis on the physical aspects, including the [[Autonomic nervous system|autonomically mediated]], visceral components of emotions.

In ''Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage'' (1915) by [[Walter Cannon]],<ref>[[Walter Bradford Cannon|Cannon, Walter B.]] (1915) ''Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage – An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement'' New York: D. Appleton and Co.</ref> Cannon introduces the phrase {{Nowrap|''[[fight-or-flight response]]''}}, formulating emotions in terms of strategies for interpersonal behaviour and showing how these emotions are amplified in groups or crowds—[[herd behavior]]. Psychological theories of emotion have also been set out in the [[Two-factor theory of emotion]] put forward by [[Stanley Schachter|Schachter]] and [[Jerome E. Singer|Singer]], the [[Papez circuit|Papez–Maclean hypothesis]], and the [[theory of constructed emotion]].<ref>Barrett, Lisa Feldman (2017) ''How Emotions Are Made: The Secret Life of The Brain''  New York: Houghton, Mifflin, Harcourt ''and'' London: Macmillan</ref>

Theories on somatic factors in [[personality]] were elaborated by psychiatrist [[Ernst Kretschmer]]; by the neurologist [[Paul Ferdinand Schilder|Paul Schilder]], with his notion of [[body image]] in ''The Image and Appearance of the Human Body'' (1950); and in the concepts of [[Somatotype and constitutional psychology|somatotypology]] proposed by [[William Herbert Sheldon]] in the 1940s—now largely discredited. Zoologist [[Desmond Morris]] further explored the biological aspects of human emotions in his extensively illustrated scientific book ''Manwatching'' (1978),<ref>Morris, Desmond (1978) ''Manwatching: A Field Guide To Human Behaviour'' London: Triad Panther.</ref> and recent research has confirmed that while cultural factors are critical to determining gestures, genetic factors are crucial to the formation of [[facial expression|facial expressions]].{{Source needed|date=July 2024}}

=== Biological illustration ===

The comprehensive approach to biological illustration<ref>Prodger, Phillip (2009) ''Darwin's Camera: Art and Photography in the Theory of Evolution'' Oxford University Press</ref> continued in contributions from various authors: photographer [[Eadweard Muybridge|Eadweard Muybridge's]] work on [[animal locomotion]],<ref>Muybridge, Eadweard (1984) ''The Male and Female Figure in Motion: 60 classic photographic sequences'' New York: Dover Publications</ref><ref>Prodger, Phillip (2003) ''Time Stands Still: Muybridge and the instantaneous photography movement''  The Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Center for the Visual Arts, Stanford University, in association with Oxford University Press</ref> which influenced the development of [[cinematography]]; Scottish naturalist [[James Bell Pettigrew]]'s studies on animal locomotion, documented in his works ''Animal Locomotion'' (1874) and ''Design in Nature'' (1908); the illustrated and controversial works of evolutionary biologist [[Ernst Haeckel]]; and, to a lesser extent, in ''[[On Growth and Form]]'' (1917) by [[D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson|D'Arcy Thompson]].<ref>Smith, Jonathan (2006) ''Charles Darwin and Victorian Visual Culture''  Cambridge University Press, especially pp. 179–243</ref>

==See also==

{{div col|colwidth=20 em}}

*[[Affect display]]
*[[Body language]]
*[[Book illustration]]
*[[Charles Darwin's health]]
*[[Emotion and memory]]
*[[Emotional intelligence]]
*[[Emotions in animals]]
*[[Evolution of emotion]]
*[[Facial expression]]
*[[Nonverbal communication]]
*[[Posture (psychology)]]

{{div col end}}

==References==

{{reflist|33em}}

==Sources==

* {{citation |last=Barrett|first= Paul |title=Metaphysics, Materialism, & the Evolution of Mind: the early writings of Charles Darwin |quote=Early writings of Charles Darwin. With a commentary by Howard E. Gruber|publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=1980|isbn=0-226-13659-0}}

==External links==

{{Commons category}}

*{{Citation | last=Darwin | first=Charles | author-link=Charles Darwin | date=1872 | title=The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals | location=London | publisher=John Murray |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1142&viewtype=text&pageseq=1}}.
*{{Citation | last=Freeman | first=R. B. | date=1977 | title =The Works of Charles Darwin: An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist | edition=2nd | location=Folkestone | publisher=Dawson |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_TheExpressionoftheEmotions.html }}.
*{{Citation | editor-last=Ekman | editor-first=Paul | date=2003 | title=Emotions Inside Out: 130 Years after Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals | edition=1st | location=New York | publisher=New York Academy of Sciences | url=http://www.nyas.org/Publications/Annals/Detail.aspx?cid=f003767c-5c61-4597-abdc-02d159294a0c | access-date=29 August 2010 | archive-date=1 March 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301204950/http://www.nyas.org/Publications/Annals/Detail.aspx?cid=f003767c-5c61-4597-abdc-02d159294a0c | url-status=dead }}.

Free e-book versions:
* [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1227 D. Appleton, New York, 1899]
* {{librivox book | title=The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals | author=Darwin}}

{{Darwin}}
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