View source for Thailand

{{Short description|Country in Southeast Asia}}
{{Hatnote group|
{{Redirect|Siam|other uses|Siam (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Thai State|the newspaper|Thairath}}}}
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{{Use British English|date=December 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Thailand
| common_name            = Thailand
| native_name            = {{ubl|{{native name|th|ราชอาณาจักรไทย|italics=off}}|{{lang|th-Latn|Ratcha-anachak Thai}}}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Thailand.svg
| image_coat             = Garuda Emblem of Thailand.svg
| symbol_type            = Emblem
| national_anthem        = {{lang|th|เพลงชาติไทย}}<br />{{transliteration|th|[[Thai National Anthem|Phleng Chat Thai]]}}<br />"Thai National Anthem"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Thai National Anthem - US Navy Band.ogg]]}}
| royal_anthem           = {{lang|th|สรรเสริญพระบารมี}}<br />{{transliteration|th|[[Sansoen Phra Barami]]}}<br />"Praise the King"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Thai Royal Anthem - US Navy Band.ogg]]}}
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:Thailand (orthographic projection).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Thailand ASEAN.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show ASEAN|default=1}}
| map_caption            = {{map caption |location_color= green |region= [[Southeast Asia]] |region_color= none}}
| capital                = [[Bangkok]]{{efn-lr|Officially known in Thai as "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon"|group=infobox}}
| coordinates            = {{Coord|13|48|N|100|33|E|region:TH-10_type:city(8,300,000)}}
| largest_city           = capital
| official_languages     = [[Thai language|Thai]]<!--Note: Central Thai is also the national language. --><ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/thailand/ "Thailand"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610164345/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/thailand/|date=10 June 2021}}, ''The World Factbook''.</ref><!--Thai is the official language. English is a non-official secondary language.-->
| languages              = {{hlist|[[Isan language|Isan]]|[[Northern Thai language|Northern Thai]]|[[Southern Thai language|Southern Thai]]|[[Karenic languages|Karen]]|[[Kelantan–Pattani Malay|Pattani Malay]]|[[Bangkok Malay]]|[[Teochew dialect|Teochew]]|[[Hokkien]]}}
| languages_sub          = yes
| ethnic_groups          = {{tree list}}
* 80% [[Thai people|Thai]]
** 37% [[Thai people|Central Thai]]
** 25% [[Isan people|Isan]]
** 8% [[Northern Thai people|Northern Thai]]
** 8% [[Southern Thai language|Southern Thai]]
** 2% Western Thai
* 12% [[Thai Chinese]]
* 4% [[Northern Khmer people|Khmer]]
* 4% [[Thai Malays|Malays]]
{{tree list/end}}
| religion               = {{tree list}}
* 93.46% [[Buddhism in Thailand|Buddhism]]
* 5.37% [[Islam in Thailand|Islam]]
* 1.13% [[Christianity in Thailand|Christianity]]
* 0.03% [[Religion in Thailand|other]]
{{tree list/end}}
| religion_ref           = <ref name=":0"/>
| religion_year          = 2018 census
| demonym                = [[Thai people|Thai]]
| government_type        = Unitary [[parliamentary constitutional monarchy]]{{efn-lr|Officially a democratic form of government with the king as head of state|group=infobox}}
| leader_title1          = [[Monarchy of Thailand|Monarch]]
| leader_name1           = [[Vajiralongkorn]] (Rama X)
| leader_title2          = [[Prime Minister of Thailand|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2           = [[Anutin Charnvirakul]]
| legislature            = [[National Assembly of Thailand|National Assembly]]
| upper_house            = [[Senate of Thailand|Senate]]
| lower_house            = [[House of Representatives (Thailand)|House of Representatives]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[History of Thailand|Formation]]
| established_event1     = [[Sukhothai Kingdom]]
| established_date1      = 1238–1438
| established_event2     = [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]]
| established_date2      = 1351–1767
| established_event3     = [[Thonburi Kingdom]]
| established_date3      = 1767–1782
| established_event4     = [[Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)|Rattanakosin Kingdom]]
| established_date4      = 6 April 1782
| established_event9     = {{nowrap|[[Siamese revolution of 1932|Constitutional monarchy]]}}
| established_date9      = 24 June 1932
| established_event10    = {{nowrap|[[Constitution of Thailand|Current constitution]]}}
| established_date10     = 6 April 2017
| area_km2               = 513,120
| area_rank              = 50th
| area_sq_mi             = 198,115 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]-->
| percent_water          = {{nowrap|0.4 (2,230 km{{sup|2}})}}
| population_estimate    = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 65,975,198<ref name="dopa">{{cite web |title=Population statistics of the civil registration (monthly) |url=https://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/stat/statnew/statMONTH/statmonth/#/mainpage |access-date=25 May 2024 |archive-date=24 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250224093538/https://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/stat/statnew/statMONTH/statmonth/#/mainpage |url-status=live}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 22nd
| population_census      = 64,785,909<ref>National Statistics Office, [http://popcensus.nso.go.th/doc/8-thailand%20census.doc "100th anniversary of population censuses in Thailand: Population and housing census 2010: 11th census of Thailand"]. {{in lang|th}} {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712002347/http://popcensus.nso.go.th/doc/8-thailand%20census.doc |date=12 July 2012}}. popcensus.nso.go.th.</ref>
| population_census_year = 2010
| population_census_rank = 21st
| population_density_km2 = 132.1
| population_density_sq_mi = 342 <!--Do remove per [[WP:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]-->
| population_density_rank = 88th
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $1.853 trillion<ref name="IMFOCT2025">{{cite web |title=Data Explorer |url=https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0) |website=data.imf.org |access-date=29 November 2025}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 23rd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $26,358<ref name=IMFOCT2025/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 75th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $558.573 billion<ref name=IMFOCT2025/>
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 31rd
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $7,942<ref name=IMFOCT2025/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 97th
| Gini                   = 33.5 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year              = 2023
| Gini_change            = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref               = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=12 August 2021 |archive-date=27 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727172441/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI |url-status=live }}</ref>
| HDI                    = 0.798 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year               = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change             = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="UNHDR">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 76th
| currency               = [[Thai baht]] (฿)
| currency_code          = THB
| time_zone              = [[UTC+07:00|ICT]]
| utc_offset             = +7
| date_format            = dd/mm/yyyy ([[Thai solar calendar|BE]])
| drives_on              = left
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Thailand|+66]]
| cctld                  = {{hlist|[[.th]]|[[.ไทย]]}}
| footnotes              = {{notelist}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|Thai|compact=yes}}

'''Thailand''',{{efn-lr|name=endo|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|aɪ|l|æ|n|d|,_|-|l|ə|n|d|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Thailand.wav}}, {{respell|TYE|land|,_|-|lənd}}; {{langx|th|ประเทศไทย}}, {{RTGS|''Prathet Thai''}}, {{IPA|th|pratʰêːt tʰaj|pron|th-Thailand.ogg}}}} officially the '''Kingdom of Thailand''',{{efn-lr|{{langx|th|ราชอาณาจักรไทย|italics=off}}; {{transliteration|th|Ratcha-anachak Thai}} {{IPA|th|raː.t͡ɕa.ʔaː.naː.t͡ɕàk tʰaj|pron}}}} and formerly known as '''Siam''' until 1939,{{efn-lr|name=siam|{{IPAc-en|s|aɪ|'|æ|m|,_|ˈ|s|aɪ|æ|m}}, {{respell|sye|AM|,_|SYE|am}}; {{langx|th|สยาม}}, {{RTGS|''sayam''}}, {{IPA|th|sajǎːm|pron}}; also spelled ''Siem'', ''Syâm'', or ''Syâma''}} is a country located in [[mainland Southeast Asia]]. It shares land borders with [[Myanmar]] to the west and northwest, [[Laos]] to the east and northeast, [[Cambodia]] to the southeast, and [[Malaysia]] to the south. Its maritime boundaries include the [[Gulf of Thailand]] and the [[Andaman Sea]], as well as maritime borders with [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], and [[India]]. Thailand has a population of nearly 66 million people,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-23 |title=Multiple Factors Behind Thailand's Birth Rate Decline, Experts Say |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/multiple-factors-behind-thailand-s-birth-rate-decline-experts-say/7539719.html |access-date=2024-07-06 |website=Voice of America |language=en}}</ref> covers an area of approximately 513,115&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (198,115 sq mi).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Land Area |url=https://thailand.go.th/page/land-area |access-date=2024-06-01 |website=The Government Public Relations Department |language=en}}</ref> The country's [[capital city|capital]] and [[List of municipalities in Thailand#Largest cities by urban population|largest city]] is [[Bangkok]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital City |url=https://thailand.go.th/page/capital-city |access-date=2024-06-01 |website=The Government Public Relations Department |language=en}}</ref>

Archaeological evidence indicates that humans have inhabited the area of present-day Thailand for at least 40,000 years. Indigenous ethnic groups include the [[Mon people|Mon]], [[Khmer people|Khmer]], and [[Malay people|Malay]] people. The [[Tai people]] are believed to have originated from the [[Điện Biên Phủ]] region since the 5th century and began migrating into the territory of modern Thailand between the 8th and 10th centuries origin of the Tai people. During the classical historical period, major kingdoms such as [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]], [[Lan Na]], and [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] were established. The Sukhothai Kingdom is regarded as the beginning of [[Thai history]], while the Ayutthaya Kingdom, founded in 1350 CE, became a [[regional power]] replacing the [[Khmer Empire]]. European contact began in 1511 CE when [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] envoys arrived in Ayutthaya. The Ayutthaya Kingdom flourished until its complete destruction during the [[Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)|1765–1767 Burmese–Siamese War]] by the [[Royal Burmese Armed Forces|Burmese forces]] under the [[Konbaung dynasty]] in 1767.

After the fall of Ayutthaya, [[King Taksin]] reunified the kingdom and established the [[Thonburi Kingdom]], which lasted only 15 years before he was overthrown by [[Rama I|Phutthayotfa Chulalok]] (Rama I), the founder of the [[Chakri dynasty]]. King Rama I established the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom]] and moved the capital to Bangkok in 1782. During the era of [[Western imperialism in Asia|Western imperialism]], Siam remained the only country in Southeast Asia to avoid colonization by European powers, although it ceded territory, trade rights, and legal privileges through several [[unequal treaties]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nuchkoom Smith |first1=Nucharee |last2=Smith |first2=Robert Brian |date=1 October 2019 |title=Has Thailand learnt any Lessons from the Bowring Treaty and the Treaty of Amity? |url=https://www.athensjournals.gr/law/2019-5-4-3-Smith.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Athens Journal of Law |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=405–418 |doi=10.30958/ajl.5-4-3 |s2cid=211453326 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511161132/https://www.athensjournals.gr/law/2019-5-4-3-Smith.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |issn=2407-9685}}</ref> The governance system evolved into an [[absolute monarchy]] centralized under the rule of [[King Chulalongkorn]] (Rama V). Siam [[Chulalongkorn's first visit to Europe|adapted to international relations]] during the imperialist era and joined [[World War I]] on the side of the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]], a political decision aimed at revising the effects of unequal treaties and enhancing Siam's international status.

Following the [[Siamese revolution of 1932]] by the [[Khana Ratsadon]] ({{literally|People's Party}}), Siam transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a [[parliamentary constitutional monarchy]] and was officially renamed Thailand. During [[World War II in Thailand|World War II]], the country was under the [[military dictatorship]] of [[Plaek Phibunsongkhram]] and allied with the [[Empire of Japan]] as part of the [[Axis powers]], but Thailand did not become a defeated nation due to the underground [[Free Thai Movement]]'s "Declaration of Peace", which was recognized by the [[Allies in World War II|Allies]]. During the [[Cold War]], Thailand became a key [[major non-NATO ally]] of the [[United States]] and played a major role in [[anti-communism|countering communism]] in the [[Korean War]], the [[Vietnam War]], and other [[proxy wars]]. Thailand also joined the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (SEATO). Despite brief periods of [[liberal democracy]] in the 1970s and 1990s, Thailand alternated between [[liberal democracy]] and military dictatorship.

Since the 2000s, Thailand has experienced political conflict between supporters and opponents of Prime Minister [[Thaksin Shinawatra]] (in office [[Premiership of Thaksin Shinawatra|2001–2006]]), leading to the [[2006 Thai coup d'état|2006]] and [[2014 Thai coup d'état|2014]] coup d'états. Today, Thailand operates under the [[Constitution of Thailand|2017 Constitution]] and a [[coalition government]] following the [[2019 Thai general election]], as well as [[2020–2021 Thai protests|political demonstrations demanding democracy and monarchy reform]]. The current constitutional structure still allows ''de facto'' political influence by the [[Royal Thai Armed Forces]].<ref>*{{Cite news |last=Abuza |first=Zachary |date=27 September 2021 |title=Thailand's Constitutional Dictatorship Weathers the Storm |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/09/thailands-constitutional-dictatorship-weathers-the-storm/ |access-date=14 March 2022}} *{{cite journal |last1=Glassman |first1=Jim |title=Lineages of the Authoritarian State in Thailand: Military Dictatorship, Lazy Capitalism and the Cold War Past as Post-Cold War Prologue |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Asia]] |year=2020 |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=571–592 |doi=10.1080/00472336.2019.1688378 |s2cid=211436855 |doi-access=free }} *{{cite news |last1=Bandow |first1=Doug |title=Thailand's Military Is Getting Ready for Another Crackdown |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/12/03/thailand-military-crackdown-protests-biden/ |access-date=14 March 2022 |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |date=3 December 2020}}</ref> Thailand has also faced border tensions from the [[2008–2011 Cambodian–Thai border crisis]] extending to the [[2025 Cambodia–Thailand border crisis]] involving territorial disputes and military clashes.

Currently, Thailand is recognized as a [[developing country]] and holds significant geopolitical importance in Southeast Asia. It is a [[unitary state]] governed under a [[parliamentary system]] with a [[National Assembly of Thailand|bicameral legislature]] comprising the elected [[House of Representatives of Thailand|House of Representatives]] and the appointed [[Senate of Thailand|Senate]]. Thailand is a member of the [[United Nations]], a major non-[[NATO]] ally of the United States, and a founding member of the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN), as well as a [[regional power]]. The Royal Thai Armed Forces are among the largest military forces in Southeast Asia. Thailand's economy is the second-largest in the region and the 23rd globally by [[purchasing power parity]], ranking 29th by [[gross domestic product]]. Thailand is classified as a [[newly industrialized country]], with manufacturing, agriculture, and [[Tourism in Thailand|tourism]] being the main economic sectors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.or.th/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/THAILANDEXTN/0,,menuPK:333304piPK:141121pagePK:141132theSitePK:333296,00.html |script-title=th:รวมข้อมูลแหล่งกู้เงินและสินเชื่อจากธนาคารและผู้ให้บริการที่เชื่อถือได้ |language=th |website=worldbank.or.th |date=16 December 2005}}, World Bank on Thailand country overview.</ref><ref>''The Guardian'', [https://www.theguardian.com/country-profile/thailand Country profile: Thailand] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523002651/http://www.guardian.co.uk/country-profile/thailand |date=23 May 2010 }}, 25 April 2009.</ref>

== Etymology ==
Thailand{{efn-lr|name=endo}} was known by outsiders before 1939 as ''Siam''.{{efn-lr|name=siam}} According to [[George Cœdès]], the word ''Thai'' ({{linktext|ไทย}}) means 'free man' in the Thai language, "differentiating the Thai from the natives encompassed in Thai society as serfs".<ref name="Coedes 1968">{{Cite book |last=Cœdès |first=George |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |others=Trans. Susan Brown Cowing |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1 |editor-last=Walter F. Vella |author-link=George Cœdès}}</ref>{{RP|197}} According to [[Chit Phumisak]], Thai ({{lang|th|ไท}}) simply means 'people' or 'human being'; his investigation shows that some rural areas used the word "Thai" instead of the usual Thai word ''khon'' ({{linktext|คน}}) for people.<ref name="Phumisak 1992">{{Cite book |last=Phumisak |first=Chit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IadwAAAAMAAJ |title=ความเป็นมาของคําสยาม ไทย, ลาว และขอม และลักษณะทางสังคมของชื่อชนชาติ: ฉบับสมบูรณ์ เพิ่มเติม ข้อเท็จจริงว่าด้วยชนชาติขอม |date=1992 |publisher=Samnakphim Sayām |isbn=978-974-85729-9-4 |language=th |trans-title=Etymology of Siam, Thai, Lao, Khmer |author-link=Chit Phumisak |access-date=31 December 2021 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150348/https://books.google.com/books?id=IadwAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Michel Ferlus]], the ethnonyms Thai-Tai (or Thay-Tay) would have evolved from the etymon ''*k(ə)ri:'' 'human being'.{{efn-lr|Through the following chain: ''*kəri:'' > ''*kəli:'' > ''*kədi:/*kədaj'' > ''*di:/*daj'' > ''*daj<sup>A</sup>'' (Proto-Southwestern Tai) > ''tʰaj<sup>A2</sup>'' (in [[Thai language|Siamese]] and [[Lao language|Lao]]) or > ''taj<sup>A2</sup>'' (in the other [[Southwestern Tai languages|Southwestern]] and [[Central Tai languages]] classified by [[Li Fang-Kuei|Li Fangkuei]]).<ref>[https://hal.inria.fr/halshs-01182596/document Ferlus, Michel (2009). Formation of Ethnonyms in Southeast Asia] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119060814/https://hal.inria.fr/halshs-01182596/document |date=19 November 2016}}. ''42nd International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, November 2009, Chiang Mai, 2009'', p.3.</ref> Ferlus work is based on simple rules of phonetic change observable in the [[Sinosphere (linguistics)|Sinosphere]] and studied for the most part by [[William H. Baxter]] (1992).}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pain |first=Frédéric |year=2008 |title=An Introduction to Thai Ethnonymy: Examples from Shan and Northern Thai |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=128 |issue=4 |pages=641–662 |jstor=25608449}}</ref>

Thais often refer to their country using the polite form ''prathet Thai'' ({{langx|th|ประเทศไทย}}). They also use the more colloquial term ''mueang Thai'' ({{langx|th|เมืองไทย}}) or simply ''Thai;'' the word ''[[mueang]]'', archaically referring to a [[Mandala (political model)|city-state]], is commonly used to refer to a city or town as the centre of a region. ''Ratcha Anachak Thai'' ({{langx|th|ราชอาณาจักรไทย}}) means 'kingdom of Thailand' or 'kingdom of Thai'.

Etymologically, its components are: ''ratcha'' ({{langx|sa|राजन्}}, ''[[rājan]]'', 'king, royal, realm'), ''ana-'' ([[Pali]] ''āṇā'' 'authority, command, power', itself from the Sanskrit {{lang|sa|आज्ञा}}, ''ājñā'', of the same meaning), and ''-chak'' (from Sanskrit {{lang|sa|{{linktext|चक्र}}}} ''cakra-'' 'wheel', a symbol of power and rule).

The [[Thai National Anthem]] ({{langx|th|เพลงชาติ}}), written by [[Luang Saranupraphan]] during the patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation as ''prathet Thai'' ({{langx|th|ประเทศไทย}}). The first line of the national anthem is: ''prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai'' ({{langx|th|ประเทศไทยรวมเลือดเนื้อชาติเชื้อไทย}}), 'Thailand is founded on blood and flesh'.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Panyasuppakun |first=Kornrawee |date=8 August 2017 |title=Patriotism remixed |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/1302183/patriotism-remixed |access-date=2024-06-01 |work=Bangkok Post}}</ref>

The former name ''Siam'' may have originated from [[Sanskrit]] श्याम (''śyāma'', 'dark')<ref name="Phumisak 1992" /> or [[Mon language|Mon]] ရာမည (''rhmañña'', 'stranger'), probably the same root as ''[[Shan people|Shan]]'' and ''[[Assam]]''.<ref>Barend Jan Terwiel, Chaichuen Khamdaengyodtai, ''Shan Manuscripts''. Franz Steiner, 2003, p. 9.</ref> The word ''Śyâma'' is possibly not the true origin, but a pre-designed deviation from its proper, original meaning.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eliot |first=Charles |title=The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hinduism and Buddhism, An Historical Sketch, Vol. 3 (of 3) [EBook #16847] |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. |year=1921 |location=London |pages=Ch. xxxvii 1; citing in turn Footnote 189: The name is found on [[Champa]]n inscriptions of 1050 CE and according to Gerini appears in [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Geographia|Samarade]] = Sâmaraṭṭha. See Gerini, Ptolemy, p. 170. But Samarade is near Bangkok and there can hardly have been Thais there in Ptolemy's time; and Footnote 190: So too in Central Asia Kustana appears to be a learned distortion of the name [[Khotan]], made to give it a meaning in Sanskrit}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Klikauer |first=Thomas |title=Distorted Communication I: Classifications |year=2008 |work=Management Communication: Communicative Ethics and Action |pages=55–73 |editor-last=Klikauer |editor-first=Thomas |place=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|doi=10.1057/9780230583238_4 |isbn=978-0-230-58323-8}}</ref> Another theory is the name derives from the Chinese calling this region 'Xian'.{{efn-lr|"Ayutthaya emerged as a dominant centre in the late 14th century. The Chinese called this region Xian, which the Portuguese converted into Siam."}}<ref name="Baker 2014" />{{RP|8}}

The ancient Khmers used the word ''Siam'' to refer to people settled in the west [[Chao Phraya River]] valley surrounding the ancient city of [[Nakhon Pathom]] in the present-day [[central Thailand]]; it may probably originate from the name of Lord [[Krishna]], which also called ''Shyam'', as in the [[Wat Sri Chum Inscription]], dated 13th century CE, mentions {{ill|Phra Maha Thera Sri Sattha|th|พระมหาเถรศรีศรัทธา}} came to restore [[Phra Pathommachedi]] at the city of Lord Krishna (Nakhon Pathom) in the early era of the [[Sukhothai Kingdom]].<ref name="sac">{{cite web|trans-title=Wat Sri Chum Inscription|url=https://db.sac.or.th/inscriptions/inscribe/detail/177|title=จารึกวัดศรีชุม|access-date=29 August 2023|language=th|publisher=[[Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre]]|archive-date=28 August 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230828215526/https://db.sac.or.th/inscriptions/inscribe/detail/177}}</ref>

[[File:Kingdom & People of Siam (Vol 1, 1857, 15).svg|thumb|''SPPM Mongkut Rex Siamensium'', [[King Mongkut]]'s signature]]

The signature of King [[Mongkut]] (r. 1851–1868) reads ''SPPM'' (''Somdet Phra Poramenthra Maha'') ''Mongkut Rex Siamensium'' (Mongkut, King of the Siamese). This usage of the name in [[Bowring Treaty|the country's first international treaty]] gave the name ''Siam'' official status, until 24 June 1939 when it was changed to ''Thailand''.<ref>[http://www.csmngt.com/thailand_history.htm Thailand (Siam) History], CSMngt-Thai. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424080811/http://www.csmngt.com/thailand_history.htm |date=24 April 2015}}</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of Thailand}}
{{Cleanup rewrite|many reasons, see [[Talk:Thailand#History rewrite|talk page]]|section|date=February 2024}}

=== Prehistory and origins ===
{{main|Prehistoric Thailand}}
{{see also|History of Thailand|Tai peoples}}
There is evidence of continuous human habitation in present-day Thailand from 20,000 years ago to the present day.<ref name="LePoer 1989">{{Cite book |last=Barbara Leitch LePoer |title=Thailand: A Country Study |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |year=1989}}</ref>{{rp|4}} The earliest evidence of rice growing is dated at 2,000 BCE.<ref name="Baker 2017">{{Cite book |last1=Baker |first1=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GHiuDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |title=A History of Ayutthaya |last2=Phongpaichit |first2=Pasuk |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-107-19076-4 |author-link=Chris Baker (writer) |access-date=15 December 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150305/https://books.google.com/books?id=GHiuDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|4}} Areas comprising what is now Thailand participated in the Maritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archeological research. The trading network existed for 3,000 years, between 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tsang |first=Cheng-hwa |date=2008-01-24 |title=Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan |url=http://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/JIPA/article/view/11751 |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |volume=20 |doi=10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751 |doi-broken-date=12 July 2025 |issn=1835-1794|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.</ref><ref>Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.</ref><ref>Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.</ref> Bronze appeared {{circa|1,250}}–1,000 BCE.<ref name="Baker 2017" />{{rp|4}} The site of [[Ban Chiang]] in northeast Thailand currently ranks as the earliest known centre of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Higham |first1=Charles |last2=Higham |first2=Thomas |last3=Ciarla |first3=Roberto |last4=Douka |first4=Katerina |last5=Kijngam |first5=Amphan |last6=Rispoli |first6=Fiorella |date=10 December 2011 |title=The Origins of the Bronze Age of Southeast Asia |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257607857 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=227–274 |doi=10.1007/s10963-011-9054-6 |bibcode=2011JWPre..24..227H |s2cid=162300712 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511090306/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257607857_The_Origins_of_the_Bronze_Age_of_Southeast_Asia |archive-date=11 May 2021 |access-date=10 February 2018 |via=Researchgate.net}}</ref> Iron appeared around 500 BCE.<ref name="Baker 2017" />{{rp|5}}

The [[Kingdom of Funan]] was the first and most powerful Southeast Asian kingdom at the time (2nd century BCE).<ref name="LePoer 1989" />{{rp|5}} The [[Mon people]] established the principalities of [[Dvaravati]] and Kingdom of [[Hariphunchai]] in the 6th century. The [[Khmer people]] established the [[Khmer empire]], centred in [[Angkor]], in the 9th century.<ref name="LePoer 1989" />{{rp|7}} [[Tambralinga]], a Malay state controlling trade through the [[Strait of Malacca|Malacca Strait]], rose in the 10th century.<ref name="LePoer 1989" />{{rp|5}} The Indochina peninsula was heavily influenced by the [[Indianized kingdom|culture and religions of India]] from the time of the Kingdom of Funan to that of the Khmer Empire.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589625/Thailand/274233/History?anchor=ref509754 Thailand. History] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402103818/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589625/Thailand/274233/History?anchor=ref509754 |date=2 April 2012}}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''</ref>

The [[Thai people]] are of the [[Tai peoples|Tai ethnic group]], characterised by common linguistic roots.<ref name="Wyatt 1984">{{Cite book |last=Wyatt |first=David K. |url=https://archive.org/details/thailand00davi |title=Thailand: A Short History |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-300-03054-9 |location=New Haven |author-link=David K. Wyatt}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Chinese chronicles first mention the Tai peoples in the 6th century BCE. While there are many assumptions regarding the origin of Tai peoples, [[David K. Wyatt]], a historian of Thailand, argued that their ancestors who at present inhabit Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, India, and China came from the [[Điện Biên Phủ]] area between the 5th and the 8th century.<ref name="Wyatt 1984" />{{rp|6}}

Thai people began migrating into present-day Thailand gradually from the 6th to 11th century, which Mon and Khmer people occupied at the time.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=E. Jane Keyes |last2=James A. Hafner |display-authors=et al. |year=2018 |title=Thailand: History |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Thailand/Sports-and-recreation#ref274233 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624002018/https://www.britannica.com/place/Thailand/Sports-and-recreation#ref274233 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Thus Thai culture was influenced by Indian, Mon, and Khmer cultures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keyes |first=Charles F. |title=Government policies and ethnic relations in Asia and the Pacific |publisher=MIT Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-262-52245-8 |editor-last=Michael E. Brown |pages=197–232 |chapter=Cultural Diversity and National Identity in Thailand |editor-last2=Sumit Ganguly |editor-link2=Sumit Ganguly}}</ref>{{rp|203}} Tai people intermixed with various ethnic and cultural groups in the region, resulting in many groups of present-day Thai people.{{efn-lr|See ''{{section link|#Ethnic groups}}''.}} Genetic evidences suggested that ethnolinguistics could not accurately predict the origins of the Thais.<ref name="genetic">{{cite journal |title=Reconstructing the Human Genetic History of Mainland Southeast Asia: Insights from Genome-Wide Data from Thailand and Laos |year=2021 |journal=Mol Biol Evol |volume=38 |issue=8 |pages=3459–3477 |pmid=33905512 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msab124 |first1=Wibhu |last1=Kutanan |first2=Dang |last2=Liu |first3=Jatupol |last3=Kampuansai |first4=Metawee |last4=Srikummool |first5=Suparat |last5=Srithawong |first6=Rasmi |last6=Shoocongdej |first7=Sukrit |last7=Sangkhano |first8=Sukhum |last8=Ruangchai |first9=Pittayawat |last9=Pittayaporn |first10=Leonardo |last10=Arias |first11=Mark |last11=Stoneking |pmc=8321548}}</ref><ref name="genetic2" /><ref name="genetic3" /> [[Sujit Wongthes]] argued that Thai is not a race or ethnicity but a culture group.<ref>{{cite web |title=ชนชาติไทย 'ไม่ใช่' คนไทย โดย สุจิตต์ วงษ์เทศ |url=https://www.matichon.co.th/columnists/news_4238682 |website=Matichon |date=18 October 2023 |access-date=20 February 2024 |archive-date=20 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220043823/https://www.matichon.co.th/columnists/news_4238682 |url-status=live}}</ref>

According to French historian [[George Cœdès]], "The Thai first enter history of [[Farther India]] in the eleventh century with the mention of ''Syam'' slaves or prisoners of war in [[Champa]] epigraphy", and "in the twelfth century, the [[bas-relief]]s of [[Angkor Wat]]" where "a group of warriors" are described as ''Syam'',<ref name="Coedes 1968" />{{rp|190–191, 194–195}} though Cham accounts do not indicate the origins of ''Syam'' or what ethnic group they belonged to.<ref name="Smith 2019">{{Cite thesis |last=Smith |first=John |title=State, Community, and Ethnicity in Early Modern Thailand, 1351–1767 |year=2019 |degree=PhD |url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/151629|institution=University of Michigan |hdl=2027.42/151629 |access-date=5 April 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160310/https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/151629 |url-status=live}}</ref> The origins and ethnicity of the ''Syam'' remain unclear, with some literature suggesting that ''Syam'' refers to the [[Shan people]], the [[Bru people]], or the [[Brau people]].<ref name="Smith 2019" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Juntanamalaga |first=Preecha |date=1 June 1988 |title=Thai or Siam? |url=http://ans-names.pitt.edu/ans/article/view/1181 |journal=Names |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=69–84 |doi=10.1179/nam.1988.36.1-2.69 |issn=1756-2279 |access-date=5 April 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150530/https://ans-names.pitt.edu/ans/article/view/1181 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free}}</ref> However, mainland Southeast Asian sources from before the fourteenth century primarily used the word ''Syam'' as an [[ethnonym]], referring to those who belonged to a separate cultural category different from the Khmer, Cham, Bagan, or Mon. This contrasts with the Chinese sources, where ''Xian'' was used as a [[toponym]].<ref name="Smith 2019" />

=== Early Tai confederate cities (691 BCE – 13th century CE) ===
{{see also|Initial states of Thailand|Lan Na}}
[[File:Tai Migration.svg|thumb|240px|Map showing geographic distribution of [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai linguistic family]]. Arrows represent general pattern of the migration of [[Tai peoples|Tai-speaking tribes]] along the rivers and over the lower passes.<ref name="Baker 2017" />{{rp|27}}]]
[[File:Location Lanna (under King Tilok).png|thumb|240px|[[Lan Na]] kingdom during the reign of [[Tilokaraj]] ({{tooltip|r.|reign}} 1441–1487)]]
Theoretically, [[Tai-Kadai]]-speaking people formed as early as the 12th century BCE in the middle of the [[Yangtze basin]]. Some groups later migrated south to [[Guangxi]].<ref name="Chamberlain 2016">{{cite journal |last = Chamberlain |first = James R. |year = 2016 |title = Kra-Dai and the Proto-History of South China and Vietnam |url = https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/pub_jss/article/view/158051 |journal = Journal of the Siam Society|volume = 104 |pages = 27–77 |access-date = 18 January 2024 |archive-date = 3 January 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230103043101/https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/pub_jss/article/view/158051 |url-status = live}}</ref> However, after several bloody centuries against [[China|Chinese]] influence in [[Guangxi]] between 333 BCE and the 11th century, hundreds of thousands of Tais were killed,<ref>{{citation | title = From Yue To Tai | first = Chris | last = Baker | author-link1 = Chris Baker (writer) | journal = Journal of the Siam Society | volume = 90 | issue = 1–2 | year = 2002 | pages = 1–26 | url = http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/2001/JSS_090_0b_Baker_YueToThai.pdf | access-date = 3 May 2018 | archive-date = 4 March 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000932/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/2001/JSS_090_0b_Baker_YueToThai.pdf | url-status = live}}</ref>{{rp|5}}<ref>{{citation
  | title = The Birth of Vietnam
  | given1 = Keith W.
  | surname1 = Taylor
  | author-link1 = Keith Taylor (historian)
  | publisher = University of California Press
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rCl_02LnNVIC&pg=PA18
  | year = 1991
  | isbn = 978-0-520-07417-0
  | access-date = 1 November 2020
  | archive-date = 7 July 2023
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230707155549/https://books.google.com/books?id=rCl_02LnNVIC&pg=PA18
  | url-status = live
}}</ref>{{rp|193, 239–249}} thus, [[Tai people]] began to move southwestward along the rivers and over the lower passes into the mountain north of [[Southeast Asia]] and river valleys in present-day [[Assam]] of [[India]].{{sfn|Baker|Phongpaichit|2017|p= 26}}<ref>{{Citation |last = Evans |first = Grant |title = A Short History of Laos: The Land in Between |url = https://cdn.preterhuman.net/texts/history/A%20Short%20History%20of%20Laos.pdf |year = 2002 |postscript = . |publisher = Allen & Unwin |isbn = 978-1-86448-997-2 |access-date = 18 January 2024 |archive-date = 29 February 2024 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240229191509/https://cdn.preterhuman.net/texts/history/A%20Short%20History%20of%20Laos.pdf |url-status = live}}</ref> Some evidence indicates that the ancestors of Tai people migrated en masse southwestwards out of Yunnan only after the 1253 [[Uriyangkhadai#Invasion of Yunnan and Tibet|Mongol invasion of Dali]]; however, it is not generally accepted.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Du |first1=Yuting |last2=Chen |first2=Lufan |year=1989 |title=Did Kublai Khan's Conquest of the Dali Kingdom Give Rise to the Mass Migration of the Thai People to the South? |url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_077_1c_DuYutingChenLufan_KublaiKhanConquestAndThaiMigration.pdf |journal=[[Journal of the Siam Society]] |volume=77 |issue=1c |quote=The Thai people in the north as well as in the south did not in any sense "migrate en masse to the south" after [[Kublai Khan]]'s conquest of the [[Dali Kingdom]] |access-date=18 January 2024 |archive-date=9 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909224400/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_077_1c_DuYutingChenLufan_KublaiKhanConquestAndThaiMigration.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|38}}

Tais defeated [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous tribes]] and emerged as the new power in the new region. As a result, several Tai city-states were established, scattered from [[Điện Biên Phủ]] in present-day northwestern [[Vietnam]] and highland [[Southeast Asia]] to [[northeastern India]].<ref name="jumsai1967">{{cite book|last=Jumsai|first=M.L. Manich|title=History of Laos|date=1967-08-05|publisher=Chalermnit |isbn=978-974-7390-21-6}}</ref><ref name="iml">{{cite book|last=Ratanavongsa|first=Prince Phetsarath|title=The Iron Man of Laos|date=1978|publisher=Dalley Book Service, Inc.}}</ref><ref name="PittayawatPittayaporn">[http://www.manusya.journals.chula.ac.th/files/essay/Pittayawat%2047-68.pdf Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (2014). Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627063518/http://www.manusya.journals.chula.ac.th/files/essay/Pittayawat%2047-68.pdf |date=27 June 2015}}. ''MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities'', Special Issue No 20: 47–64.</ref>

According to the ''Simhanavati legend'' given in several chronicles, the first Tai city-state in northern Thailand, [[Singhanavati]], was founded around the 7th century.<ref name="wieng">{{cite web|url=https://www.finearts.go.th/storage/contents/2023/09/file/VlgtCnpcC8lb56DrYVwSxhkD0KppEIHHFYgZHxZn.pdf|title=Wiang Nong Lom Cultural Heritage|year=2023|access-date=21 January 2024|publisher=[[Fine Arts Department]] of Thailand|archive-date=21 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121092447/https://www.finearts.go.th/storage/contents/2023/09/file/VlgtCnpcC8lb56DrYVwSxhkD0KppEIHHFYgZHxZn.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|5, 9}} However, several modern [[geology]] and [[archaeology]] studies found that its centre, Yonok Nahaphan, dates from 691 BCE–545 CE;<ref name="wieng" />{{rp|7}}<ref name="fine">{{cite web|url=https://www.finearts.go.th/fad7/view/26134-%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81-%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2|title=เมืองโยนก นครในตำนานล้านนา|language=th|year=2022|access-date=18 January 2024|publisher=[[Fine Arts Department]] of Thailand|archive-date=18 January 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240118051652/https://www.finearts.go.th/fad7/view/26134-%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81-%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2}}</ref><ref name="era">{{cite web|url=https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_9394|title=พระเจ้าพรหมมหาราช ในตำนานล้านนา นัยสำคัญของกษัตริย์สืบสายทางธรรม VS สายเลือด|date=28 January 2022|access-date=23 January 2024|language=th|author=พิเศษ เจียจันทร์พงษ์|website=silpa-mag.com|archive-date=23 January 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240123005838/https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_9394}}</ref><ref name="mgryo">{{cite web|url=https://mgronline.com/onlinesection/detail/9620000029196|title="รอยเลื่อนแม่จัน" กับ "โยนกเชียงแสน" ตำนานที่อาจมีอายุมากกว่า 1,800 ปี|language=th|date=24 April 2020|work=[[Manager Daily]]|archive-date=18 January 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240118051935/https://mgronline.com/onlinesection/detail/9620000029196}}</ref> this roughly coincides with the establishment of [[Shan people#History|Shan States]], another Tai's federated principalities in the present-day northeast [[Myanmar]].<ref>Du & Chen (1989), p. 38</ref><ref>''Hou Hanshu'' [https://ctext.org/hou-han-shu/xiao-he-xiao-shang-di-ji?searchu=%E6%92%A3%E5%9C%8B&searchmode=showall#result vol. 5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008094638/https://ctext.org/hou-han-shu/xiao-he-xiao-shang-di-ji?searchu=%E6%92%A3%E5%9C%8B&searchmode=showall#result |date=8 October 2023}} "九年春正月, 永昌徼外蠻夷及撣國重譯奉貢."</ref><ref>Hou Hanshu [https://ctext.org/hou-han-shu/xiao-an-di-ji?searchu=%E6%92%A3%E5%9C%8B&searchmode=showall#result vol. 6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008094430/https://ctext.org/hou-han-shu/xiao-an-di-ji?searchu=%E6%92%A3%E5%9C%8B&searchmode=showall#result |date=8 October 2023}} txt: "十二月, 永昌徼外撣國遣使貢獻."</ref><ref>Hou Hanshu [https://ctext.org/hou-han-shu/xiao-shun-xiao-chong-xiao-zhi?searchu=%E6%92%A3%E5%9C%8B&searchmode=showall#result vol. 7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008094636/https://ctext.org/hou-han-shu/xiao-shun-xiao-chong-xiao-zhi?searchu=%E6%92%A3%E5%9C%8B&searchmode=showall#result |date=8 October 2023}} txt: "十二月, 日南徼外葉調國、撣國遣使貢獻."</ref> as well as [[Muang Sua]] ([[Luang Prabang]]) in the east.<ref name="Viravond">{{cite web |url=http://www.reninc.org/bookshelf/history_of_laos_viravong.pdf |title=HISTORY OF LAOS |author=Maha Sila Viravond |access-date=29 December 2017 |publisher=Refugee Educators' Network |archive-date=3 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403030051/http://www.reninc.org/bookshelf/history_of_laos_viravong.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Manich">{{cite web |url=http://www.reninc.org/bookshelf/history_of_laos_manich.pdf |title=HISTORY OF LAOS (including the history of Lonnathai, Chiangmai) |author=M.L. Manich |access-date=29 December 2017 |publisher=Refugee Educators' Network |archive-date=8 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008182646/http://www.reninc.org/bookshelf/history_of_laos_manich.pdf}}</ref>

After Singhanavati was submerged below [[Chiang Saen Lake]] due to an [[earthquake]] in 545,<ref name="fine" /><ref name="mgryo" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wood|first1=Spencer H.|last2=Wood|first2=Layle R.|last3=Ziegler|first3=Alan D.|date=2015-11-02|title=Natural degradation of earthworks, trenches, walls and moats, Northern Thailand|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00934690.2015.1103645|journal=Journal of Field Archaeology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=675–694|doi=10.1080/00934690.2015.1103645|s2cid=32414373|issn=0093-4690|access-date=18 January 2024|archive-date=18 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118052630/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00934690.2015.1103645|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> the survivors then founded a new seat at {{ill|Wieng–Prueksha|th|เวียงปรึกษา}}. The kingdom lasted for another 93 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.finearts.go.th/kamphaengphetmuseum/view/36351-%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87-%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99-3|title=ตามหาเมืองเงินยาง ตอน 3|website=finearts.go.th|access-date=10 November 2023|language=th|archive-date=3 November 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231103080945/https://www.finearts.go.th/kamphaengphetmuseum/view/36351-%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87-%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99-3}}</ref>

In addition to [[Singhanavati]], another northern principality probably related to the Tai people, [[Ngoenyang]], was established as the successor of Singhanavati in 638 by {{ill|Lavachakkaraj|th|ปู่เจ้าลาวจก}}, also centred in {{ill|Wieng–Prueksha|th|เวียงปรึกษา}} (present-day [[Mae Sai District]], [[Chiang Rai province|Chiang Rai]]).<ref name="Baker 2014" />{{rp|8}} Its seat was moved to [[Chiang Mai]] in 1262 by King [[Mangrai]], which considered the foundation of the [[Lan Na]] kingdom. Mangrai unified the surrounding area and also created a network of states through political alliances to the east and north of the [[Mekong]]. His dynasty would rule the kingdom continuously for the next two centuries.<ref name="Baker 2014" />{{rp|8}} [[Lan Na]] expanded its territory southward and annexed the [[Mon people|Mon]] [[Hariphunchai]] of [[Dvaravati]] in 1292.<ref name=Coedes>{{cite book|last= Coedès|first= George|author-link= George Coedès|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}</ref>{{rp|208}}

In the late tenth century, Tai people began to migrate further south to the present-day upper [[central Thailand]].<ref name=ch>{{cite book|last=Thepthani|first=Phra Borihan|title=Thai National Chronicles: the history of the nation since ancient times|date=1953|access-date=5 November 2023|language=th|archive-date=5 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105023428/http://www.car.chula.ac.th/rarebook/book2/clra53_0235/mobile/index.html#p=1|publisher=S. Thammasamakkhi|url=http://www.car.chula.ac.th/rarebook/book2/clra53_0235/mobile/index.html}}</ref>{{rp|46–9, 83–6}} Around the 1100s period, several cities in this area, such as Songkwae, Sawankhalok, and Chakangrao, were ruled by the Tai people, eventually launching several battles against the pre-existing [[Mon people|Mon]] of [[Lavo Kingdom|Lavo]], who had been falling under [[Chenla]] and [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] influences since the 7th century, thus bringing the establishment of the Tai people's independent state, [[Sukhothai Kingdom]], in the upper [[Chao Phraya River]] valley in 1238.<ref name="Wyatt 1984" />{{rp|52–3}}

The earliest conflict between [[Tai people]] and the preexisting ethnics was recorded in the mid-4th century when the ruler of [[Singhanavati]], {{ill|Pangkharat|th|พระเจ้าพังคราช}}, forcibly lost the seat at Yonok to King Khom from Umongasela (present-day [[Fang district|Fang]]). He then fled to Vieng Si Tuang ({{lang|th|เวียงศรีทวง}}; present-day Wiang Phang Kham, [[Mae Sai district]]) but had to send tributes to Yonok annually until his son, [[Phrom]], took back Yonok and expelled King Khom from Umongasela.<ref name=krai/><ref name=prom>{{cite web|url=https://mgronline.com/onlinesection/detail/9660000032394|title=๒ มหาราชของคนไทยก่อนเกิดประเทศไทย! ๒ เมืองหลวงเป็นอำเภอและจังหวัดในปัจจุบัน!!|date=7 April 2023|access-date=19 January 2024|language=th|work=[[Manager Daily]]|author=โรม บุนนาค|archive-date=19 January 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240119005234/https://mgronline.com/onlinesection/detail/9660000032394}}</ref><ref name=chiangrai>{{cite web|url=http://123.242.164.131/cpwp/?page_id=60|title=ประวัติของจังหวัดเชียงราย|trans-title=History of Chiang Rai Province|year=2024|access-date=21 January 2024|language=th|publisher=Chiang Rai Provincial Administrative Organization|archive-date=21 January 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240121100907/http://123.242.164.131/cpwp/?page_id=60}}</ref> [[Phrom]] also marched the troops south to occupy [[Kamphaeng Phet province|Chakangrao]] from the enemy as well as founding the city of [[Phitsanulok|Songkwae]].<ref name=krai/> Some historians suggest that [[Lavo Kingdom|Lavo]]'s capital, [[Lopburi]], was once seized by [[Phrom]].<ref name=krai>{{cite web|url=https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_89008|title=เมืองลพบุรีเป็นของไทยเมื่อใด?|language=th|date=30 December 2022|author=สงบ สุริยินทร์|website=silpa-mag.com|archive-date=25 December 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231225062249/https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_89008|access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref> In contrast, [[Tai people]] instead established relationships with Mon via [[royal intermarriage]]s.<ref name=ch/>{{rp|46–9, 83–6}}

=== Mon and Lavo Kingdoms (5th century CE – 13th century CE) ===
{{see also|Mon people|Thai people|Mon kingdoms|Lavo Kingdom}}
[[File:Mon political entities.png|Political entities of the Mon people around the 6th–7th centuries|thumb|240px]]
[[File:DvaravatiMapThailand.png|thumb|Map of settlements of Dvaravati culture from the 6th to 9th centuries|240px]]
The [[Chao Phraya River]] in what is now [[central Thailand]] had once been the home of the [[Mon people|Mon]] [[Dvaravati]] culture, which prevailed from the seventh century to the tenth century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wyatt|2003|p=18}}</ref> Samuel Beal discovered the polity among the Chinese writings on Southeast Asia as "Duoluobodi". During the early 20th century, archaeological excavations led by [[George Coedès]] found [[Nakhon Pathom Province]] to be a centre of Dvaravati culture. The two most important sites were Nakorn Pathom and U Thong (in modern [[Suphan Buri Province]]). The inscriptions of Dvaravati were in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Mon language|Mon]] using the script derived from the [[Pallava alphabet]] of the [[South India]]n Pallava dynasty.

It is believed that the Dvaravati borrowed [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] through its contacts with Sri Lanka, while the ruling class participated in [[Hindu]] rites. [[Dvaravati art]], including the Buddha sculptures and [[stupa]]s, showed strong similarities to those of the [[Gupta Empire]] of India. The eastern parts of the Chao Phraya valley were subjected to a more Khmer and Hindu influence as the inscriptions are found in Khmer and Sanskrit.<ref>Brown, Robert L. (1996). ''The Dvaravati wheels of law and the Indianization of South East Asia''. Leiden: E.J.Brill</ref>

Dvaravati was a network of city-states paying tribute to more powerful ones according to the [[Mandala (Southeast Asian political model)|mandala political model]]. Dvaravati culture expanded into [[Isan]] as well as south as far as the [[Kra Isthmus]]. Dvaravati culture lost its influence around the tenth century when they submitted to the more unified Lavo-Khmer polity.

Around the tenth century, the city-states of Dvaravati merged into the mandalas of: [[Lavo]] (modern [[Lopburi]]) and [[Suvarnabhumi]] (modern [[Suphan Buri]]). According to a legend in the Northern Chronicles, in 903, a king of [[Tambralinga]] invaded and took Lavo and installed a Malay prince on the Lavo throne. The Malay prince was married to a Khmer princess who had fled an Angkorian dynastic bloodbath. The son of the couple contested the Khmer throne and became [[Suryavarman I]] (1006–1050), thus bringing Lavo under Khmer domination through marital union. Suryavarman I also expanded into the [[Khorat Plateau]] (later styled "Isan"), constructing many temples.

[[File:ปราสาทปรางค์สามยอด2.jpg|thumb|240px|Wat [[Phra Prang Sam Yod]], a 13th-century Angkorian temple in [[Lopburi]].]]
After the [[Angkor]] lost Lavo to [[Suphannabhum]] princes in 1052, the younger prince [[Chandrachota]] claimed the throne. His son, [[Narai I]], moved Lavo's seat to [[Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (city)|Ayodhya]] in the 1080s. This resulted in the throne of Lavo's Lavaburi being vacant from 1087 to 1106 (or ruled by unknown kings), [[Si Satchanalai]] king, [[Kesariraja]] who is of [[Mon people|Mon]]'s [[Mueang Chaliang|Chaliang]] and [[Tai people|Tai]]'s [[Chiang Saen]] lineages, took over the seat. An attempt to re-expand influence to Lavo by the Angkor occurred in 1181 when [[Jayavarman VII]] appointed his lineage Narupatidnavarman to govern Lavapura.<ref name=indra>{{cite web|url=https://www.matichonacademy.com/tour-story/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81-%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0-%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%88-%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%82|title=จาก 'ลวะปุระ' สู่ 'เมืองละโว้' ลูกหลวงแห่งเมืองพระนคร|trans-title=From 'Lavapura' to 'Lavo City', the frontier city of the capital of Phra Nakhon|author=ศานติ ภักดีคำ|language=th|access-date=6 November 2023}}</ref> Due to this political pressure, a Tai ruler Sri Thammasokkarat
({{lang|th|ศรีธรรมโศกราช}}), who was also from Si Satchanalai, fled to [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom|Nakhon Si Thammarat]].<ref name=ori>{{cite web|url=http://dspace.nstru.ac.th:8080/dspace/bitstream/123456789/337/1/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A.pdf|title=พระเจ้าศรีธรรมาโศกราช|trans-title=Sri Thammasokaraj|language=th|author=Chatchai Sukrakarn|accessdate=6 November 2024|date=October 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240812062734/http://dspace.nstru.ac.th:8080/dspace/bitstream/123456789/337/1/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A.pdf |archive-date=12 August 2024 }}</ref>{{rp|38–39}} Sri Thammasokkarat married to princess of Dhanyapura (Dong Mae Nang Mueang in the present-day [[Nakhon Sawan province]]), and their descendants ruled [[Tambralinga]] until the late 13th century.<ref name=pad>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718122816/https://thesiamsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/1976/03/JSS_064_1l_ChandChirayuRajani_ReviewArticleBackgroundToSriVijayaIV.pdf|title=Background to the Sri Vijaya Story – Part IV|date=2020|author=Chand Chirayu Rajani|accessdate=13 April 2025|archivedate=18 July 2020|url=https://thesiamsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/1976/03/JSS_064_1l_ChandChirayuRajani_ReviewArticleBackgroundToSriVijayaIV.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|290–2}} [[The Customs of Cambodia]] of [[Zhou Daguan]], as an official delegation sent by the [[Yuan dynasty]] to [[Angkor]] from 1296 to 1297, says the Siamese people exerted significant influence over Lavo's [[Lopburi|Lavapura]] and appeared in huge numbers in the Angkorian capital of [[Yaśodharapura]].<ref name="Reviewed Work: A record of Cambodia">{{cite journal|title=Reviewed Work: A record of Cambodia: the land and its people by Zhou Daguan, Peter Harris, David Chandler|journal = Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|volume = 166|issue = 1|pages = 155–157|jstor = 27868568|last1 = Leang|first1 = UN|year = 2010}}</ref><ref name="siamese">{{cite book |author=Zhou Daguan|title=A Record of Cambodia: The Land and Its People|translator=Peter Harris |publisher=Silkworm Books |year= 2007 |isbn=978-1628401721 }}</ref>

[[Phra Prang Sam Yot|Prang Sam Yot]] was built during this period.<ref name=sitham/>{{rp|170}} However, Lavapura was probably taken back by a Tai royal from Phraek Si Racha ({{lang|th|แพรกศรีราชา}}; present-day [[Sankhaburi district|Sankhaburi]]) in the 13th century.<ref name=ch/>{{rp|109}} During this era, Angkor's power waned due to the weak rule and feuding began in the Angkor.<ref name=Higham1>Higham, C., 2014, ''Early Mainland Southeast Asia'', Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd., {{ISBN|9786167339443}}</ref>{{rp|120}}

All of the turmoil, as mentioned earlier, also led to the independence declaration of the [[Sukhothai Kingdom]] in 1238.<ref name=lost>{{cite web|url=http://www.damrong-journal.su.ac.th/upload/pdf/79_1.pdf|title=ตำนวนเมืองลพบุรี (ละโว้)|author=ผาสุข อินทราวุธ|language=th|website=www.damrong-journal.su.ac.th|archive-date=6 November 2023|access-date=6 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106081745/http://www.damrong-journal.su.ac.th/upload/pdf/79_1.pdf}}</ref>

==== The earliest evidence mentioning the Siamese ====
The earliest evidence to mention the Siam people are stone inscriptions found in [[Angkor Borei]] of [[Funan]] (K.557 and K.600), dated 661 CE, the slave's name is mentioned as "Ku Sayam" meaning "Sayam female slaves" (Ku is a prefix used to refer to female slaves in the pre-Angkorian era), and the Takéo inscriptions (K.79) written in 682 during the reign of [[Bhavavarman II]] of [[Chenla]] also mention Siam Nobel: ''Sāraṇnoya Poña Sayam'', which was transcribed into English as: ''the rice field that was given to the poña (noble rank) who was called Sayam (Siam)''.<ref name="eth">{{cite web|url=https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_90594|title=จาก "เสียม (สยาม)" สู่ "ไถ (ไทย)": บริบทและความหมายในการรับรู้ของชาวกัมพูชา|date=March 2009|access-date=23 December 2023|language=th|website=silpa-mag.com|archive-date=23 December 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231223043505/https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_90594}}</ref>

The [[Song Huiyao Jigao]] (960–1279) indicate Siamese people settled in the west [[central Thailand]] and their state was called ''Xiān guó'' ({{lang-zh|暹國}}), while the eastern plain belonged to the Mon of [[Lavo Kingdom|Lavo]] ({{lang-zh|羅渦國}}),<ref name="ngr">{{cite web|url=https://mgronline.com/daily/detail/9660000105649|work=[[Manager Daily]]|language=th|date=1 December 2023|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=23 December 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231223012308/https://mgronline.com/daily/detail/9660000105649|title=เส้นทางศรีวิชัย: เครือข่ายทางการค้าที่ยิ่งใหญ่ที่สุดในทะเลใต้ยุคโบราณ ตอน ราชวงศ์ไศเลนทร์ที่จัมบิ (ประมาณ พ.ศ.1395–1533) (ตอนจบ)}}</ref> who later fell under the [[Chenla]] and [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] hegemony around the 7th–9th centuries.<ref>[http://www.napho.org/knowledge/thi/thi20.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828170533/http://www.napho.org/knowledge/thi/thi20.htm|date=28 August 2009}}</ref> Those Mon political entities, which also included [[Haripuñjaya]] in the north and several city-states in the [[northeastern Thailand|northeast]], are collectively called [[Dvaravati]].

However, the states of Siamese and Lavo were later merged via the [[royal intermarriage]] and became [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]] in the mid-14th century,<ref name="ngr" /> while the southwestern [[Isan]] principalities, centred in [[Phanom Rung Historical Park|Phanom Rung]] and [[Phimai]], later pledged allegiance to Siamese's Ayutthaya during the reign of [[Borommarachathirat II]] ({{tooltip|r.|reign}} 1424–1448).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_34499|title=คนโคราช ไม่ใช่ "ลาว" แล้วคนโคราชเป็นใคร? มาจากไหน?|author=สุจิตต์ วงษ์เทศ|date=4 December 2023|access-date=19 January 2024|language=th|website=silpa-mag.com|archive-date=18 January 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240118211306/https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_34499}}</ref> The remaining principal city-states in [[Isan]] region became [[Lan Xang]] around 1353 after the twin cities of [[Muang Sua]] ([[Luang Prabang]]) and ''Vieng Chan Vieng Kham'' ([[Vientiane]]) became independent following the death of the [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]] king [[Ram Khamhaeng]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wyatt|first=David K.|title=Thailand: A Short History|year=2003|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08475-7}}</ref>{{rp|51}}

According to the Wat Kud Tae inscription (K.1105), dated c. 7th century, during the period that the eastern Mon entity, [[Lavo Kingdom|Lavo]], was strongly influenced by the [[Chenla]], the Siamese in the west also established a [[royal intermarriage]] with [[Chenla]] as Sri Chakatham, prince of Sambhuka (ศามภูกะ, in the present-day [[Ratchaburi province]]), married to a princess of [[Isanavarman I]], and two [[Mandala (political model)|mandala]]s then became an ally.<ref name=ally>{{cite web|url=https://www.matichonweekly.com/column/article_624632|title=พระนางจามเทวี จารึกศรีวิชัย สายสัมพันธ์ขอมเจนละ-จามปา ในมุมมองของ ผศ.พงศ์เกษม สนธิไทย|language=th|date=17 November 2022|access-date=17 January 2024|publisher=[[Matichon]]|author=เพ็ญสุภา สุขคตะ|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240116235530/https://www.matichonweekly.com/column/article_624632}}</ref> After [[Chenla]] sieged [[Funan]] and moved the centre to [[Angkor]], both Siamese and the Angkorian eventually marched the troops to attack [[Vijaya (Champa)|Vijaya]] of [[Champa]] in 1201 during the reign of [[Jayavarman VII]], as recorded in the Cho-Dinh inscription (C.3).<ref name=c3>{{cite web|url=https://isaw.nyu.edu/publications/inscriptions/campa/inscriptions/C0003.html|title=Corpus of the Inscriptions of Campā: C. 3 Lintel from Phan Rang|access-date=17 January 2024|publisher=[[New York University]]|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240116233605/https://isaw.nyu.edu/publications/inscriptions/campa/inscriptions/C0003.html}}</ref>

=== Sukhothai Kingdom (1238 CE – 14th century CE) ===
{{main|Sukhothai Kingdom}}
{{multiple image
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| align             = right
| title             = [[Sukhothai Kingdom]]
| image1            = Southeast Asian history - 13th century.png
| caption1          = Sukhothai and neighbours, end of 13th century CE
| image2            = Phra Achana (I).jpg
| caption2          = Phra Achana, Wat Si Chum, Sukhothai Historical Park
| image3            = Sukhothai Historical Park.jpg
| caption3          = The ruins of Wat Mahathat, [[Sukhothai Historical Park]]
}}

After the decline of the Khmer Empire and [[Pagan Kingdom|Kingdom of Pagan]] in the early 13th century, various states thrived in their place. The domains of Tai people existed from the northeast of present-day India to the north of present-day Laos and to the [[Malay Peninsula]].<ref name="Wyatt 1984" />{{rp|38–9}} During the 13th century, Tai people had already settled in the core land of [[Dvaravati]] and [[Lavo Kingdom]] to [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom|Nakhon Si Thammarat]] in the south. There are, however, no records detailing the arrival of the Tais.<ref name="Wyatt 1984" />{{rp|50–1}}

Around 1240, [[Si Inthrathit|Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao]], a local Tai ruler, rallied the people to rebel against the Khmer. He later crowned himself the first king of [[Sukhothai Kingdom]] in 1238.<ref name="Wyatt 1984" />{{rp|52–3}} Mainstream Thai historians count Sukhothai as the first kingdom of Thai people. Sukhothai expanded furthest during the reign of [[Ram Khamhaeng]] ({{Reign|1279|1298}}). However, it was mostly a network of local lords who swore fealty to Sukhothai, not directly controlled by it.<ref name="Wyatt 1984" />{{rp|pages=55–56}} He is believed have invented [[Thai script]] and Thai ceramics were an important export in his era. Sukhothai embraced [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]] in the reign of [[Maha Thammaracha I]] (1347–1368).

=== Ayutthaya Kingdom (1351–1767) ===
{{main|Ayutthaya Kingdom|Galeote Pereira|Burmese–Siamese War (1547–1549)|Burmese–Siamese War (1584–1593)}}
{{multiple image
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| title             = [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]]
| image2            = Map of Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1545.jpg
| caption2          = Ayutthaya and neighbors, {{circa|1540}} CE
| image1            = Map of Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1390.jpg
| caption1          = Ayutthaya and neighbors, {{circa|1390}} CE
| image3            = Bird's Eye View of Iudiad City (Ayutthaya) c1665.jpg
| caption3          = Painting of Ayutthaya city {{circa|1665}}, by [[Johannes Vingboons]]
}}

According to the most widely accepted version of its origin, the Ayutthaya Kingdom rose from the earlier, nearby [[Lavo Kingdom]] and Suvarnabhumi with [[Uthong]] as its first king. Ayutthaya was a patchwork of self-governing principalities and tributary provinces owing allegiance to the King of Ayutthaya under the [[Mandala (political model)|mandala system]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Higham |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ifNH4uK0LAC&pg=PA355 |title=The Archaeology of Mainland Southeast Asia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |isbn=0-521-27525-3 |access-date=6 September 2009 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150350/https://books.google.com/books?id=-ifNH4uK0LAC&pg=PA355#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|355}} Its initial expansion was through conquest and political marriage.

Before the end of the 15th century, Ayutthaya invaded the Khmer Empire three times and sacked its capital [[Angkor]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=เกษตรศิริ |first=ชาญวิทย์ |title=อยุธยา: ประวัติศาสตร์และการเมือง |date=2005 |publisher=โรงพิมพ์มหาวิทยาลัยธรรมศาสตร์ |isbn=978-974-91572-7-5}}</ref>{{rp|26}} Ayutthaya then became a regional power in place of the Khmer. Constant interference of Sukhothai effectively made it a vassal state of Ayutthaya and it was finally incorporated into the kingdom. [[Borommatrailokkanat]] brought about bureaucratic reforms which lasted into the 20th century and created a system of social hierarchy called ''[[sakdina]]'', where male commoners were conscripted as [[corvée]] labourers for six months a year.<ref name="Wyatt 20132">{{Cite book |last=Wyatt |first=David K. |title=Thailand: A Short History |date=2013 |publisher=มูลนิธิโครงการตำราสังคมศาสตร์และมนุษยศาสตร์, มูลนิธิโตโยต้าประเทศไทย |isbn=978-616-7202-38-9 |language=th |translator-last=ละอองศรี |translator-first=กาญจนี |trans-title=ประวัติศาสตร์ไทยฉบับสังเขป}}</ref>{{rp|107}} Ayutthaya was interested in the [[Malay Peninsula]] but failed to conquer the [[Malacca Sultanate]], which was supported by the Chinese [[Ming dynasty]].<ref name="LePoer 1989" />{{rp|11, 13}}

European contact and trade started in the early-16th century, with the [[Duarte Fernandes|envoy]] of [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] duke [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] in 1511. Portugal became an ally and ceded some soldiers to King Rama Thibodi II.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ayutthaya history Foreign Settlements |url=https://www.ayutthaya-history.com/Settlements_Portuguese.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706001102/https://www.ayutthaya-history.com/Settlements_Portuguese.html |archive-date=6 July 2020 |access-date=24 May 2020}}</ref> The Portuguese were followed in the 17th century by the French, Dutch, and English. Rivalry for supremacy over Chiang Mai and the Mon people pitted Ayutthaya against the Burmese Kingdom. Several wars with its ruling [[Taungoo dynasty]] starting in the 1540s in the reign of [[Tabinshwehti]] and [[Bayinnaung]] were ultimately ended with the [[Burmese–Siamese War (1568–70)|capture of the capital in 1570]].<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|146–7}} Then a brief period of vassalage to Burma until [[Naresuan]] proclaimed independence in 1584 followed.<ref name="Baker 2014">{{Cite book |last1=Baker |first1=Christopher |title=A History of Thailand |last2=Phongpaichit |first2=Pasuk |date=2014 |publisher=C.O.S Printers Pte Ltd |isbn=978-1-107-42021-2 |location=Singapore}}</ref>{{rp|11}}

Ayutthaya sought to improve relations with European powers for many successive reigns. The kingdom especially prospered during cosmopolitan [[Narai]]'s reign (1656–1688), when some European travellers regarded Ayutthaya as an Asian great power, alongside China and India.<ref name="Baker 2017" />{{rp|ix}} However, growing French influence later in his reign was met with nationalist sentiment and eventually led to the [[Siamese revolution of 1688]].<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|185–6}} Despite the revolution, overall relations remained stable, with French missionaries still actively preaching Christianity.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|186}}

After a bloody period of dynastic struggle, Ayutthaya entered what has been called the Siamese "[[golden age]]", a relatively peaceful episode in the second quarter of the 18th century where [[Thai art|art]], [[Thai literature|literature]], and learning flourished. There were seldom foreign wars, apart from conflict with the [[Nguyễn lords]] for control of [[Cambodia]] starting around 1715. The last fifty years of the kingdom witnessed bloody succession crises, where there were purges of court officials and able generals for many consecutive reigns. In 1765, a combined 40,000-strong force of Burmese armies [[Burmese–Siamese War (1759–60)|invaded it]] from the north and west.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=G E |title=History of Burma |publisher=Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. |year=1925 |location=London}}</ref>{{rp|250}} The Burmese under the new [[Alaungpaya]] dynasty quickly rose to become a new local power by 1759. After a 14-month siege, the capital city's walls fell and the city was burned in April 1767.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ruangsilp |first=Bhawan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0xBGwFrYnaMC |title=Dutch East India Company Merchants at the Court of Ayutthaya: Dutch Perceptions of the Thai Kingdom c. 1604–1765 |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-300-08475-7 |location=Leiden, Netherlands |access-date=20 November 2009 |archive-date=28 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628192706/https://books.google.com/books?id=0xBGwFrYnaMC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{RP|218}}

=== Thonburi Kingdom (1767–1782) ===
{{main|Thonburi Kingdom}}

[[File:KingTaksin's coronation.jpg|thumb|right|[[Taksin the Great]] enthroned himself as a Thai king in 1767.]]
The capital and many of its territories lay in chaos after the war. The former capital was occupied by the [[Burma|Burmese]] garrison army and five local leaders declared themselves overlords, including the lords of Sakwangburi, [[Phitsanulok]], [[Pimai]], [[Chanthaburi]], and [[Nakhon Si Thammarat]]. [[Taksin|Chao Tak]], a capable military leader, proceeded to make himself a lord by [[right of conquest]], beginning with the legendary sack of [[Chanthaburi]]. Based at Chanthaburi, Chao Tak raised troops and resources, and sent a fleet up the [[Chao Phraya]] to take the fort of [[Thonburi]]. In the same year, Chao Tak was able to retake Ayutthaya from the Burmese only seven months after the fall of the city.<ref>จรรยา ประชิตโรมรัน. (2548). สมเด็จพระเจ้าตากสินมหาราช. สำนักพิมพ์แห่งจุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย. หน้า 55</ref>

Chao Tak then crowned himself as [[Taksin]] and proclaimed [[Thonburi]] as temporary capital in the same year. He also quickly subdued the other warlords. His forces engaged in wars with Burma, Laos, and Cambodia, which successfully [[Burmese–Siamese War (1774–1775)|drove the Burmese out of Lan Na]] in 1775,<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|225}} [[Lao–Siamese War (1778–1779)|captured Vientiane]] in 1778<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|227–8}} and [[Siamese–Vietnamese War (1769–1773)|tried to install a pro-Thai king in Cambodia]] in the 1770s. In his final years there was a coup, supposedly caused by his "insanity", and eventually Taksin and his sons were executed by his longtime companion General [[Rama I|Chao Phraya Chakri]] (the future Rama I). He was the first king of the ruling [[Chakri dynasty]] and founder of the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom]] on 6 April 1782.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rama I {{!}} Thai Monarch, Ayutthaya Dynasty {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rama-I |access-date=2025-05-26 |website=www.britannica.com |archive-date=24 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124032752/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rama-I |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Rattanakosin Kingdom and modernization (1782 –1932) ===
{{Main|Rattanakosin Kingdom}}

{{multiple image
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| caption_align     = center
| align             = right
| title             = [[Rattanakosin Kingdom]]
| image1            = Siam_in_1900,_During_Rama_V's_Reign.jpg
| caption1          = Detailed map of Siam's provinces, vassals, and monthons in 1900
| image2            = Emerald Buddha, August 2012, Bangkok (cropped).jpg
| caption2          = [[Emerald Buddha]] in [[Wat Phra Kaew]]. Considered the sacred palladium of Thailand.
| image3            = King and Tsar.jpg
| caption3          = [[Chulalongkorn]] with [[Nicholas II]] in Saint Petersburg, 1897
| caption4          = Siamese territory and dominion at its largest in 1805, resulting from the [[Burmese–Siamese War (1802–1805)]]
| image4            = Siamese Territory and Dominion in 1805.jpg
}}

Under [[Rama I]] (1782–1809), Rattanakosin successfully defended against Burmese attacks and put an end to Burmese incursions. He also created suzerainty over large portions of Laos and Cambodia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nolan |first=Cathal J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FMJ8KP8i3v0C&pg=PA1653 |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of International Relations: S-Z by Cathal J. Nolan |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-313-32383-6 |access-date=21 November 2015 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150813/https://books.google.com/books?id=FMJ8KP8i3v0C&pg=PA1653 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1821, Briton [[John Crawfurd]] was sent to negotiate a new trade agreement with Siam – the first sign of an issue which was to dominate 19th century Siamese politics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hwa |first=Cheng Siok |year=1971 |title=The Crawford Papers – A Collection of Official Records relating to the Mission of Dr. John Crawfurd sent to Siam by the Government of India in the year 1821 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=324–325 |doi=10.1017/S0022463400019421}}</ref> Bangkok signed the [[Burney Treaty]] in 1826, after the British victory in the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]].<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|281}}

[[Anouvong]] of Vientiane, who mistakenly held the belief that Britain was about to launch an invasion of Bangkok, started the [[Lao rebellion (1826–28)|Lao rebellion]] in 1826, which was suppressed.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|283–5}} Vientiane was destroyed and a large number of [[Lao people]] were relocated to [[Khorat Plateau]] as a result.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|285–6}} Bangkok also waged [[Siamese–Vietnamese wars|several wars]] with [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Vietnam]], where Siam successfully regained hegemony over Cambodia.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|290–2}}

From the late 19th century, Siam tried to rule the ethnic groups in the realm as colonies.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|308}} In the reign of [[Mongkut]] (1851–1868), who recognised the potential threat Western powers posed to Siam, his court contacted the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] directly to defuse tensions.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|311}} A British mission led by Sir [[John Bowring]], Governor of [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], led to the signing of the [[Bowring Treaty]], the first of many [[Unequal treaty|unequal treaties]] with Western countries. This, however, brought trade and economic development to Siam.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2004 |title=Ode to Friendship, Celebrating Singapore – Thailand Relations: Introduction |url=http://www.a2o.com.sg/a2o/public/html/online_exhibit/odetoFriendship/html/Introduction/index.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303000031/http://www.a2o.com.sg/a2o/public/html/online_exhibit/odetoFriendship/html/Introduction/index.htm |archive-date=3 March 2007 |access-date=24 April 2007 |publisher=National Archives of Singapore}}</ref> The unexpected death of Mongkut from [[malaria]] led to the reign of underage King [[Chulalongkorn]], with [[Somdet Chaophraya Sri Suriwongse]] (Chuang Bunnag) acting as regent.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|327}}

Chulalongkorn ({{Reign|1868|1910}}) initiated centralisation, set up a privy council, and abolished slavery and the [[corvée]] system. The [[Front Palace crisis]] of 1874 stalled attempts at further reforms.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|331–3}} In the 1870s and 1880s, he incorporated the protectorates up north into the kingdom proper, which later expanded to the protectorates in the northeast and the south.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|334–5}} He established twelve ''krom'' in 1888, which were equivalent to present-day ministries.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|347}} The [[Franco-Siamese War|crisis of 1893]] erupted, caused by French demands for Laotian territory east of Mekong.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|350–3}}

Thailand is the only Southeast Asian state never to have been colonised by a Western power,<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 September 2006 |title=King, country and the coup |work=The Indian Express |location=Mumbai |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/king-country-and-the-coup/13140/0 |url-status=live |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514225625/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/king-country-and-the-coup/13140/0 |archive-date=14 May 2011}}</ref> in part because Britain and France agreed in 1896 to make the [[Chao Phraya]] valley a [[buffer state]].<ref>[http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1896/TS0005%20(1896)%20C-8010%201896%2015%20JAN,%20LONDON%3B%20DECLARATION%20BETWEEN%20GB%20AND%20FRANCE%20WITH%20REGARD%20TO%20THE%20KINGDOM%20OF%20SIAM%20AND%20OTHER%20MATTERS.pdf ''Declaration between Great Britain and France with regard of the Kingdom of Siam and other matters''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331025152/http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1896/TS0005%20(1896)%20C-8010%201896%2015%20JAN,%20LONDON%3B%20DECLARATION%20BETWEEN%20GB%20AND%20FRANCE%20WITH%20REGARD%20TO%20THE%20KINGDOM%20OF%20SIAM%20AND%20OTHER%20MATTERS.pdf |date=31 March 2017}} London. 15 January 1896. Treaty Series. No. 5</ref> Not until the 20th century could Siam renegotiate every unequal treaty dating from the Bowring Treaty, including [[extraterritoriality]]. The advent of the ''monthon'' system marked the creation of the modern Thai nation-state.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|362–3}} In 1905, there were unsuccessful rebellions in the ancient [[Patani (historical region)|Patani]] area, Ubon Ratchathani, and Phrae in opposition to an attempt to blunt the power of local lords.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|371–3}}

The [[Palace Revolt of 1912]] was a failed attempt by Western-educated military officers to overthrow the Siamese monarchy.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|397}} [[Vajiravudh]] ({{Reign|1910|1925}}) responded by propaganda for the entirety of his reign,<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|402}} which promoted the [[Thaification|idea of the Thai nation]].<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|404}} In 1917, Siam [[Siam in World War I|joined the First World War]] on the side of [[Allies of World War I|the Allies]].<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|407}} In the aftermath, Siam had a seat at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] and gained freedom of taxation and the revocation of extraterritoriality.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|408}}

=== Military dictatorship era (1932–1973) ===
{{Main|Thailand in World War II|History of Thailand (1932–1973)}}

[[File:Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram.jpg|thumb|200px|Field Marshal Plaek Pibulsonggram]]

A period of wasteful spending by [[Vajiravudh|King Vajiravudh]] followed by the [[Great Depression]] brought economic hardships on Thailand, with sharply falling rice prices, a significant reduction in public spending, eroded confidence in the monarchy, and discontent among aristocratic supporters all contributing to the destabilization of the [[Chakri dynasty]]. These conditions spurred on the bloodless [[Siamese revolution of 1932]], in which the [[Khana Ratsadon]] movement forced [[Prajadhipok|King Prajadhipok]] to sign the country's first constitution, thereby ending centuries of feudal and [[absolute monarchy]].<ref name="LePoer 1989" />{{rp|25}} Power was partially ceded to a [[Democracy|democratic]] government, but it would not last a year before the rise of significant military influence in Thai political affairs.

In 1933, [[Prime Minister of Thailand|Prime Minister]] [[Phraya Manopakorn Nitithada|Phraya Mano]] led a [[Boworadet rebellion|counter-revolutionary rebellion]] to reinstate an absolute monarchy under Prajadhipok.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|446–8}} This was soon followed by a military coup that installed [[Phraya Phahonphonphayuhasena|Phraya Phahon]] - a leader of the 1932 revolution - as Prime Minister. Prajadhipok's conflict with the government eventually led to his abdication, and the new military-led government selected [[Switzerland]]-raised [[Ananda Mahidol]] to be the new king.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|448–9}}

The armed wing of Khana Ratsadon gradually came to dominate Siamese politics. Military strongman [[Plaek Phibunsongkhram]], often known as "Phibun", became premier in 1938 and launched a [[Songsuradet rebellion|campaign of political repression]] that saw the execution of both Monarchists and pro-democracy [[Liberalism|Liberals]].<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|457}} His government adopted [[Thai nationalism|Thai nationalist]], pro-[[Westernisation]], anti-royalist, [[Irredentism|Irredentist]], [[Sinophobia|anti-Chinese]] and anti-French policies.<ref name="LePoer 1989" />{{rp|28}}

In 1939, Phibun changed the country's name from "Siam" to "Thailand". This coincided with the rise of [[Fascism|fascist ideology]] in Thailand, with the name change reflecting policies that prioritized the needs of [[Tai peoples|ethnic Thais]] over those of minorities like the [[Thai Chinese]]. Phibun was an admirer of [[Benito Mussolini]], and he imposed twelve [[Thai cultural mandates]] requiring citizens to obey nationalist norms such as saluting the flag, knowing the national anthem, speaking only Thai, and wearing Western clothing.

In October 1940, months after [[Battle of France|fall of France]] to [[Nazi Germany]], Phibun launched an opportunistic [[Franco-Thai War|invasion]] of [[French Indochina|French Indochinese]] territories [[Territorial losses of Thailand|lost]] to the [[France|French Empire]] during the reign of [[Chulalongkorn|King Chulalongkorn]]. The invasion was a success, with Thailand additionally gaining some [[Laos|Lao]] and [[Cambodia]]n territories.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|462}}Japan, which had also been invading French Indochinese territories, brokered a ceasefire that forced France to give up several territories to Thailand.

On 8 December 1941, [[Japanese invasion of Thailand|the Japanese Empire launched an invasion of Thailand]], and fierce fighting broke out in Southern Thailand before Phibun ordered an [[armistice]] and joined the [[Axis powers]] just five hours later. Japan was granted free passage through Thai territory, and on 21 December Thailand and Japan signed a military alliance, with a secret protocol wherein the Japanese government agreed to help Thailand gain further territories throughout southeast Asia.<ref>Werner Gruhl, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5Wlmu9MPQC&pg=PA112 Imperial Japan's World War Two, 1931–1945] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150816/https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5Wlmu9MPQC&pg=PA112#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 March 2024}}'', Transaction Publishers, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-7658-0352-8}}</ref>

The Thai government then declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|465}} The United Kingdom, whose colony [[British Malaya|Malaya]] was under immediate threat from Thai forces, responded in kind, but the United States refused to declare war and ignored Thailand's declaration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=Herbert A. |title=The Liquidation of World War II in Thailand |journal=Pacific Historical Review |date=1965 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=65–82 |doi=10.2307/3636740 |jstor=3636740 |issn=0030-8684}}</ref>{{rp|66}} The [[Free Thai Movement]] was launched both in Thailand and abroad to oppose the Thai government and Japanese occupation.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|465–6}} After the war ended in 1945, Phibun was ousted and Thailand signed formal agreements to end the state of war with [[Allies of World War II|the Allies]]. In June 1946, King Ananda was found dead under mysterious circumstances, and his younger brother [[Bhumibol Adulyadej]] ascended to the throne.

[[File:ATrelations0018a-1.jpg|thumb|200px|King [[Bhumibol Adulyadej]] addresses a [[joint session of the United States Congress]], 1960.]]

This period of Liberal rule was brief, with Phibun launching another military coup to take power in 1947. In his second term as Prime Minister, Phibun pursued an alliance with the United States by undertaking a campaign of domestic [[anti-communism]], aiding the [[Korean War|US invasion of Korea]], and helping to establish the US-aligned [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (SEATO) in 1954.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|493}} Following a tour of Europe and the US in 1955 where he was impressed by democratic practices like [[Freedom of speech in the United States|freedom of speech]], Phibun began to democratize Thai politics by allowing new political parties and trade unions to form, opening public forums, granting amnesty to former political opponents, and preparing Thailand for its first [[Election|free elections]]. However, these practices likely aroused opposition to Phibun's dictatorial legacy, and the US supported his final ouster in 1957.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Darling |first=Frank C. |date=1962 |title=American Policy in Thailand |journal=The Western Political Quarterly |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=93–110 |doi=10.2307/446100 |jstor=446100 |issn=0043-4078}}</ref>

Field Marshal [[Sarit Thanarat]] took power by coup in 1957, and he proceeded to reverse Phibun's democratic reforms and ban the Khana Ratsadon party from politics. His rule from 1959 to 1963 was autocratic; he built his legitimacy around the god-like status of the monarch and by channelling the government and public's loyalty to the king.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|511}} Though Phibun had been criticized for his close relationship to the United States, Sarit also aligned himself with them and militarily supported the [[Vietnam War|United States invasion of Vietnam]] in 1961, leading a simultaneous campaign of [[Anti-communist mass killings#Thailand|anti-communist mass killings]] in Thailand that continued under his successor [[Thanom Kittikachorn]].<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|523}}

The Sarit and Thanom periods coincided with significant [[modernisation]] and [[Westernisation]] of Thai society. Rapid [[urbanisation]] occurred as the rural populace sought work in growing cities like [[Bangkok]]. Economic development and public education enabled the rise of an urban middle class.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|534}} The growth of this economy based on [[wage labour]] rather than [[subsistence agriculture]] resulted in increased [[class consciousness]] and sympathies to the [[Communist Party of Thailand]],<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|528}} while university-educated students formed movements against the military dictatorship.

=== Transition toward democracy (1973–2001) ===
{{Main|History of Thailand (1973–2001)}}

In October 1973, a [[1973 Thai popular uprising|popular democratic uprising]] against the Thanom government began to bring about an end to Thailand's military regime.<ref name="Wyatt 20132"/>{{rp|541–3}} In response to mass killings of protesters, King Bhumibol installed [[Sanya Dharmasakti]] as Prime Minister, marking the first time that the king had intervened in Thai politics directly since 1932.<ref name="Britannica2">{{Cite web |title=The 1973 revolution and its aftermath |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Thailand/The-postwar-crisis-and-the-return-of-Phibunsongkhram#ref52685 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411132934/https://www.britannica.com/place/Thailand/The-postwar-crisis-and-the-return-of-Phibunsongkhram#ref52685 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |access-date=23 August 2019 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The aftermath of the event marked a short-lived parliamentary democracy,<ref name="Britannica2" /> often called the "era when democracy blossomed" (ยุคประชาธิปไตยเบ่งบาน).{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

With new democratic institutions limited in their capability to solidify power and pass reforms, the three years after the uprising were marked by political and economic instability. Right-wing fears of a Communist takeover of Thailand grew following the captures of South Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos by Communist insurgents. These factors culminated in the [[6 October 1976 massacre|Thammasat University massacre]] in October 1976, in which police and right-wing mobs massacred students protesting the return of Thanom Kittikachorn to Thai politics.<ref name="Wyatt 20132" />{{rp|548–9}} A military coup d'état on that day brought Thailand a new ultra-[[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] military government which cracked down on media outlets, government officials, and intellectuals, engendering a [[Communist insurgency in Thailand|Communist insurgency]]. Another military coup the following year installed a more moderate military government, which offered amnesty to some Communist fighters in 1978.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 December 1982 |title=Thailand ..Communists Surrender En Masse |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2r4yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Ee8FAAAAIBAJ&dq=thai%20communists&pg=1189%2C1418196 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401005725/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2r4yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Ee8FAAAAIBAJ&dq=thai%20communists&pg=1189%2C1418196 |archive-date=1 April 2020 |access-date=8 August 2023 |work=Ottawa Citizen}}</ref>

Military figure [[Prem Tinsulanonda]] was appointed Prime Minister from in 1980. He oversaw the beginning of a period of significant economic growth<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Phongpaichit |first=Pasuk |date=1996 |title=THE THAI ECONOMY IN THE MID-1990s |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27912162 |journal=Southeast Asian Affairs |pages=369–381 |jstor=27912162 |issn=0377-5437}}</ref> and democratization throughout the 1980s. Prem's premiership was often referred to as "premocracy" because it involved [[Semi-democracy|semi-democratic]] practices such as a Parliament composed of an all-elected House and an all-appointed Senate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Santasombat |first=Yos |date=1989 |title=The End of Premocracy in Thailand |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27911983 |journal=Southeast Asian Affairs |pages=317–335 |article-number=SEAA89q |doi=10.1355/SEAA89Q |jstor=27911983 |issn=0377-5437}}</ref> Prem's [[Constitutionalism|constitutionalist]] political approach aided with a transition away from military rule and a negotiated end to the Communist insurgency by 1983.<ref>{{cite news |date=2 December 1982 |title=Thailand ..Communists Surrender En Masse |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2r4yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Ee8FAAAAIBAJ&dq=thai%20communists&pg=1189%2C1418196 |access-date=21 April 2010 |work=Ottawa Citizen}}</ref> He maintained political stability via a close relationship with [[Bhumibol Adulyadej|King Bhumibol]], who helped to foil two military coups in attempts against Prem in [[1981 Thai military rebellion|1981]] and in [[1985 Thai coup d'état attempt|1985]].

In 1988, Thailand saw its first freely-elected prime minister since the 1976 coup. [[Chatichai Choonhavan]] ruled for 3 years before being overthrown in a coup that ushered in two years of military rule under the [[National Peace Keeping Council]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Partial democracy and the search for a new political order |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Thailand/The-postwar-crisis-and-the-return-of-Phibunsongkhram#ref52686 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323005841/https://www.britannica.com/place/Thailand/The-postwar-crisis-and-the-return-of-Phibunsongkhram#ref52686 |archive-date=23 March 2018 |access-date=11 March 2018 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> One of the coup leaders, [[Suchinda Kraprayoon]], was nominated as prime minister for the majority coalition government after the [[March 1992 Thai general election|March 1992 general election]]. This caused a popular demonstration in Bangkok, which ended with a bloody military crackdown known as [[Black May (1992)|Black May]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asw |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/WR93/Asw-11.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210000526/https://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/WR93/Asw-11.htm |archive-date=10 December 2022 |access-date=8 August 2023 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> The King intervened in the event, granting amnesty to the belligerents and forcing the resignation of Suchinda.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/asa390101992en.pdf |title=Thailand: The massacre in Bangkok |date=October 1992 |publisher=Amnesty International |access-date=8 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810080801/https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/asa390101992en.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Free elections were once again held in September 1992, bringing the [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] [[Democrat Party (Thailand)|Democrat Party]] to power. Power passed between various neoliberal parties throughout the decade, who all had a hand in drafting the [[1997 constitution of Thailand|1997 "People's Constitution."]] Spurred on by the events of Black May, the constitution explicitly acknowledged several [[human rights]] and established several government and electoral accountability measures, including the creation of a fully-elected [[bicameral legislature]].

=== Shinawatra era (2001–present) ===
{{Main|History of Thailand (2001–present)}}

The neoliberal government's attempt to [[Currency peg|peg]] the [[Thai baht]] to the [[United States dollar]] induced the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]], crashing regional economies and ending nearly 40 years of uninterrupted economic growth in Thailand.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Warr |first=Peter |title=Thailand Beyond the Crisis |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge Curzon |isbn=978-1-134-54151-5}}</ref>{{rp|3}} To cover a shortage of foreign currency and investments, which had come primarily from Japan, [[Chavalit Yongchaiyudh]]'s government took out a $17 billion [[International Monetary Fund]] loan in US dollars.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thailand Letter of Intent, August 14, 1997 |url=https://www.imf.org/external/np/loi/081497.htm |access-date=2025-08-17 |website=imf.org}}</ref> To satisfy the conditions of the loan, Thailand underwent a series of [[Austerity|austerity measures]] until the loan was repaid in 2003.

The crisis brought on the ascendancy of the populist [[Thai Rak Thai party]], whose base consisted primarily of indebted rural workers. Its prime minister [[Thaksin Shinawatra]] governed from 2001 until 2006. His policies were successful in reducing rural poverty<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thailand Economic Monitor, November 2005 |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTHAILAND/Resources/Economic-Monitor/2005nov-econ-full-report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902021039/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTHAILAND/Resources/Economic-Monitor/2005nov-econ-full-report.pdf |archive-date=2 September 2009 |access-date=19 February 2010}}</ref> and providing [[universal healthcare]].<ref>Na Ranong, Viroj, Na Ranong, Anchana, Universal Health Care Coverage: Impacts of the 30-Baht Health Care Scheme on the Rural Poor in Thailand, TDRI Quarterly Review, September 2006.</ref> However, Thaksin was viewed by opponents among the Thai upper and upper middle classes as a corrupt populist who was destroying the middle class in order to favour himself and the rural poor. Additionally, his rural poverty policies directly conflicted with King Bhumibol's recommendations, drawing the ire of royalists, a powerful faction in Thailand. Thaksin also faced crises in the form of the [[South Thailand insurgency]], which escalated starting from 2004, and the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]] which claimed around 8,000 lives in Thailand.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-26 |title=Concerns arise over warning systems as Boxing Day marks 19 years since 2004 tsunami |url=https://www.nationthailand.com/thailand/general/40034141 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519044456/https://www.nationthailand.com/thailand/general/40034141 |archive-date=19 May 2024 |access-date=2024-05-19 |website=nationthailand}}</ref>

Massive protests against Thaksin led by the [[reactionary]] [[People's Alliance for Democracy]] (PAD) started in his second term as prime minister, and the monarchy and the military eventually agreed to oust him. The [[2005–2006 Thai political crisis|crisis]] peaked in 2005 with a series of controversies surrounding Buddhist and monarchic institutions, and the army dissolved Thaksin's party with [[2006 Thai coup d'état|a coup d'état in 2006]] and banned over a hundred of its executives from politics. After the coup, a military government was installed for one year.'''<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Phongpaichit |first=Pasuk |date=December 2008 |title=Thailand: Fighting Over Democracy. |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=43 |issue=50 |pages=18–21}}</ref>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Connors |first=Michael K. |date=28 November 2008 |title=Thailand-Four elections and a coup |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10357710802480717 |url-status=live |journal=Australian Journal of International Affairs |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=478, 483–484 |doi=10.1080/10357710802480717 |issn=1035-7718 |s2cid=154415628 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811000243/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10357710802480717 |archive-date=11 August 2023 |access-date=8 August 2023}}</ref>
[[File:2010_09_19_red_shirt_protest_bkk_09.JPG|right|thumb|[[United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship]], Red Shirts, [[2010 Thai political protests|protest]] in 2010]]
The military government faced significant resistance, with protesters frequently storming government buildings and elements within the military threatening yet another coup.'''<ref name=":22" />''' In 2007, a civilian government led by the Thaksin-aligned [[People's Power Party (Thailand)|People's Power Party]] (PPP) was [[2007 Thai general election|elected]]. [[2008 Thai political crisis|Another protest led by PAD]] ended with the dissolution of PPP, and the [[Democrat Party (Thailand)|Democrat Party]] led a coalition government in its place. The pro-Thaksin [[United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship]] (UDD) protested both [[2009 Thai political unrest|in 2009]] and [[2010 Thai political protests|in 2010]], the latter of which ended with [[2010 Thai military crackdown|a violent military crackdown]] causing more than 70 civilian deaths.<ref>Erawan EMS Center, [http://www.ems.bangkok.go.th/report/totaldead7-6-53.pdf รายชื่อผู้เสียชีวิตจากสถานการณ์การชุมนุมของกลุมนปช.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306172538/http://www.ems.bangkok.go.th/report/totaldead7-6-53.pdf|date=6 March 2012}}</ref>

After [[2011 Thai general election|the general election of 2011]], the [[Populism|populist]] [[Pheu Thai Party]] won a majority. [[Yingluck Shinawatra]], Thaksin's younger sister, became prime minister. The [[People's Democratic Reform Committee]] organised another anti-Shinawatra protest<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 February 2021 |title=PDRC leaders jailed for terrorism, insurrection over street rallies |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/2073863/pdrc-leaders-jailed-for-terrorism-insurrection-over-street-rallies |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103121428/https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/2073863/pdrc-leaders-jailed-for-terrorism-insurrection-over-street-rallies |archive-date=3 January 2024 |access-date=2024-01-03 |work=Bangkok Post}}</ref> after the ruling party proposed an amnesty bill which would benefit Thaksin.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 November 2013 |title=Protests as Thailand senators debate amnesty bill |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/11/thailand-protests-amnesty-bill |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203121817/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/11/thailand-protests-amnesty-bill |archive-date=3 December 2013 |access-date=10 April 2019 |work=The Guardian}}</ref> Yingluck dissolved parliament and [[2014 Thai general election|a general election]] was scheduled, but her decision was invalidated by the [[Constitutional Court of Thailand|Constitutional Court]]. The [[2013–2014 Thai political crisis|crisis]] ended with [[2014 Thai coup d'état|another coup d'état in 2014]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prasirtsuk |first1=Kitti |date=2015 |title=Thailand in 2014: Another Coup, a Different Coup? |journal=Asian Survey |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=200–206 |doi=10.1525/as.2015.55.1.200 |issn=0004-4687 |jstor=10.1525/as.2015.55.1.200}}</ref>

The ensuing [[National Council for Peace and Order]], a military junta led by General [[Prayut Chan-o-cha]], led the country until 2019. Civil and political rights were restricted, and the country saw a surge in ''[[Lèse-majesté in Thailand|lèse-majesté]]'' cases. Political opponents and dissenters were sent to "attitude adjustment" camps;<ref name="Beech 20192">{{Cite news |last=Beech |first=Hannah |date=8 February 2019 |title=Thailand's King Rejects His Sister's Candidacy for Prime Minister |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/08/world/asia/thailand-prime-minister-princess.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213075249/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/08/world/asia/thailand-prime-minister-princess.html |archive-date=13 February 2019 |access-date=11 February 2019 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> this was described by academics as indicating the return of fascism to Thailand.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=James |date=1 September 2021 |title=Thailand's new right, social cleansing and the continuing military–monarchy entente |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2057891120980835 |url-status=live |journal=Asian Journal of Comparative Politics |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=253–273 |doi=10.1177/2057891120980835 |issn=2057-8911 |s2cid=234182253 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118123729/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2057891120980835 |archive-date=18 November 2021 |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref> Bhumibol, the longest-reigning Thai king, [[Death and funeral of Bhumibol Adulyadej|died in 2016]], and his son [[Vajiralongkorn]] ascended to the throne. The referendum and adoption of Thailand's current constitution happened under the junta's rule.{{efn-lr|The [[2016 Thai constitutional referendum]] was held on 7 August 2016. Its ratification was held on 6 April 2017.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/04/06/522878983/thai-king-signs-military-backed-constitution Thai King Signs Military-Backed Constitution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410100145/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/04/06/522878983/thai-king-signs-military-backed-constitution |date=10 April 2019}}, [[NPR]], 6 April 2017.</ref>}} The junta bound future governments to a 20-year national strategy 'road map' it laid down, effectively locking the country into [[Guided democracy|military-guided democracy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Montesano |first=Michael J. |year=2019 |title=The Place of the Provinces in Thailand's Twenty-Year National Strategy: Toward Community Democracy in a Commercial Nation? |url=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2019_60.pdf |url-status=live |journal=ISEAS Perspective |volume=2019 |issue=60 |pages=1–11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913092250/https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2019_60.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2020 |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref>

In 2019, the junta agreed to schedule [[2019 Thai general election|a general election]].<ref name="Beech 20192" /> General Prayut continued his premiership with the support of an elected [[Palang Pracharath Party]] coalition in the House and junta-appointed Senate, despite allegations of election fraud.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 March 2019 |title=Thailand election results delayed as allegations of cheating grow |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-25/thailand-election-results-delayed-concerns-over-irregularities/10937910 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326035848/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-25/thailand-election-results-delayed-concerns-over-irregularities/10937910 |archive-date=26 March 2019 |access-date=26 March 2019 |work=ABC News |location=Australia}}</ref> An extended two-year period of [[2020–2021 Thai protests|pro-democracy protests]] were subsequently triggered by distrust in the election as well as increasing [[royal prerogative]], democratic and economic regression under monarchy-supported military rule, retaliatory dissolution of the pro-democracy [[Future Forward Party]], regressive policies on political issues like women's and labour rights, forced disappearances and deaths of political activists like [[Wanchalearm Satsaksit]], and various political corruption scandals including [[1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal|1MDB]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 August 2020 |title=Thai protesters stage biggest anti-government demonstration in years |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200816-thai-protesters-stage-biggest-anti-government-demonstration-in-years |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923205757/https://www.france24.com/en/20200816-thai-protesters-stage-biggest-anti-government-demonstration-in-years |archive-date=23 September 2020 |access-date=20 September 2020 |publisher=France 24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=27 August 2020 |title=Thailand: youthful protesters break the kingdom's biggest political taboo |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e2e921b6-ff7d-4432-b272-959bc4f9ecc5 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/e2e921b6-ff7d-4432-b272-959bc4f9ecc5 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |work=Financial Times |location=London}}</ref> The protests brought forward unprecedented demands to reform the monarchy<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 August 2020 |title=[Full statement] The demonstration at Thammasat proposes monarchy reform |url=https://prachatai.com/english/node/8709 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820123613/https://prachatai.com/english/node/8709 |archive-date=20 August 2020 |access-date=23 August 2020 |work=Prachatai English}}</ref> and the highest sense of [[republicanism]] in the country's history.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cunningham |first=Philip J |date=23 September 2020 |title=An unexpectedly successful protest |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1990175/an-unexpectedly-successful-protest |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108024423/https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1990175/an-unexpectedly-successful-protest |archive-date=8 November 2020 |access-date=24 September 2020 |work=Bangkok Post}}</ref>

In May 2023, Thailand's reformist opposition - the progressive [[Move Forward Party]] (MFP) and Thaksin's populist Pheu Thai Party - won the [[2023 Thai general election|general election]], ending 9 years of royalist-military rule under Prayut.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rasheed |first=Zaheena |title='Impressive victory': Thai opposition crushes military parties |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/14/thailand-election-results-what-we-know-so-far |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825090233/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/14/thailand-election-results-what-we-know-so-far |archive-date=25 August 2023 |access-date=1 September 2023 |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> On 22 August 2023, [[Srettha Thavisin]] of the Pheu Thai party became Thailand's new prime minister, while the ex-PM and party figurehead Thaksin Shinawatra returned to Thailand after years in self-imposed exile from the military regime.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Srettha Thavisin elected Thailand PM as Thaksin returns from exile |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/22/srettha-thavisin-elected-thailand-pm-as-thaksin-returns-from-exile |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901094625/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/22/srettha-thavisin-elected-thailand-pm-as-thaksin-returns-from-exile |archive-date=1 September 2023 |access-date=1 September 2023 |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> Thavisin was later dismissed from his prime ministerial role on 14 August 2024 by the [[Constitutional Court of Thailand|Constitutional Court]] for "gross ethics violations".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wongcha-um |first1=Panu |last2=Setboonsarng |first2=Chayut |date=August 14, 2024 |title=Thai court dismisses PM Srettha over cabinet appointment |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/judgment-day-thai-pm-srettha-court-rules-dismissal-case-2024-08-13/ |url-access=limited |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241217074635/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/judgment-day-thai-pm-srettha-court-rules-dismissal-case-2024-08-13/ |archive-date=17 December 2024 |access-date=14 August 2024 |website=Reuters}}</ref> He was succeeded by Thaksin's daughter [[Paetongtarn Shinawatra]], who spent a year in office before the Constitutional Court ordered her removal over a controversial phone call with Cambodia's president. The Court then ordered the arrest of Thaksin in September 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-09 |title=Thaksin Shinawatra: Thai court rules that ex-PM must serve one year in jail |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cly7k2g37g4o |access-date=2025-09-11 |website=www.bbc.com}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Thailand}}

[[File:Koh Tarutao, Thailand, Ancient Cambrian deposits.jpg|thumb|[[Ko Tarutao]], [[Satun Province|Satun]]]]
Totalling {{convert|513120|km2}}, Thailand is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|50th-largest country]] by total area.<ref name="CIA" /> Thailand comprises several distinct geographic regions, partly corresponding to the provincial groups. The north of the country is the mountainous area of the [[Thai highlands]], with the highest point being [[Doi Inthanon]] in the [[Thanon Thong Chai Range]] at {{Convert|2565|m|0}} above sea level. The northeast, [[Isan]], consists of the [[Khorat Plateau]], bordered to the east by the [[Mekong River]]. The centre of the country is dominated by the predominantly flat [[Chao Phraya]] river valley, which runs into the [[Gulf of Thailand]]. Southern Thailand consists of the narrow [[Kra Isthmus]] that widens into the [[Malay Peninsula]].

The Chao Phraya and the Mekong River are the indispensable water courses of rural Thailand. Industrial scale production of crops use both rivers and their tributaries. The Gulf of Thailand covers {{convert|320000|km2|-3}} and is fed by the Chao Phraya, [[Mae Klong River|Mae Klong]], [[Bang Pakong River|Bang Pakong]], and [[Tapi River, Thailand|Tapi]] Rivers. It contributes to the tourism sector owing to its clear shallow waters along the coasts in the southern region and the Kra Isthmus. The eastern shore of the Gulf of Thailand has the kingdom's premier deepwater port in [[Sattahip District|Sattahip]] and its busiest commercial port, [[Laem Chabang]]. [[Phuket Province|Phuket]], [[Krabi Province|Krabi]], [[Ranong]], [[Phang Nga]] and [[Trang Province|Trang]], and their islands, all lay along the coasts of the [[Andaman Sea]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

=== Climate ===
{{Further|Climate change in Thailand}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map THA present.svg|thumb|Thailand map of Köppen climate classification]]

Thailand's climate is influenced by monsoon winds that have a seasonal character (the southwest and northeast monsoon).<ref name="Climate 2015">{{Cite web |title=The Climate of Thailand |url=http://www.tmd.go.th/en/archive/thailand_climate.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801225446/http://www.tmd.go.th/en/archive/thailand_climate.pdf |archive-date=1 August 2016 |access-date=18 August 2016 |publisher=Thai Meteorological Department}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Most of the country is classified as [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]]'s [[tropical savanna climate]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dr. Susan L. Woodward |year=1997–2014 |title=Tropical Savannas |url=https://php.radford.edu/~swoodwar/biomes/?page_id=105 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219124459/https://php.radford.edu/~swoodwar/biomes/?page_id=105 |archive-date=19 December 2013 |access-date=23 February 2014 |website=Biomes of the World |publisher=S. L. Woodward}}</ref> The majority of the south, as well as the eastern tip, have a [[tropical monsoon climate]]. Parts of the south also have a [[tropical rainforest climate]].

A year in Thailand is divided into three seasons.<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|2}} The first is the rainy or southwest monsoon season (mid–May to mid–October), which is caused by southwestern wind from the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|2}}

Rainfall is also contributed by [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]] (ITCZ) and tropical [[cyclones]],<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|2}} with August and September being the wettest period of the year.<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|2}} The country receives a mean annual rainfall of {{convert|1200|to|1600|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|4}}

Winter or the northeast monsoon occurs from mid-October until mid-February.<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|2}} Most of Thailand experiences dry weather with mild temperatures.<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|2,4}} Summer or the pre-monsoon season runs from mid-February until mid-May.<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|3}}

Due to their inland position and latitude, the north, northeast, central and eastern parts of Thailand experience a long period of warm weather, where temperatures can reach up to {{convert|40|°C|°F}} during March to May,<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|3}} in contrast to close to or below {{convert|0|°C|°F}} in some areas in winter.<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|3}}

Southern Thailand is characterised by mild weather year-round with less diurnal and seasonal variations in temperatures due to maritime influences.<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|3}} It receives abundant rainfall, particularly during October to November.<ref name="Climate 2015" />{{rp|2}} Thailand is among the world's ten countries that are most exposed to climate change. In particular, it is highly vulnerable to [[Sea level rise|rising sea levels]] and extreme weather events.<ref>Overland, Indra et al. (2017) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312 Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier]'' ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728065717/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312_Impact_of_Climate_Change_on_ASEAN_International_Affairs_Risk_and_Opportunity_Multiplier |date=28 July 2020}}), Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS).</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 October 2019 |title=Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood |url=https://www.climatecentral.org/report/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904125539/https://www.climatecentral.org/report/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood |archive-date=4 September 2022 |access-date=5 September 2022 |website=climatecentral.org}}</ref>

=== Biodiversity and conservation ===
{{see also|List of protected areas of Thailand|List of forest parks of Thailand|List of species native to Thailand|Environmental issues in Thailand|}}
[[File:Khaoyai 06.jpg|thumb|The population of [[Asian elephants]] in Thailand's wild has dropped to an estimated 2,000–3,000.<ref name="Elephants">{{Cite web |title=Thailand's Elephants |url=http://www.thailandelephant.org/en/thaielephant.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305080708/http://www.thailandelephant.org/en/thaielephant.html |archive-date=5 March 2015 |access-date=3 March 2015 |website=Thai Elephant Conservation Center}}</ref>]]
[[List of national parks of Thailand|National park]]s in Thailand are defined as ''an area that contains natural resources of ecological importance or unique beauty, or flora and fauna of special importance''. Thailand's protected areas include 156 national parks, 58 wildlife sanctuaries, 67 non-hunting areas, and 120 forest parks. They cover almost 31 per cent of the kingdom's territory.<ref name="PRD">{{cite web |url=https://thailand.prd.go.th/1700/ewt/thailand/ewt_news.php?nid=8297&filename=index |title=Five New National Parks in Thailand |date=6 August 2019 |department=The Government Public Relations Department |access-date=4 January 2022}}{{Dead link|date=June 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> The parks are administered by the [[Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation|National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department]] (DNP) of the [[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Thailand)|Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment]] (MNRE). The [[Khao Kheow Open Zoo]] in [[Chonburi]] is the second largest zoo in Asia.<ref name="cnbctv1">{{Cite web |last=Tiwari |first=Ritesh |date=3 September 2025 |title=5 largest zoos in Asia – Three from India make the list |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/photos/travel/destinations/top-five-largest-zoos-in-asia-by-area-three-from-india-thailand-taiwan-china-wildlife-conservation-19663338-2.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250930043134/https://www.cnbctv18.com/photos/travel/destinations/top-five-largest-zoos-in-asia-by-area-three-from-india-thailand-taiwan-china-wildlife-conservation-19663338-2.htm |archive-date=30 Sep 2025 |access-date=30 Sep 2025 |website=CNBCTV 18}}</ref> The largest national park of Thailand is [[Kaeng Krachan National Park]]. 

Thailand has a mediocre but improving performance in the global [[Environmental Performance Index]] (EPI), with an overall ranking of 91 out of 180 countries in 2016. The environmental areas where Thailand performs worst (i.e., highest-ranking) are [[air quality]] (167), environmental effects of the agricultural industry (106), and the [[climate and energy]] sector (93), the later mainly because of a high [[CO2 emission|CO<sub>2</sub> emission]] per kWh produced. Thailand performs best (i.e., lowest-ranking) in [[water resource management]] (66), with some major improvements expected for the future, and [[sanitation]] (68).<ref>{{Cite journal |title=2016 Report |url=http://epi.yale.edu/reports/2016-report |journal=EPI Report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204021925/http://epi.yale.edu/reports/2016-report |archive-date=4 February 2016 |access-date=17 December 2016}}</ref><ref>EPI (2016): [http://epi.yale.edu/country/thailand Thailand] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227041212/http://epi.yale.edu/country/thailand |date=27 December 2016}}</ref> The country had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 6.00/10, ranking it 88th globally out of 172 countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grantham |first1=H. S. |last2=Duncan |first2=A. |last3=Evans |first3=T. D. |last4=Jones |first4=K. R. |last5=Beyer |first5=H. L. |last6=Schuster |first6=R. |last7=Walston |first7=J. |last8=Ray |first8=J. C. |last9=Robinson |first9=J. G. |last10=Callow |first10=M. |last11=Clements |first11=T. |last12=Costa |first12=H. M. |last13=DeGemmis |first13=A. |last14=Elsen |first14=P. R. |last15=Ervin |first15=J. |display-authors=1 |year=2020 |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=5978 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=7723057 |pmid=33293507 |doi-access=free |last16=Franco |first16=P. |last17=Goldman |first17=E. |last18=Goetz |first18=S. |last19=Hansen |first19=A. |last20=Hofsvang |first20=E. |last21=Jantz |first21=P. |last22=Jupiter |first22=S. |last23=Kang |first23=A. |last24=Langhammer |first24=P. |last25=Laurance |first25=W. F. |last26=Lieberman |first26=S. |last27=Linkie |first27=M. |last28=Malhi |first28=Y. |last29=Maxwell |first29=S. |last30=Mendez |first30=M. |last31=Mittermeier |first31=R. |last32=Murray |first32=N. J. |last33=Possingham |first33=H. |last34=Radachowsky |first34=J. |last35=Saatchi |first35=S. |last36=Samper |first36=C. |last37=Silverman |first37=J. |last38=Shapiro |first38=A. |last39=Strassburg |first39=B. |last40=Stevens |first40=T. |last41=Stokes |first41=E. |last42=Taylor |first42=R. |last43=Tear |first43=T. |last44=Tizard |first44=R. |last45=Venter |first45=O. |last46=Visconti |first46=P. |last47=Wang |first47=S. |last48=Watson |first48=J. E. M.}}</ref>

The population of elephants, the country's [[List of national animals|national symbol]], has fallen from 100,000 in 1850 to an estimated 2,000.<ref name="Elephants" /> Poachers have long hunted elephants for [[ivory]] and hides, and now increasingly for [[Elephant meat|meat]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 January 2012 |title=Poaching for meat poses new extinction risk to Thai elephants |work=The Guardian |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/26/poaching-thailand-elephant-meat |url-status=live |access-date=4 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205184341/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/26/poaching-thailand-elephant-meat |archive-date=5 February 2018}}</ref> Young elephants are often captured for use in tourist attractions or as work animals, where there have been claims of mistreatment.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hile |first=Jennifer |date=6 October 2002 |title=Activists Denounce Thailand's Elephant "Crushing" Ritual |work=National Geographic Today |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/10/1016_021016_phajaan.html |access-date=7 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218231457/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/10/1016_021016_phajaan.html |archive-date=18 February 2007}}</ref> In 1989, the government banned the use of elephants for [[logging]], leading many elephant owners to move their domesticated animals to the tourism industry.<ref>{{cite report |last=Stiles |first=Daniel |title=The Elephant and Ivory Trade in Thailand |url=https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/3278/elephant-ivory-trade-thailand.pdf |publisher=Traffic Southeast Asia |pages=1–2 |archive-date=3 June 2024 |access-date=3 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603025354/https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/3278/elephant-ivory-trade-thailand.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Poaching of protected species remains a major problem. [[Tigers]], [[leopards]], and other large cats are hunted for their pelts. Many are farmed or hunted for their meat, which supposedly has medicinal properties. Although such trade is illegal, the well-known Bangkok market [[Chatuchak Weekend Market|Chatuchak]] is still known for the sale of endangered species.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Teena Amrit Gill |date=18 February 1997 |title=Endangered Animals on Restaurant Menus |url=http://www.monitor.net/monitor/9702a/endangeredfood.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516023649/https://www.monitor.net/monitor/9702a/endangeredfood.html |archive-date=16 May 2007 |access-date=7 June 2007 |publisher=Albion Monitor/News}}</ref> The practice of keeping wild animals as pets affects species such as [[Asiatic black bear]], [[Malayan sun bear]], [[Lar gibbon|white-handed lar]], [[pileated gibbon]], and [[binturong]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thai Forests: Dept. National Parks, Wildlife & Plants |url=http://www.tscwa.org/forests/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126041139/http://tscwa.org/forests/index.html |archive-date=26 November 2014 |publisher=Thai Society for the Conservation of Wild Animals}}</ref>

== Politics and government ==
{{main|Politics of Thailand|Government of Thailand}}

{{further|Constitutions of Thailand|Elections in Thailand}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
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| image1            = King Rama X official (crop) (cropped).png
| width1            = 160
| caption1          = [[Vajiralongkorn]]<br />[[King of Thailand]]<br />since 13 October 2016
| image2            = Anutin Charnvirakul - 2023 (52638148766) (cropped).jpg
| width2            = 151
| caption2          = [[Anutin Charnvirakul]]<br />[[Prime Minister of Thailand]]<br />since 7 September 2025
}}

Prior to 1932, Thai kings were feudal or [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchs]]. During [[Sukhothai Kingdom]], the king was seen as a ''Dharmaraja'' or 'king who rules in accordance with [[Dharma]]'. The system of government was a network of tributaries ruled by local lords. Modern absolute monarchy and statehood was established by Chulalongkorn when he transformed the decentralised protectorate system into a unitary state. On 24 June 1932, [[Khana Ratsadon]] (People's Party) carried out a bloodless revolution which marked the beginning of [[constitutional monarchy]].

Thailand has had 20 constitutions and charters since 1932, including the latest and current 2017 Constitution. All constitutions state that the politics is conducted within the framework of a constitutional monarchy, but the ''de facto'' form of government has ranged from military dictatorship to electoral democracy.<ref name="multiple">{{Cite news |date=19 September 2006 |title=A list of previous coups in Thailand |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060919/thailand_coups_060919/20060919/ |access-date=25 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016060633/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060919/thailand_coups_060919/20060919/ |archive-date=16 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 September 2006 |title=Raw Data: List of Recent Coups in Thailand's History |publisher=[[Fox News]] |url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/raw-data-list-of-recent-coups-in-thailands-history |url-status=live |access-date=25 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706035133/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C214562%2C00.html |archive-date=6 July 2008}}</ref> Thailand's current form of government is part democracy and part dictatorship; many terms are used to describe it.{{efn-lr|Such as: "constitutional dictatorship" or "parliamentary dictatorship",<ref>{{cite news |last1=Abuza |first1=Zachary |title=Thailand's Constitutional Dictatorship Weathers the Storm |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/09/thailands-constitutional-dictatorship-weathers-the-storm/ |access-date=14 March 2022 |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |date=27 September 2021}}</ref> "military coup regime",<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glassman |first1=Jim |title=Lineages of the Authoritarian State in Thailand: Military Dictatorship, Lazy Capitalism and the Cold War Past as Post-Cold War Prologue |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Asia]] |date=2020 |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=571–592 |doi=10.1080/00472336.2019.1688378 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00472336.2019.1688378 |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=14 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314204800/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00472336.2019.1688378 |url-status=live}}</ref> "semicivilian" or "semi-elected",<ref>{{cite news |title=Thailand: Freedom in the World 2021 Country Report |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/thailand/freedom-world/2021 |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=Freedom House |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516112057/https://freedomhouse.org/country/thailand/freedom-world/2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> "managed democracy",<ref>{{cite news |title=Prem Tinsulanonda's Legacy—and the Failures of Thai Politics Today |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/prem-tinsulanondas-legacy-and-failures-thai-politics-today |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=Council on Foreign Relations |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427082611/https://www.cfr.org/blog/prem-tinsulanondas-legacy-and-failures-thai-politics-today |url-status=live}}</ref> and "guided democracy".<ref>{{cite news |title=Election observers call still-partial Thai vote count flawed |url=https://apnews.com/article/d0801b87d34b459bb45e6f3c9f679ac7 |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=AP News |date=27 March 2019}}</ref>}} Thailand has had the fourth-most [[Coup d'état|coups]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=th:สถิติที่ไม่น่าภูมิใจเมื่อไทยติดอันดับที่ 4 ประเทศที่มีการรัฐประหารบ่อยที่สุดในโลก |url=http://www.siamintelligence.com/thai-forth-coup-0f-the-world/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406163620/http://www.siamintelligence.com/thai-forth-coup-0f-the-world/ |archive-date=6 April 2018 |access-date=6 April 2018 |website=Siam Intelligence |language=th}}</ref> "Uniformed or ex-military men have led Thailand for 55 of the 83 years" between 1932 and 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gray |first=Denis D. |date=22 August 2015 |title=Deadly bombing in military-ruled Thailand adds to mounting woes in one-time 'Land of Smiles' |work=U.S. News & World Report |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2015/08/22/bombing-the-latest-of-many-challenges-for-thailands-junta |url-status=live |access-date=23 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822143742/http://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2015/08/22/bombing-the-latest-of-many-challenges-for-thailands-junta |archive-date=22 August 2015}}</ref> Most recently, the [[military junta]] self-titled as the [[National Council for Peace and Order]] ruled the country between 2014 and 2019.

[[File:Sappaya-Sapasathan Pano (III).jpg|thumb|[[Sappaya-Sapasathan]] is the current Parliament House of Thailand|alt=]]

Government is [[Separation of powers|separated]] into three branches:
* The legislative branch: the [[National Assembly of Thailand|National Assembly]] is composed of the [[Senate of Thailand|Senate]], the 200-member indirectly elected [[upper house]] and [[House of Representatives of Thailand|House of Representatives]], the elected 500-member [[lower house]]. Its most recent election is [[2023 Thai general election|the 2023 general election]]. The coalition led by Pheu Thai Party currently holds the majority. The [[2024 Thai Senate election]] was the first senate election held under the current constitution in the process criticized as "the most complicated election in the world".<ref>{{cite news |title=A guide to Thailand's next Senate and 'the most complicated election in the world' |url=https://www.thaipbsworld.com/a-guide-to-thailands-next-senate-and-the-most-complicated-election-in-the-world/ |access-date=22 April 2024 |date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=9 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240809005129/https://www.thaipbsworld.com/a-guide-to-thailands-next-senate-and-the-most-complicated-election-in-the-world/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The senate is allegedly dominated by [[Bhumjaithai Party]]-affiliated senators.<ref>{{cite news |title="มงคล สุระสัจจะ"ผงาดนั่ง "ประธานวุฒิสภา" คนใหม่ ด้วยมติสว.ท่วมท้น 159 คะแนน |url=https://www.thansettakij.com/politics/602380 |access-date=23 July 2024 |work=thansettakij |date=23 July 2024 |language=th-TH |archive-date=7 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807123506/https://www.thansettakij.com/politics/602380 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* The executive branch consisting of the [[Prime Minister of Thailand]], the [[head of government]], and other cabinet members of up to 35 people. The Prime Minister was elected by the House of Representatives. The current constitution mandates that prime ministers are to be considered from candidates nominated by political parties before the election. The current prime minister is [[Anutin Charnvirakul]], a member of the Bhumjaithai Party.
* The [[judiciary]] is supposed to be independent of the executive and the legislative branches, although judicial rulings are suspected of being based on political considerations rather than on existing law.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 May 2014 |title=Thailand's juristocracy |url=http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/newmandala/2014/05/17/thailands-juristocracy/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905162923/http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/newmandala/2014/05/17/thailands-juristocracy/ |archive-date=5 September 2015}}</ref>

Military and bureaucratic aristocrats fully controlled political parties between 1946 and the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teehankee |first1=Julio |last2=Tiulegenov |first2=Medet |last3=Wang |first3=Yi-ting |last4=Ciobanu |first4=Vlad |last5=Lindberg |first5=Staffan I. |title=Party System in South and Southeast Asia: A Thematic Report Based on Data 1900–2012 |journal=V-Dem Thematic Report Series, No. 2, October 2013}}</ref>{{rp|16}} Most parties in Thailand are short-lived.<ref name="Croissant 2010" />{{rp|246}} Between 1992 and 2006, Thailand had a [[two-party system]].<ref name="Croissant 2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Croissant |first1=Aurel |last2=Völkel |first2=Philip |date=21 December 2010 |title=Party system types and party system institutionalization: Comparing new democracies in East and Southeast Asia |journal=Party Politics |volume=18 |issue=2 |doi=10.1177/1354068810380096 |s2cid=145074799}}</ref>{{rp|245}} Later constitutions created a multi-party system where a single party cannot gain a majority in the house.

A [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary monarch]] serves as Thailand's [[head of state]]. The current King of Thailand is [[Vajiralongkorn]] (Rama X), who has reigned since October 2016. The powers of the king are limited by the constitution and he is primarily a symbolic figurehead. However, the monarch still occasionally intervenes in Thai politics, as all constitutions pave the way for customary royal rulings. Some academics outside Thailand, including [[Duncan McCargo]] and Federico Ferrara, noted extraconstitutional role of the monarch through a "[[network monarchy]]" behind the political scenes.<ref>McCargo, Duncan, "Network monarchy and legitimacy crises in Thailand", ''The Pacific Review'', volume 18, issue 4, December 2005.</ref> The monarchy is protected by the severe [[Lèse majesté in Thailand|''lèse majesté'' law]], even though the people's attitude towards the institution varies from one reign to another.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Head |first=Jonathan |date=5 December 2007 |title=Why Thailand's king is so revered |publisher=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7128935.stm |url-status=live |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217135052/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7128935.stm |archive-date=17 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Denby |first=Kenneth |title=Thai protests: The king who made himself a gift to republicans |work=[[The Times]] |url=https://www.thetimes.com/world/asia/article/thai-protests-the-king-who-made-himself-a-gift-to-republicans-zlzgtj6wp |url-status=live |access-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731100534/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/thai-protests-the-king-who-made-himself-a-gift-to-republicans-zlzgtj6wp |archive-date=31 July 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Timeline of Prime Ministers.jpg|thumb|Timeline of Prime Ministers]]
The kings are protected by ''lèse-majesté'' laws which allow critics to be jailed for three to fifteen years.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Champion |first=Paul |date=25 September 2007 |title=Professor in lese majeste row |work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/news/video?videoId=67215&videoChannel=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013134234/https://www.reuters.com/news/video?videoId=67215&videoChannel=1 |archive-date=13 October 2007}}</ref> After the [[2014 Thai coup d'état|coup d'état in 2014]], Thailand had the highest [[:Category:People accused of lèse majesté in Thailand|number of ''lèse-majesté'' prisoners]] in the nation's history.<ref>[http://prachatai.com/english/node/4218 2014 coup marks the highest number of lèse-majesté prisoners in Thai history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501201647/https://prachatai.com/english/node/4218 |date=1 May 2019}}. ''Prachatai''.</ref><ref>"[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thailand-monarchy-insult-man-jailed-king-facebook-vichai-thepwong-social-media-online-block-a7783166.html Thailand jails man for 35 years for insulting the monarchy on Facebook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423035004/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thailand-monarchy-insult-man-jailed-king-facebook-vichai-thepwong-social-media-online-block-a7783166.html |date=23 April 2018}}". ''The Independent''. 10 June 2017.</ref> [[Human rights in Thailand]] has been rated ''[[Freedom in the World (report)|not free]]'' on the [[Freedom House]] Index since 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 January 2018 |title=Thailand |url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2018/thailand |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414010430/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2018/thailand |archive-date=14 April 2018 |access-date=3 May 2018 |website=freedomhouse.org}}</ref> On August 7, 2024, Thailand's [[Constitutional Court of Thailand|Constitutional Court]] banned the victors of the [[2023 Thai general election|2023 parliamentary elections]], the [[Move Forward Party]] and all of its leaders from politics for its proposal to reform the lèse-majesté law, arguing it posed a threat to the constitutional order.<ref name="Economist1">{{Cite news |date=7 August 2024 |title=Thailand's top court tramples over the country's democracy |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2024/08/07/thailands-top-court-tramples-over-the-countrys-democracy |access-date=17 August 2024 |archive-date=16 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816203416/https://www.economist.com/asia/2024/08/07/thailands-top-court-tramples-over-the-countrys-democracy |url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The Economist]]'' criticised the move as an example of "[[lawfare]]" and pointed to the dissolution of its predecessor party, [[Future Forward Party|Future Forward]] in 2020, as the latest example of how an "alliance of conservative forces in Thailand—including monarchists, the army and a handful of business tycoons—has sought to suppress opposition".<ref name="Economist1"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 August 2024 |title=Banning the opposition won't save Thailand's unpopular regime |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2024/08/07/banning-the-opposition-wont-save-thailands-unpopular-regime |access-date=17 August 2024 |archive-date=16 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816195826/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2024/08/07/banning-the-opposition-wont-save-thailands-unpopular-regime |url-status=live}}</ref>

On the [[Freedom House|Freedom in the World 2024 Report]] for Thailand, their status improved from ''[[Freedom in the World|not free]]'' to ''[[Freedom in the world|partly free]]'' due to competitive parliamentary elections and the formation of a new governing coalition by what had been a major opposition party, though unelected senators ensured that the party with the most votes was excluded.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 February 2024
|title=Thailand: Freedom in the World 2024 Report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240602220348/https://freedomhouse.org/country/thailand/freedom-world/2024
|url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/thailand/freedom-world/2024
|archive-date=2 June 2024 |access-date=29 February 2024
|website=freedomhouse.org}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Organization of the government of Thailand|Provinces of Thailand|Administrative Divisions of Thailand}}

{{See also|Regions of Thailand}}
Thailand is a [[unitary state]]; the administrative services of the executive branch are divided into three levels by ''National Government Organisation Act, BE 2534'' (1991): central, provincial and local. Thailand is composed of 76<!--not 77, Bangkok is not a province, see next sentence!--> [[Provinces of Thailand|provinces]] ({{lang|th|จังหวัด}}, ''changwat''),<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 March 2020 |title=ประกาศกรมการปกครอง เรื่อง แจ้งข้อมูลทางการปกครอง |url=http://www.oic.go.th/FILEWEB/CABINFOCENTER17/DRAWER007/GENERAL/DATA0000/00000024.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520091920/http://www.oic.go.th/FILEWEB/CABINFOCENTER17/DRAWER007/GENERAL/DATA0000/00000024.PDF |archive-date=20 May 2021 |access-date=4 March 2018 |website=กรมการปกครอง |language=th}}</ref> which are first-level [[administrative division]]s. There are also two specially governed districts: the capital [[Bangkok]] and [[Pattaya]]. Bangkok is at provincial level and thus often counted as a province.<ref>{{cite web |title=Capital City |url=https://thailand.go.th/page/capital-city |access-date=2024-06-01 |website=The Government Public Relations Department}}</ref> Each province is divided into [[Districts of Thailand|districts]] ({{lang|th|อำเภอ}}, ''amphoe'') and the districts are further divided into sub-districts ({{lang|th|ตำบล}}, ''tambons''). The name of each province's capital city ({{lang|th|เมือง}}, mueang) is the same as that of the province. For example, the capital of [[Chiang Mai Province]] (''Changwat Chiang Mai'') is ''Mueang Chiang Mai'' or ''Chiang Mai''. All provincial governors and district chiefs, which are administrators of provinces and districts respectively, are appointed by the central government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=LOCAL PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION B.E. 2542 (1999) |url=http://www.dla.go.th/upload/enDocument/2012/6/1_1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801073238/http://www.dla.go.th/upload/enDocument/2012/6/1_1.pdf |archive-date=1 August 2019 |access-date=11 December 2017 |website=Department of Local Administration (DLA)}}</ref> Thailand's provinces are sometimes grouped into four to six regions, depending on the source.

{{Provinces of Thailand Image Map}}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{main|Foreign relations of Thailand}}

[[File:Rama IX of Thailand and Barack Obama.jpg|thumb|King [[Bhumibol Adulyadej]] in a meeting with U.S. President [[Barack Obama]], 18 November 2012]]
Siam's and Thailand's way of conducting foreign relations has long been described as "bamboo bending with the wind", of policies that are "always solidly rooted, but flexible enough to bend whichever way the wind blows in order to survive",<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Chivvis |first1=Christopher S. |last2=Marciel |first2=Scot |last3=Geaghan‑Breiner |first3=Beatrix |date=26 October 2023 |title=Thailand in the Emerging World Order |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2023/10/thailand-in-the-emerging-world-order?lang=en |access-date=19 May 2024 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |archive-date=23 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240923083425/https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2023/10/thailand-in-the-emerging-world-order |url-status=live}}</ref> or adaptable and pragmatic. In order to secure independence, it sought to pit one great power against the others so that it would be dominated by none.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 September 2021 |title=The bamboo breaks: Thailand's diplomatic challenge|work=The Strategist |url=https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/the-bamboo-breaks-thailands-diplomatic-challenge/ |url-status=live |access-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526192532/https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/the-bamboo-breaks-thailands-diplomatic-challenge/ |archive-date=26 May 2022}}</ref>

During the [[Cold War]], Thailand sought to prevent the spread of communism so it joined the United States, including participating in [[SEATO]] alliance, sending expeditions to Korea and Vietnam, and offering the US to use its base. Thailand is one of the five founding members of [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN), initially to safeguard against communism. The end of [[Vietnam War]] was a turning point in Thai foreign policy and afterwards it sought to improve relations with Communist China and its now-Communist neighbours. Thailand remains an active member of ASEAN and seek to project its influence in it. Thailand has developed increasingly close ties with other members, with progressing regional co-operation in economic, trade, banking, political, and cultural matters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rakson |first=Katsamaporn |date=July–December 2018 |title=Investigating Thailand's self-perception in the regional context towards ASEAN |url=https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/Veridian-E-Journal/article/download/166438/141875/625674 |journal=Veridian E-Journal, Silpakorn University |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=568–578 |access-date=9 August 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230236/https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/Veridian-E-Journal/article/download/166438/141875/625674 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the 2000s, Thailand had taken an active role on the international stage and participated fully in international and regional organisations. It is a [[major non-NATO ally]] and Priority Watch List [[Special 301 Report]] of the United States. When [[East Timor]] gained independence from Indonesia, Thailand contributed troops to the international peacekeeping effort.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Strategic Partnership Between Australia and Thailand: A Case Study of East Timor |url=https://iafor.org/journal/iafor-journal-of-politics-economics-and-law/volume-2-issue-1/article-4/ |access-date=2024-01-01 |journal=IAFOR Journal of Politics, Economics & Law |year=2015|doi=10.22492/ijpel.2.1.04 |last1=Chieocharnpraphan |first1=Thosaphon |volume=2 |doi-access=free |archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101161923/https://iafor.org/journal/iafor-journal-of-politics-economics-and-law/volume-2-issue-1/article-4/ |url-status=live}}</ref> As part of its effort to increase international ties, Thailand had reached out to such regional organisations as the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS)<ref>{{Cite web |last=OAS |date=2009-08-01 |title=OAS – Organization of American States: Democracy for peace, security, and development |url=https://www.oas.org/en/media_center/press_release.asp?sCodigo=e-215/03 |access-date=2024-01-01 |website=OAS – Organization of American States|archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101162926/https://www.oas.org/en/media_center/press_release.asp?sCodigo=e-215/03 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thailand attends 2023 OSCE Asian Conference with aim to further promote Asia-Europe cooperation |url=https://www.mfa.go.th/en/content/osce170723-2?cate=5d5bcb4e15e39c306000683e |access-date=2024-01-01 |website=กระทรวงการต่างประเทศ|archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101161423/https://www.mfa.go.th/en/content/osce170723-2?cate=5d5bcb4e15e39c306000683e |url-status=live}}</ref>

During [[Thaksin Shinawatra]]'s premiership, negotiations for several [[free trade agreement]]s with China, Australia, Bahrain, India, and the US were initiated. Thaksin sought to position Thailand as a regional leader, initiating various development projects in poorer neighbouring countries. More controversially, he established close, friendly ties with the Burmese dictatorship.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090103061415/http://www.burmait.net/ict-news/2007/aug07/thaksin-to-face-charges-over-burma-telecom-deal/ 'Thaksin to face charges over Burma telecom deal]. ICT News, 2 August 2007.</ref> Thailand joined the US-led [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]], sending a [[Thai Humanitarian Assistance Task Force 976 Thai-Iraq|humanitarian contingent]] until September 2004.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 September 2003 |title=Thai troops join Iraq force – Sep. 4, 2003 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/09/04/sprj.irq.thai.troops/index.html |access-date=20 December 2021 |publisher=CNN|archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150809/http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/09/04/sprj.irq.thai.troops/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Thailand also had contributed troops to reconstruction efforts in [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ภาพเก่าเล่าตำนาน: ทหารช่างไทย...ไปทำอะไร...ในอัฟกานิสถาน โดย พลเอก นิพัทธ์ ทองเล็ก |url=https://www.matichon.co.th/article/news_2822402 |access-date=1 January 2024 |website=Matichon Online |date=12 July 2021 |language=th |archive-date=20 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120062820/https://www.matichon.co.th/article/news_2822402 |url-status=live |author1=Matichon}}</ref>

In April 2009, the [[2008–2013 Cambodian–Thai border crisis]] brought troops on territory immediately adjacent to the 900-year-old ruins of Cambodia's [[Preah Vihear]] Hindu temple near the border.<ref>The Telegraph, [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/thailand/5101029/Troops-from-Thailand-and-Cambodia-fight-on-border.html Troops from Thailand and Cambodia fight on border] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523080330/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/thailand/5101029/Troops-from-Thailand-and-Cambodia-fight-on-border.html |date=23 May 2010}}, 3 April 2009.</ref><ref>Bloomberg, [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080&sid=a2G.h3Ms.a3s&refer=asia Thai, Cambodian Border Fighting Stops, Thailand Says] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014072312/http://bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080 |date=14 October 2007}}</ref>

After the 2014 coup, Thailand leaned more towards China.<ref>Prashanth Parameswaran. (2014). [https://thediplomat.com/2014/12/thailand-turns-to-china/ Thailand Turns to China] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427033345/https://thediplomat.com/2014/12/thailand-turns-to-china/ |date=27 April 2022}}. ''The Diplomat''. Retrieved 3 January 2018.</ref> Growing Chinese influence and capital inflow caused some members of parliament to raise the concern about "economic colony" under China after many concessions.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 February 2020 |title=MPs warned of an economic colony as opposition zeroed in on Thailand's impaired relationship with China |work=Thai Examiner |url=https://www.thaiexaminer.com/thai-news-foreigners/2020/02/28/thailand-relationship-china-thai-government-opposition-critiscism/ |url-status=live |access-date=6 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019080345/https://www.thaiexaminer.com/thai-news-foreigners/2020/02/28/thailand-relationship-china-thai-government-opposition-critiscism/ |archive-date=19 October 2020}}</ref>

During the [[Gaza war|Israel-Gaza war]] in 2023, at first Thailand's prime minister stated that his government strongly condemns the attack against Israel and extends its deepest condolences to the government and the people of Israel<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1710624065076314165 |user=Thavisin |title=In light of today's tragic incident...}}</ref> but the government later changed its position and announced that Thailand adopted a neutral stance in this conflict.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2023 |title=Israel-Palestine war: Thailand adopts neutral stance |url=https://www.nationthailand.com/thailand/general/40031729 |access-date=15 October 2023 |website=nationthailand|archive-date=16 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016021118/https://www.nationthailand.com/thailand/general/40031729 |url-status=live}}</ref> 28 Thai nationals were killed in this conflict.<ref>{{Cite web |title=คนไทยในอิสราเอลตายเพิ่ม 4 รวมเป็น 28 คน เร่งอพยพกลับไทย |url=https://www.thaipbs.or.th/news/content/332821 |access-date=15 October 2023 |website=Thai PBS |date=15 October 2023 |language=th |archive-date=16 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016005435/https://www.thaipbs.or.th/news/content/332821 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Armed forces ===
{{Main|Royal Thai Armed Forces}}

[[File:Chakri Naruebet 2001.JPEG|thumb|right|The [[HTMS Chakri Naruebet|HTMS ''Chakri Naruebet'']], an [[aircraft carrier]] of the [[Royal Thai Navy]]]]
The [[Royal Thai Armed Forces]] (กองทัพไทย; {{RTGS|Kong Thap Thai}}) constitute the military of the Kingdom of Thailand. It consists of the [[Royal Thai Army]] (กองทัพบกไทย), the [[Royal Thai Navy]] (กองทัพเรือไทย), and the [[Royal Thai Air Force]] (กองทัพอากาศไทย). It also incorporates various [[paramilitary]] forces.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

The [[Monarchy of Thailand|head of the Thai Armed Forces]] (จอมทัพไทย, ''Chom Thap Thai'') is the king,<ref>[[s:2007 Constitution of Thailand#Chapter 2 : The King|Chapter 2 of the 2007 Constitution of Thailand]]</ref> although this position is only nominal. The armed forces are managed by the [[Ministry of Defence (Thailand)|Ministry of Defence of Thailand]], which is headed by the Minister of Defence (a member of the [[cabinet of Thailand]]) and commanded by the [[Royal Thai Armed Forces Headquarters]], which in turn is headed by the [[List of Commanders of the Royal Thai Armed Forces Headquarters|Chief of Defence Forces of Thailand]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=_cf63a28daf.jpg (3194×2055) |url=https://strapi.rtarf.mi.th/uploads/_cf63a28daf.jpg |access-date=2 January 2024 |website=กองบัญชาการกองทัพไทย |language=th |archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101173458/https://strapi.rtarf.mi.th/uploads/_cf63a28daf.jpg |url-status=live}}</ref> Thai annual defence budget almost tripled from US$1.98 billion in 2005 to US$5.88 billion in 2016, accounting for approximately 1.4% of GDP.<ref name="World Bank Open Data">{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=26 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526025607/https://data.worldbank.org/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Thailand ranked 16th worldwide in the Military Strength Index based on the [[Credit Suisse]] report in September 2015.<ref name="CreditSuisse2015">{{cite report|url=http://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/index.cfm?fileid=EE7A6A5D-D9D5-6204-E9E6BB426B47D054|title=The End of Globalization or a more Multipolar World?|publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] AG|first1=Michael|last1=O'Sullivan|first2=Krithika|last2=Subramanian|date=2015-10-17|access-date=2017-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215235711/http://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/index.cfm?fileid=EE7A6A5D-D9D5-6204-E9E6BB426B47D054|archive-date=15 February 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Exercise Cope Tiger (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|A Royal Thai Air Force [[JAS 39 Gripen]]]]

The military is also tasked with humanitarian missions, such as escorting [[Rohingya]] to Malaysia or Indonesia,<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 July 2019 |title=Thailand Offers Persecuted Rohingya Little Hope |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/31/thailand-offers-persecuted-rohingya-little-hope |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609171802/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/31/thailand-offers-persecuted-rohingya-little-hope |archive-date=9 June 2020 |access-date=27 May 2020 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> ensuring security and welfare for refugees during [[Indochina refugee crisis]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z6aDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |title=Battlefield Bangkok: The Royal Thai Army 2000–2014 |date=4 April 2015 |publisher=Dean Wilson |isbn=978-1-326-04676-7 |access-date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150811/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z6aDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the constitution, serving in the armed forces is a duty of all Thai citizens.<ref>[[s:2007 Constitution of Thailand#Chapter 4: Duties of the Thai People|Chapter 4 of the 2007 Constitution of Thailand]]</ref> Thailand still use active draft system for males over the age of 21. They are subjected to varying lengths of active service depending on the duration of reserve training as [[Territorial Defence Student]] and their level of education. Those who have completed three years or more of reserve training will be exempted entirely. The practice has long been criticized, as some media question its efficacy and value.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 August 2018 |title=Let's stop forcing boys to be soldiers |work=The Nation |department=Opinion |url=https://www.nationthailand.com/detail/opinion/30353201 |url-status=live |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828235424/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/detail/opinion/30353201 |archive-date=28 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=24 March 2018 |title=Do away with conscription |work=Bangkok Post |department=Opinion |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1434054/do-away-with-conscription |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150820/https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1434054/do-away-with-conscription |url-status=live}}</ref> It is alleged that conscripts end up as servants to senior officers<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 July 2018 |title=Prawit denies servant for officer policy |work=Bangkok Post |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/politics/1505262/prawit-denies-servant-for-officer-policy |access-date=18 July 2018 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150838/https://ow.pubmatic.com/setuid?bidder=amx&uid=b79ee476-fd20-4793-9474-9de566f7904e&do=www.bangkokpost.com |url-status=live}}</ref> or clerks in military cooperative shops.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 November 2017 |title=Ex-private stands firm after being harassed online for criticising military |work=Pratchatai English |url=https://prachatai.com/english/node/7454 |url-status=live |access-date=4 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107021744/https://prachatai.com/english/node/7454 |archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 July 2018 |title=Conscripts aren't servants |work=Bangkok Post |department=Opinion |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1506062/conscripts-arent-servants |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150837/https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1506062/conscripts-arent-servants |url-status=live}}</ref> In a report issued in March 2020, [[Amnesty International]] charged that Thai military conscripts face institutionalised abuse systematically hushed up by military authorities.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 March 2020 |title=Weeks after Korat massacre, Amnesty report describes conscript abuses |work=Bangkok Post |agency=Reuters|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/1884760/weeks-after-korat-massacre-amnesty-report-describes-conscript-abuses |access-date=23 March 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328151325/https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/1884760/weeks-after-korat-massacre-amnesty-report-describes-conscript-abuses |url-status=live}}</ref>

Critics observed that Thai military's main objective is to deal with internal rather than external threats.<ref name="Asia Sentinel 2017">{{Cite news |date=14 November 2017 |title=Thailand's Deep State—The Military |work=[[Asia Sentinel]] |url=https://www.asiasentinel.com/politics/thailand-military-deep-state/ |url-status=live |access-date=15 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114130725/https://www.asiasentinel.com/politics/thailand-military-deep-state/ |archive-date=14 November 2017}}</ref> [[Internal Security Operations Command]] is called the political arm of the Thai military, which has overlapping social and political functions with civilian bureaucracy. It also has anti-democracy mission.<ref name="Asia Sentinel 2017" /> The military is also notorious for numerous corruption incidents, such as accusation of [[human trafficking in Thailand|human trafficking]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2013 |title=Thai Navy Accused of Involvement in Smuggling Rohingya Muslims |url=https://www.chiangraitimes.com/thailand-national-news/news-asia-thailand/thai-navy-accused-of-involvement-in-smuggling-rohingya-muslims/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929171722/https://www.chiangraitimes.com/thailand-national-news/news-asia-thailand/thai-navy-accused-of-involvement-in-smuggling-rohingya-muslims/ |archive-date=29 September 2020 |access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref> and [[nepotism]] in promotion of high-ranking officers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=16 April 2016 |title="บิ๊กติ๊ก"ตั้งลูก ติดยศทหาร อ้างให้งานทำ |work=[[Post Today]] |url=https://www.posttoday.com/politic/news/426850 |url-status=live |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620150611/https://www.posttoday.com/politic/news/426850 |archive-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> The military is deeply entrenched in politics. Most recently, the appointed senators include more than 100 active and retired military.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thai Junta Fills Senate with Military, Police Officers |work=Benar News |date=14 May 2019 |url=https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/thai/senate-list-05142019154817.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926050110/https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/thai/senate-list-05142019154817.html |archive-date=26 September 2020 |access-date=26 May 2020 |publisher=benarnews}}</ref>

Thailand is the 75th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 [[Global Peace Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2024 Global Peace Index |url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf |access-date=16 August 2024 |archive-date=19 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240819091540/https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Thailand}}

{| class="wikitable" style="border: 1px solid #999; float: right; margin-left: 1em; width:300px"
|+ Economic indicators
|-
! scope="row" | Nominal [[GDP]]
| ฿14.53 trillion {{small| (2016)}}<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=th:รายได้ประชาชาติของประเทศไทย พ.ศ. ๒๕๕๙ แบบปริมาณลูกโซ่ |url=http://www.nesdb.go.th/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=7196&filename=ni_page |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426213453/http://www.nesdb.go.th/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=7196&filename=ni_page |archive-date=26 April 2018 |access-date=23 April 2018 |publisher=[[Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board]] |language=th}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | GDP growth
| 3.9% {{small| (2017)}}<ref name="NESDB 2561" />
|-
! scope="row" | Headline inflation
|  0.7% {{small| (2017)}}<ref name="NESDB 2561" />
|-
! scope="row" | Core inflation
|0.6% {{small| (2017)}}<ref name="NESDB 2561" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Employment-to-population ratio]]
| 68.0% {{small| (2017)}}<ref name="NESDB 2560" />{{rp|29}}
|-
! scope="row" | Unemployment
| 1.2% {{small| (2017)}}<ref name="NESDB 2561">{{Cite web |year=2018 |script-title=th:ภาวะเศรษฐกิจไทยไตรมาสที่สี่ ทั้งปี 2560 และแนวโน้มปี 2561 |url=http://www.nesdb.go.th/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=7384 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427115757/http://www.nesdb.go.th/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=7384 |archive-date=27 April 2018 |access-date=23 April 2018 |publisher=[[Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board]] |language=th}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Total public debt
| ฿6.37 trillion {{small| ({{nowrap|Dec.}} 2017)}}<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=th:ข้อมูลหนี้สาธารณะคงค้าง |url=http://www.pdmo.go.th/export_pdf.php?m=money&ts2_id=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426213342/http://www.pdmo.go.th/export_pdf.php?m=money&ts2_id=1 |archive-date=26 April 2018 |access-date=18 February 2018 |publisher=Public Debt Management Office |language=th}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Poverty
| 8.61% {{small| (2016)}}<ref name="NESDB 2560">{{Cite web |script-title=th:ภาวะสังคมไทยไตรมาสสี่และภาพรวม ปี 2560 |url=http://social.nesdb.go.th/social/Portals/0/Documents/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%20Q4-2560_final_1253.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426213417/http://social.nesdb.go.th/social/Portals/0/Documents/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%20Q4-2560_final_1253.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2018 |access-date=23 April 2018 |publisher=[[Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board]] |language=th}}</ref>{{rp|36}}
|-
! scope="row" | Net household worth 
| ฿20.34 trillion {{small| (2010)}}<ref>{{Cite web |last1=เสรีวรวิทย์กุล |first1=ชนาภรณ์ |last2=รุ่งเจริญกิจกุล |first2=ภูริชัย |date=July 2011 |script-title=th:ฐานะทางการเงินของภาคครัวเรือนและผลของความมั่งคั่งต่อการบริโภค |url=https://www.bot.or.th/Thai/MonetaryPolicy/ArticleAndResearch/WE_MPG/WE_MPG_July2554.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010031615/https://www.bot.or.th/Thai/MonetaryPolicy/ArticleAndResearch/WE_MPG/WE_MPG_July2554.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2021 |access-date=24 April 2018 |publisher=[[Bank of Thailand]] |language=th}}</ref>{{rp|2}}
|}
[[File:Bangkok (251385359).jpeg|thumb|[[Sathorn]] in Bangkok is a skyscraper-studded business district that is home to major hotels and embassies.]]
The economy of Thailand is heavily export-dependent, with exports accounting for more than two-thirds of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP). Thailand exports over US$105 billion worth of goods and services annually.<ref name="CIA" /> Major exports include cars, computers, electrical appliances, [[Rice production in Thailand|rice]], textiles and footwear, fishery products, rubber, and jewellery.<ref name="CIA" />

Thailand is an [[emerging markets|emerging economy]] and is considered a [[newly industrialised country]]. Thailand had a 2017 GDP of US$1.236 trillion (on a [[purchasing power parity]] basis).<ref>{{Cite web |title=GDP (PURCHASING POWER PARITY) |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/208.html#TH |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230065601/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/208.html#TH |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=25 January 2019 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> Thailand is the second largest economy in Southeast Asia after Indonesia. Thailand ranks midway in the wealth spread in Southeast Asia as it is the fourth richest nation according to GDP per capita, after Singapore, Brunei, and Malaysia.

Thailand functions as an [[anchor economy]] for the neighbouring developing economies of Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia. In the third quarter of 2014, the unemployment rate in Thailand stood at 0.84% according to Thailand's National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB).<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 November 2014 |title=NESDB: Thailand facing unemployment problem |work=Pattaya Mail |url=http://www.pattayamail.com/news/nesdb-thailand-facing-unemployment-problem-43104 |url-status=live |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104034806/http://www.pattayamail.com/news/nesdb-thailand-facing-unemployment-problem-43104 |archive-date=4 January 2015}}</ref>

In 2017, the Thai economy grew an inflation-adjusted 3.9%, up from 3.3% in 2016, marking its fastest expansion since 2012.<ref>{{Cite news |title=CThailand's GDP grows at fastest pace in 5 years in 2017 |publisher=Nikkei Asian |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Thailand-s-GDP-grows-at-fastest-pace-in-5-years-in-2017 |url-status=live |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306223852/https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Thailand-s-GDP-grows-at-fastest-pace-in-5-years-in-2017 |archive-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> High public spending, especially during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand|COVID-19 pandemic]], prompted the authorities to raise Thailand's public debt ceiling from 60% to 70% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 September 2021 |title=Thailand raises public debt ceiling to fight COVID-19 outbreak|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/thailand-raises-public-debt-ceiling-fight-covid-19-outbreak-2021-09-20/ |url-status=live |access-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421145101/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/thailand-raises-public-debt-ceiling-fight-covid-19-outbreak-2021-09-20/ |archive-date=21 April 2023}}</ref>

{{As of|2024}}, Thailand struggles with low productivity, poor education, high household debt, low private investment and slow economic growth,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allan |first1=Juan |title=Thailand's economy lags behind peers with protracted recovery – Thailand Business News |url=https://www.thailand-business-news.com/economics/134352-thailands-economy-lags-behind-peers-with-protracted-recovery |access-date=24 July 2024 |work=www.thailand-business-news.com |date=3 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Warr |first1=Peter |title=Thailand's economy remains beset by low productivity and slow growth |url=https://eastasiaforum.org/2024/01/25/thailands-economy-remains-beset-by-low-productivity-and-slow-growth/ |access-date=24 July 2024 |work=East Asia Forum}}</ref> with an economic research group forecasted an annual GDP growth of below 2% in the next decades without structural reforms.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kiatnakin Phatra Research: Potential growth rate below 2% |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/general/2834207/kiatnakin-phatra-research-potential-growth-rate-below-2- |access-date=24 July 2024 |work=Bangkok Post |date=23 July 2024 |last1=Banchongduang |first1=Somruedi}}</ref>

As of 2025, The Bank of Thailand’s economic outlook page projects Thai GDP growth of around 2.2% in 2025 and 1.6% in 2026, noting that growth in the first half of 2025 was supported by front‑loaded exports to the U.S. ahead of tariff hikes, while the second half is expected to slow as higher U.S. tariffs bite.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thai Economy |url=https://www.bot.or.th/en/thai-economy.html |access-date=2025-12-25 |website=www.bot.or.th |language=en}}</ref>.

=== Income and wealth disparities ===
[[File:Thailand GDP Per Capita Development 1890-2022.png|thumb|Development of real GDP per capita, 1890 to 2022]]
Thais have median wealth per one adult person of $1,469 in 2016,<ref name="Wealth 2016">{{Cite book |url=http://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/index.cfm?fileid=AD783798-ED07-E8C2-4405996B5B02A32E |title=Global Wealth Report 2016 |date=November 2016 |publisher=Credit Suisse AG |location=Zurich |access-date=1 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170515124834/http://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/index.cfm?fileid=AD783798-ED07-E8C2-4405996B5B02A32E |archive-date=15 May 2017}}</ref>{{rp|98}} increasing from $605 in 2010.<ref name="Wealth 2016" />{{rp|34}} In 2016, Thailand was [[List of countries by Human Development Index|ranked 87th in Human Development Index]], and [[List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI|70th in the inequality-adjusted HDI]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Table 3: Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/IHDI |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129103442/http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/IHDI |archive-date=29 January 2016 |access-date=25 April 2018 |publisher=Human Development Report Office, [[United Nations Development Programme]]}}</ref>

In 2017, Thailand's median household income was ฿26,946 per month.<ref name="NSO 2560">{{Cite web |script-title=th:บทสรุปผู้บริหาร การสำรวจภาวะเศรษฐกิจและสังคมของครัวเรือน พ.ศ. 2560 |url=http://www.nso.go.th/sites/2014/DocLib13/%e0%b8%94%e0%b9%89%e0%b8%b2%e0%b8%99%e0%b8%aa%e0%b8%b1%e0%b8%87%e0%b8%84%e0%b8%a1/%e0%b8%aa%e0%b8%b2%e0%b8%82%e0%b8%b2%e0%b8%a3%e0%b8%b2%e0%b8%a2%e0%b9%84%e0%b8%94%e0%b9%89/%e0%b9%80%e0%b8%a8%e0%b8%a3%e0%b8%a9%e0%b8%90%e0%b8%81%e0%b8%b4%e0%b8%88%e0%b8%aa%e0%b8%b1%e0%b8%87%e0%b8%84%e0%b8%a1%e0%b8%84%e0%b8%a3%e0%b8%b1%e0%b8%a7%e0%b9%80%e0%b8%a3%e0%b8%b7%e0%b8%ad%e0%b8%99/60/Sum_Eco-Socio60.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426213254/http://www.nso.go.th/sites/2014/DocLib13/%e0%b8%94%e0%b9%89%e0%b8%b2%e0%b8%99%e0%b8%aa%e0%b8%b1%e0%b8%87%e0%b8%84%e0%b8%a1/%e0%b8%aa%e0%b8%b2%e0%b8%82%e0%b8%b2%e0%b8%a3%e0%b8%b2%e0%b8%a2%e0%b9%84%e0%b8%94%e0%b9%89/%e0%b9%80%e0%b8%a8%e0%b8%a3%e0%b8%a9%e0%b8%90%e0%b8%81%e0%b8%b4%e0%b8%88%e0%b8%aa%e0%b8%b1%e0%b8%87%e0%b8%84%e0%b8%a1%e0%b8%84%e0%b8%a3%e0%b8%b1%e0%b8%a7%e0%b9%80%e0%b8%a3%e0%b8%b7%e0%b8%ad%e0%b8%99/60/Sum_Eco-Socio60.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2018 |access-date=25 April 2018 |publisher=[[National Statistical Office (Thailand)|National Statistical Office]] |language=th}}</ref>{{rp|1}} Top quintile households had a 45.0% share of all income, while bottom quintile households had 7.1%.<ref name="NSO 2560" />{{rp|4}} There were 26.9 million persons who had the bottom 40% of income earning less than ฿5,344 per person per month.<ref name="NESDB 2559" />{{rp|5}} During the [[2013–2014 Thai political crisis]], a survey found that anti-government [[People's Democratic Reform Committee|PDRC]] mostly (32%) had a monthly income of more than ฿50,000, while pro-government [[United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship|UDD]] mostly (27%) had between ฿10,000 and ฿20,000.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2013 |title=Profile of the Protestors: A Survey of Pro and Anti-Government Demonstrators in Bangkok on November 30, 2013 |url=https://asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/FinalSurveyReportDecember20.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426213735/https://asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/FinalSurveyReportDecember20.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2018 |access-date=24 April 2018 |publisher=Asia Foundation}}</ref>{{rp|7}}

In 2014, [[Credit Suisse]] reported that Thailand was the world's third most unequal country, behind Russia and India.<ref name="BBC 2017" /> The top 10% richest held 79% of the country's assets.<ref name="BBC 2017" /> The top 1% held 58% of the assets.<ref name="BBC 2017" /> The 50 richest Thai families had a total net worth accounting to 30% of GDP.<ref name="BBC 2017">{{Cite news |last=พงศ์พิพัฒน์ บัญชานนท์ |newspaper=BBC News ไทย |date=18 June 2017 |script-title=th:ยิ่งนานยิ่งถ่าง ช่องว่างทางรายได้ ปัญหาใหญ่ที่รอ คสช. แก้ |language=th |publisher=[[BBC]] Thailand |url=http://www.bbc.com/thai/thailand-40317663 |url-status=live |access-date=25 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514163313/https://www.bbc.com/thai/thailand-40317663 |archive-date=14 May 2018}}</ref> [[Bank of Thailand]] reported that during 2006–16, Thailand's top 5% largest companies had 85% of all corporate revenue in the nation, and only 6% of the country's companies were in export industries, which made up 60% of the country's GDP.<ref>{{Cite news |title=แบงก์ชาติวิจัย "ไม่แข่ง-ยิ่งแพ้" เมื่อบริษัทใหญ่ 5% ครองรายได้ 85% |language=th |work=Prachachat |url=https://www.prachachat.net/finance/news-376905 |url-status=live |access-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421142949/https://www.prachachat.net/finance/news-376905 |archive-date=21 April 2023}}</ref>

In 2016, 5.81 million people lived in poverty, or 11.6 million people (17.2% of population) if "near poor" is included.<ref name="NESDB 2559">{{Cite web |year=2016 |script-title=th:รายงานการวิเคราะห์สถานการณ์ความยากจนและความเหลื่อมล้าในประเทศไทย ปี 2559 |url=http://social.nesdb.go.th/social/Portals/0/PDF%20%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AF%202559.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426213301/http://social.nesdb.go.th/social/Portals/0/PDF%20%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AF%202559.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2018 |access-date=24 April 2018 |publisher=[[Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board]] |language=th}}</ref>{{rp|1}} The proportion of the poor relative to total population in each region was 12.96% in the Northeast, 12.35% in the South, and 9.83% in the North.<ref name="NESDB 2559" />{{rp|2}} In 2017, there were 14 million people who applied for social welfare (yearly income of less than ฿100,000 was required).<ref name="BBC 2017" /> In the first quarter of 2023, Thai household debts totaled 14.6 trillion baht or 89.2% of GDP; the average debt per household was approximately 500,000 baht.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Thai household debt surges, reaching a 16-year climax|work=Bangkok Post |date=26 August 2022 |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/2377191/thai-household-debt-surges-reaching-a-16-year-climax |access-date=21 April 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328151412/https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/2377191/thai-household-debt-surges-reaching-a-16-year-climax |url-status=live |last1=Arunmas |first1=Phusadee}}</ref> In 2016, there were estimated 30,000 homeless persons in the country.<ref>{{Cite news |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=16 June 2017 |script-title=th:สสส. เผยสถานการณ์คนไร้บ้าน ทั่วประเทศกว่า 3 หมื่นคน |language=th |work=posttoday.com |url=https://www.posttoday.com/social/PR/498823 |url-status=live |access-date=25 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107015321/https://www.posttoday.com/social/PR/498823 |archive-date=7 November 2018}}</ref>

=== Exports and manufacturing ===
The economy of Thailand is heavily export-dependent, with exports accounting for more than two-thirds of gross domestic products (GDPs). Major exports include cars, computers, electrical appliances, [[Rice production in Thailand|rice]], textiles and footwear, fishery products, rubber, and jewellery.<ref name="CIA" /> In 2022, Thailand's export of goods is worth roughly {{Currency|290 billion|USD|passthrough=yes|linked=no}} while its import worth roughly {{Currency|305 billion|USD|passthrough=yes|linked=no}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2023 |title=Asean Statistical Highlights 2023 |url=https://www.aseanstats.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/ASH-2023-v1.pdf |journal=ASEAN Centre for Energy |page=4 |archive-date=27 December 2024 |access-date=22 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241227133040/https://www.aseanstats.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/ASH-2023-v1.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Substantial industries include electric appliances, components, computer components, and vehicles. Thailand's recovery from the 1997–1998 Asian financial crisis depended mainly on exports, among various other factors. {{as of|2012}}, the [[Automotive industry in Thailand|Thai automotive industry]] was the largest in [[Southeast Asia]] and the [[List of countries by motor vehicle production|9th largest in the world]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Santivimolnat |first=Santan |date=18 August 2012 |title=2-million milestone edges nearer |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/economics/308171/2-million-milestone-edges-nearer |journal=Bangkok Post}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Languepin |first=Olivier |date=3 January 2013 |title=Thailand poised to Surpass Car Production target |work=Thailand Business News |url=http://thailand-business-news.com/business/43750-thailand-poised-to-surpass-car-production-target |access-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115152809/http://thailand-business-news.com/business/43750-thailand-poised-to-surpass-car-production-target |archive-date=15 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="OICA 2013">{{Cite web |title=Production Statistics |url=http://oica.net/category/production-statistics/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106174001/http://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/ |archive-date=6 November 2013 |access-date=26 November 2012 |publisher=OICA (International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers)}}</ref> The Thailand industry has an annual output of near 1.5 million vehicles, mostly commercial vehicles.<ref name="OICA 2013" />

Most of the vehicles built in Thailand are developed and licensed by foreign producers, mainly Japanese and American. The Thai car industry takes advantage of the [[ASEAN Free Trade Area]] (AFTA) to find a market for many of its products. Eight manufacturers, five Japanese, two US, and [[Tata Group|Tata]] of India, produce pick-up trucks in Thailand.<ref name="Takahashi 2014">{{Cite news |last=Takahashi |first=Toru |date=27 November 2014 |title=Thailand's love affair with the pickup truck |work=Nikkei Asian Review |url=http://asia.nikkei.com/magazine/20141127-Abenomics-on-the-ballot/Business/Thailand-s-love-affair-with-the-pickup-truck |url-status=live |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103135212/http://asia.nikkei.com/magazine/20141127-Abenomics-on-the-ballot/Business/Thailand-s-love-affair-with-the-pickup-truck |archive-date=3 January 2015}}</ref> As of 2012, due to its favourable taxation for 2-door pick-ups at only 3–12% against 17–50% for passenger cars, Thailand was the second largest consumer of pick-up trucks in the world, after the US.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Finlay |first=Steve |date=6 July 2012 |title=Pickup Trucks Reign in Thailand |url=https://www.wardsauto.com/industry/pickup-trucks-reign-thailand |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605223447/https://www.wardsauto.com/industry/pickup-trucks-reign-thailand |archive-date=5 June 2019 |access-date=5 June 2019 |publisher=[[Ward's]]}}</ref> In 2014, pick-ups accounted for 42% of all new vehicle sales in Thailand.<ref name="Takahashi 2014" />

=== Tourism ===
{{Further|Tourism in Thailand}}
[[File:0000140 - Wat Arun Ratchawararam 005.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Wat Arun]], [[Bangkok]], is among the best-known Thailand's landmarks.]]Tourism makes up about 6% of the country's economy. Prior to the pandemic, Thailand was the world's eighth most visited country according to the [[World Tourism rankings]] compiled by the [[United Nations World Tourism Organization|United Nations World Tourism Organisation]]. In 2019, Thailand received 39.8 million international tourists, ahead of [[United Kingdom]] and [[Germany]]<ref>{{Cite journal |date=18 December 2020 |title=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, December 2020 {{!}} World Tourism Organization |journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer (English Version) |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=1–36 |doi=10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.7 |s2cid=241989515 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and was the fourth highest in international tourism earning 60.5 billion [[US dollars]].

Thailand was the most visited country in Southeast Asia in 2013, according to the World Tourism Organisation. Estimates of tourism receipts directly contributing to the Thai GDP of 12 trillion baht range from 9 per cent (1 trillion baht) (2013) to 16 per cent.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 August 2015 |title=Government moves to head off tourist fears |work=Bangkok Post |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/politics/666028/government-moves-to-head-off-tourist-fears |access-date=24 August 2015}}</ref> When including the indirect effects of tourism, it is said to account for 20.2 per cent (2.4 trillion baht) of Thailand's GDP.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/country%20reports/thailand2014.pdf |title=Travel and Tourism, Economic Impact 2014: Thailand |date=2014 |publisher=World Travel & Tourism Council |edition=2014 |location=London |access-date=10 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319212933/http://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/country%20reports/thailand2014.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2015}}</ref>{{RP|1}}

Asian tourists primarily visit Thailand for Bangkok and the historical, natural, and cultural sights in its vicinity. Western tourists not only visit Bangkok and surrounding areas; many travel to the southern beaches and islands. The north is the chief destination for trekking and [[adventure travel]] with its diverse ethnic minority groups and forested mountains. The region hosting the fewest tourists is [[Isan]]. To accommodate foreign visitors, a separate tourism police with offices were set up in the major tourist areas and an emergency telephone number.<ref>[http://www.amazing-thailand.com/Police.html Tourist Police in Thailand] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703161503/http://www.amazing-thailand.com/Police.html |date=3 July 2008}}. Amazing-Thailand.com. Retrieved 16 September 2010.</ref>

Thailand ranks as the worlds fifth largest [[medical tourism]] destination in spending, according to the [[World Travel and Tourism Council]], attracting over 2.5 million visitors in 2018,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Medical Tourism in Thailand |url=https://www.mymeditravel.com/guide/medical-tourism-in-thailand |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218141716/https://www.mymeditravel.com/guide/medical-tourism-in-thailand |archive-date=18 February 2019 |access-date=17 February 2019 |publisher=MyMediTravel}}</ref> and is number one in Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Medical Tourism Report |url=https://wttc.org/en-gb/Research/Insights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516071216/https://wttc.org/en-gb/Research/Insights |archive-date=16 May 2020 |access-date=15 May 2020 |publisher=WTTC}}</ref> The country is popular for the growing practice of [[sex reassignment surgery]] (SRS) and cosmetic surgery. In 2010–2012, more than 90% of medical tourists travelled to Thailand for SRS.<ref>Chokrungvaranont, Prayuth, Gennaro Selvaggi, Sirachai Jindarak, Apichai Angspatt, Pornthep Pungrasmi, Poonpismai Suwajo, and Preecha Tiewtranon. "The Development of Sex Reassignment Surgery in Thailand: A Social Perspective". ''The Scientific World Journal''. Hindawi Publishing Corporation, 2014. Web. 23 March 2017.</ref> [[Prostitution in Thailand]] and sex tourism also form a ''de facto'' part of the economy. Campaigns promote Thailand as exotic to attract tourists.<ref>Ocha, Witchayanee. "Transsexual emergence: gender variant identities in Thailand". ''Culture, Health & Sexuality''14.5 (2012): 563–575. Web.</ref> One estimate published in 2003 placed the trade at US$4.3 billion per year or about 3% of the Thai economy.<ref>[http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/11/26/1069825832486.html?oneclick=true Thailand mulls legal prostitution.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929131217/http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/11/26/1069825832486.html?oneclick=true |date=29 September 2007}} ''[[The Age]]'', 26 November 2003.</ref> It is believed that at least 10% of tourist dollars are spent on the sex trade.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Martin |first=Lorna |date=25 January 2006 |title=Paradise Revealed |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2006/01/25/2003290710/4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202022539/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2006/01/25/2003290710/4 |archive-date=2 December 2014 |access-date=29 January 2015 |website=Taipei Times}}</ref>

=== Agriculture and natural resources ===
{{Further|Agriculture in Thailand}}
[[File:Rice farmers Mae Wang Chiang Mai Province.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Thailand has long been [[Rice production in Thailand|one of the largest rice exporters in the world]]. Forty-nine per cent of Thailand's labour force is employed in agriculture.<ref name="Leturque 2010" />]]
Forty-nine per cent of Thailand's labour force is employed in [[agriculture in Thailand|agriculture]].<ref name="Leturque 2010" /> This is down from 70% in 1980.<ref name="Leturque 2010" /> Rice is the most important crop in the country and Thailand had long been the world's leading exporter of rice, until recently falling behind both India and Vietnam.<ref>International Grains Council. [http://www.igc.int/en/downloads/gmrsummary/gmrsumme.pdf "Grain Market Report (GMR444)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702110607/http://www.igc.int/en/downloads/gmrsummary/gmrsumme.pdf |date=2 July 2014}}, London, 14 May 2014. Retrieved 13 June 2014.</ref> Thailand has the highest percentage of arable land, 27.25%, of any state in the [[Greater Mekong Subregion]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=CIA World Factbook – Greater Mekong Subregion |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2097.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326095031/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2097.html |archive-date=26 March 2014 |access-date=3 November 2011 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> About 55% of the arable land area is used for rice production.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rice Around The World. Thailand |url=http://www.irri.org/science/cnyinfo/thailand.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327095326/http://www.irri.org/science/cnyinfo/thailand.asp |archive-date=27 March 2008 |access-date=25 April 2010 |publisher=Irri.org}}</ref>

Agriculture has been experiencing a transition from labour-intensive and transitional methods to a more industrialised and competitive sector.<ref name="Leturque 2010">Henri Leturque and Steve Wiggins 2010. [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5108&title=thailands-progress-agriculture-transition-sustained-productivity-growth Thailand's progress in agriculture: Transition and sustained productivity growth] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427222924/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5108&title=thailands-progress-agriculture-transition-sustained-productivity-growth |date=27 April 2011}}. London: Overseas Development Institute</ref> Between 1962 and 1983, the agricultural sector grew by 4.1% per year on average and continued to grow at 2.2% between 1983 and 2007.<ref name="Leturque 2010" /> The relative contribution of agriculture to GDP has declined while exports of goods and services have increased.

Furthermore, access to [[biocapacity]] in Thailand is lower than world average. In 2016, Thailand had 1.2 global hectares<ref name="Global Footprint Network">{{Cite web |title=Country Trends |url=http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=216&type=BCpc,EFCpc |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808050235/http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=216&type=BCpc,EFCpc |archive-date=8 August 2017 |access-date=9 October 2019 |publisher=Global Footprint Network}}</ref> of biocapacity per person within its territory, a little less than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=David |last2=Hanscom |first2=Laurel |last3=Murthy |first3=Adeline |last4=Galli |first4=Alessandro |last5=Evans |first5=Mikel |last6=Neill |first6=Evan |last7=Mancini |first7=Maria Serena |last8=Martindill |first8=Jon |last9=Medouar |first9=Fatime-Zahra |last10=Huang |first10=Shiyu |last11=Wackernagel |first11=Mathis |year=2018 |title=Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018 |journal=Resources |volume=7 |issue=3 |page=58 |doi=10.3390/resources7030058 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018Resou...7...58L}}</ref> In contrast, in 2016, they used 2.5 global hectares of biocapacity—their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use about twice as much biocapacity as Thailand contains, resulting in a deficit.<ref name="Global Footprint Network" />

=== Informal economy ===
[[File:Train Night Market Ratchada (34079339800).jpg|thumb|[[Talat Rotfai|The Train Night Market]] in Bangkok]]
In 2012, it was estimated that informal workers comprised 62.6% of the Thai workforce. The [[Ministry of Labour (Thailand)|Ministry of Labour]] defines informal workers to be individuals who work in informal economies and do not have employee status under a given country's Labour Protection Act (LPA). The informal sector in Thailand has grown significantly over the past 60 years over the course of Thailand's gradual transition from an agriculture-based economy to becoming more industrialised and service-oriented.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Kongtip |first1=Pornpimol |last2=Nankongnab |first2=Noppanun |last3=Chaikittiporn |first3=Chalermchai |last4=Laohaudomchok |first4=Wisanti |last5=Woskie |first5=Susan |last6=Slatin |first6=Craig |date=2015 |title=Informal Workers in Thailand: Occupational Health and Social Security Disparities |journal=New Solutions |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=189–211 |doi=10.1177/1048291115586036 |issn=1048-2911 |pmc=5812466 |pmid=25995374 |bibcode=2015NewSo..25..189K}}</ref> Between 1993 and 1995, ten per cent of the Thai labour force moved from the agricultural sector to urban and industrial jobs, especially in the manufacturing sector. It is estimated that between 1988 and 1995, the number of factory workers in the country doubled from two to four million, as Thailand's GDP tripled.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bales |first=Kevin |url=https://archive.org/details/disposablepeople00bale_0 |title=Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-520-21797-3 |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

While the [[1997 Asian financial crisis|Asian financial crisis]] that followed in 1997 hit the Thai economy hard, the industrial sector continued to expand under widespread deregulation, as Thailand was mandated to adopt a range of structural adjustment reforms upon receiving funding from the IMF and World Bank. These reforms implemented an agenda of increased privatisation and trade liberalisation in the country, and decreased federal subsidisation of public goods and utilities, agricultural price supports, and regulations on fair wages and labour conditions.<ref name="Guille 2014">{{Cite journal |last=Guille |first=Howard |year=2014 |title=Reforming Asian Labor Systems: Economic Tensions and Worker Dissent |journal=Asian Studies Review |volume=39}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=October 2024}} Many migrant farmers took jobs in sweatshops and factories with few labour regulations and often exploitative conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Warunsiri |first=Sasiwimon |year=2011 |title=The Role of Informal Sector in Thailand |url=http://www.ipedr.com/vol4/89-F10110.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411211727/http://www.ipedr.com/vol4/89-F10110.pdf |archive-date=11 April 2019 |access-date=22 April 2018 |website=Research Institute for Policy Evaluation and Design}}</ref> Those that could not find formal factory work, including illegal migrants and the families of rural Thai migrants, are under the regulation imposed by the structural adjustment programmes. Scholars argue that the economic consequences and social costs of Thailand's labour reforms in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis fell on individuals and families rather than the state.<ref name="Guille 2014" /> [[File:Songkran Day @ Chiangmai Wall.jpg|thumb|[[Songkran (Thailand)|Songkran]] Festival, [[Chiang Mai]]'s ancient city wall]]
Informal labour in entertainment, nightlife, and the sex industry face additional vulnerabilities, including recruitment into circles of sexual exploitation and human trafficking.<ref name=":4" /> A 2012 study found that 64% of informal workers had not completed education beyond primary school. Many informal workers are also migrants, only some of which have legal status in the country. The informal labour sector is also not recognised under the Labour Protection Act (LPA). Thai social security policies fail to protect against workplace accidents and unemployment and retirement insurance. Many informal workers are not legally contracted for their employment, and many do not make a living wage.<ref name=":4" /> Tens of thousands of migrants from neighboring countries face exploitation in a few industries,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Coorlim |first=Leif |date=20 June 2014 |title=U.S. human trafficking report drops four nations to lowest tier |url=https://www.cnn.com/2014/06/20/us/human-trafficking-report/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523102719/https://www.cnn.com/2014/06/20/us/human-trafficking-report/index.html |archive-date=23 May 2022 |access-date=23 May 2022 |publisher=CNN}}</ref> especially in fishing where slave-like conditions have been reported.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hodal |first1=Kate |last2=Kelly |first2=Chris |date=2014-06-10 |title=Trafficked into slavery on Thai trawlers to catch food for prawns |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jun/10/-sp-migrant-workers-new-life-enslaved-thai-fishing |access-date=2024-10-22 |work=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

=== Science and technology ===
Thailand ranked 45th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/thailand |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref> The [[Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation]] and [[Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation#Organization|its agencies]] oversees the development of science, technology, and research in Thailand. According to the National Research Council of Thailand, the country devoted 1.1% of its GDP to the research and development of science in 2019, with over 166,788 research and development personnel in full-time equivalent that year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519013757/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS |archive-date=19 May 2019 |access-date=14 May 2020 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Results of survey on R&D expenditure and manpower in 2019 announced |url=https://www.nxpo.or.th/th/en/7981/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025042537/https://www.nxpo.or.th/th/en/7981/ |archive-date=25 October 2022 |access-date=25 October 2022 |website=Office of National Higher Education Science Research and Innovation Policy Council {{!}}}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==

=== Transportation ===
{{main|Transport in Thailand|List of airports in Thailand}}

[[File:Bangkok Skytrain 2011.jpg|left|thumb|The [[BTS Skytrain]] is an elevated rapid transit system in Bangkok.]]

The [[State Railway of Thailand]] (SRT) operates all of Thailand's national rail lines. [[Krung Thep Aphiwat Central Terminal]] and [[Bangkok (Hua Lamphong) railway station|Bangkok (Hua Lamphong)]] are the main termini of intercity routes. Phahonyothin and ICD [[Lat Krabang]] are the main freight terminals. {{as of|2025}} SRT had {{convert|4507|km|mi|abbr=on}} of track, all of it [[meter gauge]]. Nearly all is single-track (2702.1&nbsp;km), although some important sections around Bangkok are double ({{convert|1,234.9|km|mi|abbr=on|disp=or}}) or triple-tracked ({{convert|107|km|mi|abbr=on|disp=or}}), and there are plans to extend this.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thongkamkoon |first=Chaiwat |date=17 November 2017 |title=25601124-RaiwalDevOTP.pdf |url=https://www.otp.go.th/uploads/tiny_uploads/PDF/2560-11/25601124-RaiwalDevOTP.pdf |access-date=3 January 2024 |website=Office of Transport and Traffic Policy and Planning}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Thongkamkoon |first=Chaiwat |title=PowerPoint Presentation |url=https://www.boi.go.th/upload/content/Infrastructure%20Development%20Plan%20by%20Mr.%20Chaiwat%20Thongkamkoon%20(EN)_5b7f83df1eff2.pdf |access-date=3 January 2024 |website=Thailand Board of Investment |archive-date=3 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103133819/https://www.boi.go.th/upload/content/Infrastructure%20Development%20Plan%20by%20Mr.%20Chaiwat%20Thongkamkoon%20(EN)_5b7f83df1eff2.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Rail transport in Bangkok]] includes long-distance services. There are four rapid transit rail systems in the capital: the [[BTS Skytrain]], [[MRT (Bangkok)|MRT]], [[SRT Red Lines]], and the [[Airport Rail Link (Bangkok)|Airport Rail Link]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Malaitham |first=Sathita |date=2013 |title=A Study Of Urban Rail Transit Development Effects In Bangkok Metropolitan Region |url=https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/180485/2/dkogk03781.pdf |journal=Kyoto University |archive-date=27 November 2024 |access-date=22 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241127002425/https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/180485/2/dkogk03781.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In Bangkok, there were two failed rapid rail projects [[Lavalin Skytrain]] and [[Bangkok Elevated Road and Train System]], before [[Mass Rapid Transit Master Plan in Bangkok Metropolitan Region]] was endorsed by the cabinet on 27 September 1994 and implemented from 1995 to the present.<ref name="adjustplan">{{cite web |script-title=th:เส้นทางปรับแผนรถไฟฟ้า |url=http://www.otp.go.th/th/Bkk_mrt/adjustplan.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102075809/http://www.otp.go.th/th/Bkk_mrt/adjustplan.php |archive-date=2 January 2011 |access-date=16 January 2012 |work=Mass Rapid Transit Master Plan in Bangkok Metropolitan Region website |publisher=Office of Transport and Traffic Policy and Planning |language=th}}</ref>

Thailand has {{convert|390000|km|mi|abbr=off}} of highways.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Janssen |first=Peter |date=23 January 2017 |title=Thailand's expanding state 'threatens future growth' |work=Nikkei Asian Review |url=http://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/Economy/Thailand-s-expanding-state-threatens-future-growth |url-status=live |access-date=23 January 2017 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211124094900/https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/Economy/Thailand-s-expanding-state-threatens-future-growth |archive-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> {{As of|2017}}, Thailand has over 462,133 roads and 37 million registered vehicles, 20 million of them motorbikes.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 January 2017 |title=Life and death on Thailand's lethal roads|publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-38660283 |url-status=live |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015221844/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-38660283 |archive-date=15 October 2019}}</ref> A number of undivided two-lane highways have been converted into divided four-lane highways. Within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, there are a number of [[Controlled-access highways in Thailand|controlled-access highways]]. There are 4,125 public vans operating on 114 routes from Bangkok alone.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mahittirook |first=Amornrat |date=7 November 2016 |title=Public vans likely to offer 10% fare cut |work=Bangkok Post |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/tourism-and-transport/1128693/public-vans-likely-to-offer-10-fare-cut |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328151333/https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/general/1128693/public-vans-likely-to-offer-10-fare-cut |url-status=live}}</ref> Other forms of road transport includes [[Auto rickshaw|tuk-tuks]], taxis—with over 80,647 registered taxis nationwide as of 2018,<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 November 2018 |title=The meter is ticking |work=Bangkok Post |department=Opinion |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1575514/the-meter-is-ticking |url-status=live |access-date=14 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606194211/https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1575514/the-meter-is-ticking |archive-date=6 June 2020}}</ref> vans ([[minibus]]), motorbike taxis, and [[songthaew]]s.

{{as of|2012}}, Thailand has 103 airports with 63 paved runways, in addition to 6 heliports. The busiest airport in the country is Bangkok's [[Suvarnabhumi Airport]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bangkok Suvarnabhumi Airport – FNM2024 |url=https://www.fnm2024.com/getting-there/bangkok-suvarnabhumi-airport/ |access-date=2024-05-19 |archive-date=19 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519054909/https://www.fnm2024.com/getting-there/bangkok-suvarnabhumi-airport/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Energy ===
{{further|Energy in Thailand}}
75% of Thailand's electrical generation is powered by [[natural gas]] in 2014.<ref name="Energy 2013">{{Cite web |year=2013 |title=International Index of Energy Security Risk |url=http://www.energyxxi.org/sites/default/files/pdf/InternationalIndex-Final2013.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104014043/http://www.energyxxi.org/sites/default/files/pdf/InternationalIndex-Final2013.pdf |archive-date=4 January 2015 |access-date=14 September 2014 |website=Institute for 21st Century Energy}}</ref> Coal-fired power plants produce an additional 20% of electricity, with the remainder coming from biomass, hydro, and biogas.<ref name="Energy 2013" /> Compared to other ASEAN's countries, Thailand is the largest importer of gas in weight.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |date=November 2023 |title=ASEAN Oil and Gas Updates 2023 |url=https://aseanenergy.sharepoint.com/PublicationLibrary/Forms/AllItems.aspx?id=%2FPublicationLibrary%2F2023%2F02%2E%20External%20Communications%2F04%2E%20Report%2FASEAN%20Oil%20and%20Gas%20Updates%202023%20%2Epdf&parent=%2FPublicationLibrary%2F2023%2F02%2E%20External%20Communications%2F04%2E%20Report&p=true&ga=1 |journal=ASEAN Centre for Energy}}</ref>{{Rp|page=17}} In 2022, Thailand's oil and gas production dropped by 19% and 17%, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=December 2023 |title=Thailand energy report |url=https://www.enerdata.net/estore/country-profiles/thailand.html |journal=Enerdata |at=Energy Supply |url-access=limited |access-date=October 22, 2024 |archive-date=2 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241102190242/https://www.enerdata.net/estore/country-profiles/thailand.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3" />{{Rp|page=8}}

The government, in 2018, has developed an Alternative Energy Development Plan 2018–2037 (AEDP 2018). The plan defines goals for the increase of renewable energy to almost 30,000 MW by 2037.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=Alternative Energy Development Plan 2018–2037 |url=https://climate-laws.org/document/alternative-energy-development-plan-2018-2037_c79f |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=Climate Change Laws of the World}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 2020 |title=Shifting to alternative energy |url=https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/th/pdf/2020/01/th-shifting-to-alternative-energy.pdf |journal=KPMG Phoomchai Audit Co. LTD. |archive-date=2 December 2024 |access-date=22 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202082012/https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/th/pdf/2020/01/th-shifting-to-alternative-energy.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Thailand}}

{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption =Ethnic groups
of Thailand<br />(2015 estimate by [[The World Factbook]])<ref name="CIA" />
|label1 = [[Thai people|Thai]]
|value1 = 97.5
|color1 = orange
|label2 = [[Burmese in Thailand|Burmese]]
|value2 = 1.3
|color2 = red
|label3 = other
|value3 = 1.1
|color3 = black
|label4 = unspecified
|value4 = 0.1
|color4 = pink
}}
Thailand had a population of 65.95 million on 8 Jan 2025.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=17 January 2025 |title=Thailand's Population Drops Below 66 Million as Births hit 75-year Low |url=https://www.khaosodenglish.com/featured/2025/01/17/thailands-population-drops-below-66-million-as-births-hit-75-year-low/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250918125839/https://www.khaosodenglish.com/featured/2025/01/17/thailands-population-drops-below-66-million-as-births-hit-75-year-low/ |archive-date=18 Sep 2025 |access-date=30 October 2025 |website=Khaosod English}}</ref> There were 64,953,661 Thai nationals and 997,549 non-Thai residents.<ref name=":2" /> Thailand's first census in 1909 found the population to be 8.2 million.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Population of Thailand from 1909 to 2000 |url=http://doc.nso.go.th/en/census/poph/prelim_e.htm |publisher=[[National Statistical Office (Thailand)]] |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230406/http://doc.nso.go.th/en/census/poph/prelim_e.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Thailand's population is largely rural, concentrated in the rice-growing areas of the central, northeastern, and northern regions. About 44.2% of Thailand's population lived in urban areas {{As of|2010|lc=y}}, slowly increasing from 29.4% in the 1990 census and 31.1% in the 2000 census.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2012 |title=20230512163226_54316.pdf |url=https://www.nso.go.th/nsoweb/storage/title_presentation/2023/20230512163226_54316.pdf |access-date=2 January 2024 |website=National Statistical Office |page=12 |archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101181315/https://www.nso.go.th/nsoweb/storage/title_presentation/2023/20230512163226_54316.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Thailand's government-sponsored family planning programme resulted in a dramatic decline in population growth from 3.1% in 1960 to around 0.4% today. In 1970, an average of 5.7 people lived in a Thai household; in 2022, the average Thai household size was 3 people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Average Household Size in Thailand |url=https://hub.arcgis.com/maps/esri::average-household-size-in-thailand/about |website=hub.arcgis.com |access-date=14 December 2023 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214160537/https://hub.arcgis.com/maps/esri::average-household-size-in-thailand/about |url-status=live}}</ref> Now, more than 20% of its population is aged over 60 and has a low birth rate, posing economic challenges.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Akanksha |title=Thailand's aging population hits consumption and economic growth – Thailand Business News |url=https://www.thailand-business-news.com/economics/142662-thailands-aging-population-hits-consumption-and-economic-growth |access-date=24 July 2024 |work=www.thailand-business-news.com |date=3 June 2024}}</ref> The [[sex ratio]] between male and female is 1.05, with Thailand having slightly more males.<ref>{{Citation |title=Thailand |date=2024-10-15 |work=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/thailand/#:~:text=Age%20structure,comparison%20ranking:%20189 |access-date=2024-10-22 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-date=10 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610164345/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/thailand/#:~:text=Age%20structure,comparison%20ranking:%20189 |url-status=live}}</ref> Thailand's [[total fertility rate]] declined to 1.0 in 2024.<ref name="chairith">{{Cite web |last=Yonpiam |first=Chairith |date=2 Feb 2025 |title=Experts urge action as declining birth rate set to hit Thai workforce |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/2952626/experts-urge-action-as-declining-birth-rate-set-to-hit-thai-workforce |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250604161928/https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/2952626/experts-urge-action-as-declining-birth-rate-set-to-hit-thai-workforce |archive-date=4 June 2025 |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Bangkok Post}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> This ranks Thailand among countries with [[Sub-replacement fertility|ultra-low fertility]] rates.<ref name="chairith" /><ref name=":2" />

=== Ethnic groups ===
{{Further|Ethnic groups in Thailand}}
[[File:Thailand (272021437).jpg|thumb|Hill tribes girls in the Northeast of Thailand]]
As of 2010, Thai people make up the majority of Thailand's population (95.9%). The remaining 4.1% of the population are Burmese (2.0%), others (1.3%), and unspecified (0.9%).<ref name="CIA" />

According to genetic research, the present-day Thai people were divided into three groups: the northern group (Khon Mueang) are closely related to the [[Tai people|Tai]] ethnic groups in [[southern China]], the northeastern group ([[Isan people]]) are mixed Tai and several [[Austroasiatic]]-speaking ethnic groups, while the central and southern groups (formerly called Siamese) strongly share genetic profiles with the [[Mon people]].<ref name=genetic/><ref name=genetic2>{{cite journal|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/063172v1.full|title=Complete mitochondrial genomes of Thai and Lao populations indicate an ancient origin of Austroasiatic groups and demic diffusion in the spread of Tai-Kadai languages|doi=10.1007/s00439-016-1742-y|journal=Human Genetics|author1=Wibhu Kutanan |author2=Jatupol Kampuansai |author3=Metawee Srikummool |author4=Daoroong Kangwanpong |author5=Silvia Ghirotto |author6=Andrea Brunelli |author7=Mark Stoneking|year=2016|volume=136 |issue=1 |pages=85–98 |pmid=27837350 |pmc=5214972 |archive-date=18 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118183802/https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/063172v1.full|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002C-0639-D|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=genetic3>{{cite journal|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/162610v1.full|title=New insights from Thailand into the maternal genetic history of Mainland Southeast Asia|doi=10.1038/s41431-018-0113-7|year=2017|access-date=19 January 2024|author1=Wibhu Kutanan |author2=Jatupol Kampuansai |author3=Andrea Brunelli |author4=Silvia Ghirotto |author5=Pittayawat Pittayaporn |author6=Sukhum Ruangchai |author7=Roland Schröder |author8=Enrico Macholdt |author9=Metawee Srikummool |author10=Daoroong Kangwanpong |author11=Alexander Hübner |author12=Leonardo Arias Alvis |author13=Mark Stoneking|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=898–911 |pmid=29483671 |pmc=5974021 |archive-date=18 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118231746/https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/162610v1.full|hdl=21.11116/0000-0001-7EEF-6|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

According to the Royal Thai Government's 2011 Country Report to the UN Committee responsible for the [[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination|International Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]], available from the Department of Rights and Liberties Promotion of the Thai Ministry of Justice,{{RP|3}} 62 ethnic communities are officially recognised in Thailand. Twenty million Central Thai (together with approximately 650,000 [[Khorat Thai]]) made up approximately 20,650,000 (34.1 per cent) of the state's population of 60,544,937<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population total – Thailand |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=TH |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013071134/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=TH |archive-date=13 October 2016 |access-date=12 October 2016 |publisher=World Bank Group}}</ref> at the time of completion of the Mahidol University ''Ethnolinguistic Maps of Thailand'' data (1997).<ref name="Ethnolinguistic 2004">{{Cite book |url=http://www.newmandala.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Thailand-Ethnolinguistic-Maps.pdf |title=Ethnolinguistic Maps of Thailand |date=2004 |publisher=Office of the National Culture Commission |language=th |access-date=8 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009124208/http://www.newmandala.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Thailand-Ethnolinguistic-Maps.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2016}}</ref>

The 2011 Thailand Country Report provides population numbers for mountain peoples ('hill tribes') and ethnic communities in the Northeast and is explicit about its main reliance on the Mahidol University Ethnolinguistic Maps of Thailand data.<ref name="Ethnolinguistic 2004" /> Thus, though over 3.288 million people in the Northeast alone could not be categorised, the population and percentages of other ethnic communities {{circa|1997}} are known for all of Thailand and constitute minimum populations. In descending order, the largest (equal to or greater than 400,000) are a) 15,080,000 Lao (24.9 per cent) consisting of the Thai Lao (14 million) and other smaller Lao groups, namely the Thai Loei (400–500,000), Lao Lom (350,000), Lao Wiang/Klang (200,000), Lao Khrang (90,000), Lao Ngaew (30,000), and Lao Ti (10,000); b) six million Khon Muang (9.9 per cent, also called Northern Thais); c) 4.5 million Pak Tai (7.5 per cent, also called Southern Thais); d) 1.4 million Khmer Leu (2.3 per cent, also called Northern Khmer); e) 900,000 Malay (1.5%); f) 500,000 Nyaw (0.8 per cent); g) 470,000 Phu Thai (0.8 per cent); h) 400,000 Kuy/Kuay (also known as Suay) (0.7 per cent), and i) 350,000 Karen (0.6 per cent).{{RP|7–13}} [[Thai Chinese]], including those of significant Chinese origins, are 14% of the population, while Thais with partial Chinese ancestry comprise up to 40% of the population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luangthongkum |first=Theraphan |author-link=Theraphan Luangthongkum |year=2007 |title=The Position of Non-Thai Languages in Thailand |journal=Language, Nation and Development in Southeast Asia |page=191}}</ref> [[Thai Malays]] also represent 3% of the Thai population's heritage, with the remainder consisting of [[Mon people|Mons]], [[Khmers]], and various "[[Hill tribe (Thailand)|hill tribes]]".{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

Increasing numbers of migrants from neighbouring Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia, as well as from Nepal and India, have pushed the total number of non-national residents to around 3.5 million {{As of|2009|lc=y}}, up from an estimated 2 million in 2008.<ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=84844 Thailand: Burmese migrant children missing out on education]. IRIN Asia. 15 June 2009. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227185950/http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=84844 |date=27 February 2012}}</ref> Some 41,000 [[British people|Britons]] and 20,000 [[Australians]] live in Thailand.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McGeown |first=Kate |date=14 December 2006 |title=Hard lessons in expat paradise |publisher=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6176647.stm |url-status=live |access-date=1 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813164737/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6176647.stm |archive-date=13 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=3 July 2008 |title=Speech to the Australian-Thai Chamber of Commerce |url=http://foreignminister.gov.au/speeches/2008/080704_bangkok.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612030327/https://foreignminister.gov.au/speeches/2008/080704_bangkok.html |archive-date=12 June 2019 |access-date=12 November 2019 |website=Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade}}</ref>

=== Population centres ===
{{Further|List of cities in Thailand}}
{{Largest cities
| country      = Thailand
| kind        = municipalities
| stat_ref     = {{cite web |url=https://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/new_stat/file/63/stat_a63.txt |title=รายงานสถิติจำนวนประชากรและบ้านประจำปี พ.ศ.2563}}
| div_name     = Province

| city_1 = Bangkok{{!}}Bangkok | div_1 = Bangkok | pop_1 = 5,588,222
| city_2 = Nonthaburi (city){{!}}Nonthaburi City | div_2 = Nonthaburi Province{{!}}Nonthaburi | pop_2 = 251,026
| city_3 = Pak Kret{{!}}Pak Kret City | div_3 = Nonthaburi Province{{!}}Nonthaburi | pop_3 = 189,458
| city_4 = Hat Yai{{!}}Hat Yai City | div_4 = Songkhla Province{{!}}Songkhla | pop_4 = 149,459
| city_5 = Chaophraya Surasak{{!}}Chaophraya Surasak City | div_5 = Chonburi Province{{!}}Chonburi | pop_5 = 146,474
| city_6 = Surat Thani{{!}}Surat Thani City | div_6 = Surat Thani Province{{!}}Surat Thani | pop_6 = 131,599
| city_7 = Nakhon Ratchasima{{!}}Nakhon Ratchasima City | div_7 = Nakhon Ratchasima Province{{!}}Nakhon Ratchasima |pop_7 = 122,730
| city_8 = Chiang Mai{{!}}Chiang Mai City | div_8 = Chiang Mai Province{{!}}Chiang Mai | pop_8= 122,627
| city_9 = Udon Thani{{!}}Udon Thani City | div_9 = Udon Thani Province{{!}}Udon Thani | pop_9 = 120,202
| city_10 = Pattaya{{!}}Pattaya City | div_10 = Chonburi Province{{!}}Chonburi | pop_10 = 117,606
| city_11 = Khon Kaen{{!}}Khon Kaen City | div_11 = Khon Kaen Province{{!}}Khon Kaen | pop_11 = 110,615
| city_12 = Nakhon Si Thammarat{{!}}Nakhon Si Thammarat City | div_12 = Nakhon Si Thammarat Province{{!}}Nakhon Si Thammarat | pop_12 = 100,416
| city_13 = Laem Chabang{{!}}Laem Chabang City | div_13 = Chonburi Province{{!}}Chonburi | pop_13 = 89,457
| city_14 = Rangsit, Thailand{{!}}Rangsit City | div_14 = Pathum Thani Province{{!}}Pathum Thani | pop_14 = 84,268
| city_15 = Nakhon Sawan{{!}}Nakhon Sawan City | div_15 = Nakhon Sawan Province{{!}}Nakhon Sawan | pop_15 = 81,239
| city_16 = Phuket city{{!}}Phuket City | div_16 = Phuket Province{{!}}Phuket | pop_16 = 77,778
| city_17 = Chiang Rai (city){{!}}Chiang Rai City | div_17 = Chiang Rai Province{{!}}Chiang Rai | pop_17 = 77,545
| city_18 = Ubon Ratchathani{{!}}Ubon Ratchathani City | div_18 = Ubon Ratchathani Province{{!}}Ubon Ratchathani | pop_18 = 72,855
| city_19 = Nakhon Pathom{{!}}Nakhon Pathom City | div_19 = Nakhon Pathom Province{{!}}Nakhon Pathom | pop_19 = 72,753
| city_20 = Ko Samui{{!}}Ko Samui City | div_20 = Surat Thani Province{{!}}Surat Thani | pop_20 = 68,994
}}{{Largest cities
| country      = Thailand
| kind        = cities by urban population
| stat_ref     = {{URL|https://onedptgis.dpt.go.th/onedpt-complain-ppl/}}
{{URL|https://www.bora.dopa.go.th}}
| div_name     = Province

| city_1 = Bangkok {{!}}Bangkok | div_1 = Bangkok | pop_1 = 10,539,000
| city_2 = Chiang Mai{{!}}Chiang Mai | div_2 = Chiang Mai Province{{!}}Chiang Mai | pop_2 = 1,198,000
| city_3 = Nakhon Ratchasima{{!}}Nakhon Ratchasima | div_3 = Nakhon Ratchasima Province{{!}}Nakhon Ratchasima | pop_3 = 466,098
| city_4 = Khon Kaen{{!}}Khon Kaen | div_4 = Khon Kaen Province{{!}}Khon Kaen | pop_4 = 412,758
| city_5 = Hat Yai{{!}}Hat Yai | div_5 = Songkhla Province{{!}}Songhkla | pop_5 = 404,044
| city_6 = Udon Thani{{!}}Udon Thani | div_6 = Udon Thani Province{{!}}Udon Thani | pop_6 = 400,581
| city_7 = Chonburi{{!}}Chonburi | div_7 = Chonburi Province{{!}}Chonburi |pop_7 = 342,959
| city_8 = Pattaya{{!}}Pattaya | div_8 = Chonburi Province{{!}}Chonburi | pop_8= 328,961
| city_9 = Si Racha{{!}}Si Racha | div_9 = Chonburi Province{{!}}Chonburi | pop_9 = 327,172
| city_10 = Phitsanulok{{!}}Phitsanulok | div_10 = Phitsanulok Province{{!}}Phitsanulok | pop_10 = 281,929
}}

=== Language ===
{{Main|Languages of Thailand}}

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2/1
| total_width       = 300
| caption_align     = center
| align             = left
| image1            = Thailand ethnic map.svg
| caption1          = An ethnolinguistic map of Thailand
| image2            = Bangkok National Museum - 2017-04-22 (008).jpg
| caption2          = The Silajaruek of [[Sukhothai Kingdom]] are hundreds of stone inscriptions that form a historical record of the period.
}}

[[Thai language|Thai]] is the official language. It is a [[Kra–Dai language]] closely related to [[Lao language|Lao]], [[Shan language|Shan]] in Myanmar, and numerous smaller languages spoken in an arc from [[Hainan]] and [[Yunnan]] south to the Chinese border. It is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout the country.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=M. Paul |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnologuelangua0000unse_k9t5 |title=Ethnologue: languages of the world |publisher=SIL International |year=2009 |edition=16th |location=Dallas, Texas |pages=529–533, 829–831|isbn=978-1-55671-216-6}}</ref> The standard is based on the dialect of the central Thai people, and it is written in the [[Thai alphabet]], an [[abugida]] script that evolved from the [[Khmer alphabet]].<ref name="hartmann">{{citation |last1=Hartmann |first1=John F. |title=The spread of South Indic scripts in Southeast Asia |year=1986 |page=8}}</ref>

Sixty-two languages were recognised by the Royal Thai Government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 October 2011 |title=CERD/C/THA/1-3 |url=https://www.rlpd.go.th/rlpdnew/images/rlpd_1/HRC/CERD%201_3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009184727/http://www.rlpd.go.th/rlpdnew/images/rlpd_1/HRC/CERD%201_3.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2016 |access-date=13 April 2024}}</ref> For the purposes of the national census, four dialects of Thai exist; these partly coincide with regional designations, such as [[Southern Thai language|Southern Thai]] and [[Northern Thai language|Northern Thai]].<ref name=":1" />

The largest of Thailand's minority languages is the [[Lao language|Lao]] dialect of [[Isan language|Isan]] spoken in the northeastern provinces. In the far south, [[Kelantan-Pattani Malay]] is the primary language of Malay Muslims. Varieties of Chinese are also spoken by the large [[Thai Chinese]] population, with the [[Teochew dialect]] best-represented. Numerous tribal languages are also spoken, including many [[Austroasiatic languages]] such as [[Mon language|Mon]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and [[Mlabri language|Mlabri]]; [[Austronesian languages]] such as [[Cham language|Cham]], [[Moken language|Moken]] and [[Urak Lawoi' language|Urak Lawoi']]; [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] like [[Lawa language|Lawa]], [[Akha language|Akha]], and [[Karen languages|Karen]]; and other [[Tai languages]] such as [[Phu Thai language|Phu Thai]], and [[Saek language|Saek]]. [[Hmong language|Hmong]] is a member of the [[Hmong–Mien languages]], which is now regarded as a language family of its own.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thailand {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/TH/ |access-date=2024-04-12 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |archive-date=9 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309065755/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/TH/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Thailand}}

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religion in Thailand (2018)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Population by religion, region and area, 2018 |url=http://statbbi.nso.go.th/nso/nso_center/project/table/files/S-soc-health/2561/000/00_S-soc-health_2561_000_000000_00100.xls |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424172255/http://statbbi.nso.go.th/nso/nso_center/project/table/files/S-soc-health/2561/000/00_S-soc-health_2561_000_000000_00100.xls |archive-date=24 April 2021 |access-date=9 March 2021 |publisher=NSO}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Buddhism in Thailand|Buddhism]]
| value1 = 93.46
| color1 = gold
| label2 = [[Islam in Thailand|Islam]]
| value2 = 5.37
| color2 = green
| label3 = [[Christianity in Thailand|Christianity]]
| value3 = 1.13
| color3 = dodgerblue
| label4 = [[Religion in Thailand|Other]]
| value4 = 0.04
| color4 = black
}}

The country's most prevalent religion is [[Theravada]] Buddhism, which is an integral part of Thai identity and culture. Active participation in Buddhism is among the highest in the world. Thailand has the second-largest number of [[Buddhist]]s in the world after China.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2012 |title=The Global Religious Landscape |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828202350/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ |archive-date=28 August 2014 |access-date=5 November 2018 |publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> According to the 2018 [[National Statistical Office (Thailand)|National Statistical Office]] data, 93.46% of the country's population self-identified as Buddhists.<ref name=":0"/>

[[File:Phutthamonthon Buddha.JPG|thumb|''[[Samanera]]'' of [[Theravada]] Buddhism, the most practised religion in Thailand]]

[[Islam in Thailand|Muslims]] constitute the second largest religious group in Thailand, comprising 5.37% of the population in 2018.<ref name=":0" /> Islam is concentrated mostly in the country's southernmost provinces: [[Pattani Province|Pattani]], [[Yala Province|Yala]], [[Satun Province|Satun]], [[Narathiwat Province|Narathiwat]], and part of [[Songkhla Province|Songkhla]], which are predominantly [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]], most of whom are [[Sunni Muslim]]s. Christians represented 1.13% of the population in 2018, with the remaining population consisting of [[Hinduism in Thailand|Hindus]] and [[Sikhism in Thailand|Sikhs]], who live mostly in the country's cities. There is also a small [[Jews and Judaism in Thailand|Jewish community in Thailand]] dating back to the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gerson |first1=Ruth |title=Jews in Thailand |last2=Mallinger |first2=Stephen Mark |date=2011 |publisher=River Books |isbn=978-616-90895-0-6 |location=Bangkok}}</ref>

The constitution does not name an official state religion, and provides for freedom of religion. There have been no widespread reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice.<ref>United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. [https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90155.htm Thailand: International Religious Freedom Report 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110084721/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90155.htm |date=10 November 2019}}. The article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].</ref> Thai law officially recognises five religious groups: Buddhists, Muslims, Brahmin-Hindus, Sikhs, and Christians.<ref>{{Cite news |title=2018 Report on International Religious Freedom: Thailand |work=US Department of State |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-report-on-international-religious-freedom/thailand/ |url-status=live |access-date=28 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208143016/https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-report-on-international-religious-freedom/thailand/ |archive-date=8 December 2022}}</ref> However, some laws are inspired from Buddhist practices, such as banning alcohol sales on religious holidays.<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 February 2020 |title=No alcohol sales today – Makha Bucha Day|work=Thaiger |url=https://thethaiger.com/news/national/no-alcohol-sales-today-makha-bucha-day-february-7-2020 |access-date=31 July 2021 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328151332/https://thethaiger.com/news/national/no-alcohol-sales-today-makha-bucha-day-february-7-2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Thailand}}

[[File:Chulalongkorn University Auditorium.jpg|thumb|[[Chulalongkorn University]], established in 1917, is the oldest university in Thailand.]]

In 1995, as minister of education, [[Sukavich Rangsitpol]]laid let out his plans for educational reform in Thailand.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Education Reform at the Ministry of Education Thailand |url=https://elibrary.ksp.or.th/doc_num.php?explnum_id=4954 |access-date=8 October 2023 |website=elibrary.ksp.or.th |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927003957/https://elibrary.ksp.or.th/doc_num.php?explnum_id=4954 |url-status=live}}</ref> The reform was considered a landmark movement after nearly 100 years of education under the previous system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Thailand Educational Reform Project |url=https://backoffice.onec.go.th/uploaded/Category/EngBook/SchoolReformPolicy-04-03-2011.pdf |access-date=8 October 2023 |website=backoffice.onec.go.th |archive-date=7 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107091802/https://backoffice.onec.go.th/uploaded/Category/EngBook/SchoolReformPolicy-04-03-2011.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Thailand's youth literacy rate was 98.1% in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thailand-Youth literacy rate |url=https://knoema.com/atlas/Thailand/topics/Education/Literacy/Youth-literacy-rate |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304210909/https://knoema.com/atlas/Thailand/topics/Education/Literacy/Youth-literacy-rate |archive-date=4 March 2021 |access-date=13 May 2020 |publisher=knoema}}</ref> Education is provided by a school system of kindergartens, primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools, numerous vocational colleges, and universities. Education is compulsory up to and including age 14, while the government is mandated to provide free education through to age 17. Issues concerning university entrance have been in constant upheaval for a number of years. The country is also one of the few that still mandates uniform up to the university years, which is still a subject of ongoing debate.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Boonyatus |first1=Jeerapa |title=Voices of students on school rules and uniforms |url=https://www.thaipbsworld.com/voices-of-students-on-school-rules-and-uniforms/ |work=Thai PBS World |date=28 June 2023}}</ref>

In 2013, the [[Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (Thailand)|Ministry of Information and Communication Technology]] announced that 27,231 schools would receive classroom-level access to [[internet|high-speed internet]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2013 |title=Thailand Provides 27,231 Schools With Internet |work=Software Development &#124; Marketing &#124; Consulting &#124; เพิ่มพูนผลกำไร |url=http://www.inceva.co.th/2013/03/thailand-provides-27231-schools-internet |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716224136/http://www.inceva.co.th/2013/03/thailand-provides-27231-schools-internet/ |archive-date=16 July 2014 |access-date=30 January 2015}}</ref> However, the country's educational infrastructure was still underprepared for online teaching, as smaller and more remote schools were particularly hindered by COVID-19 restrictions.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Covid hinders education again |work=Bangkok Post |date=4 January 2021 |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/2045015/covid-hinders-education-again |access-date=10 August 2021 |last1=Mala |first1=Dumrongkiat}}</ref>

The number of higher education institutions in Thailand has grown over the past decades to 156 officially. The two top-ranking universities in Thailand are [[Chulalongkorn University]] and [[Mahidol University]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=University Ranking |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201226033634/https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2020 |archive-date=26 December 2020 |access-date=13 May 2020 |publisher=topuniversities}}</ref> Thai universities' research output is still relatively low, even though the country's journal publications increased by 20% between 2011 and 2016.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buasuwan |first=Prompilai |year=2018 |title=Rethinking Thai higher education for Thailand 4.0 |journal=Asian Education and Development Studies |publisher=emerald |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=157–173 |doi=10.1108/AEDS-07-2017-0072 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Thailand has the second highest number of English-medium private international schools in [[ASEAN|Southeast Asian Nations]].<ref name="WENR 2018" /> [[Cram school]]s are especially popular for university entrance exams.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Charassangsomboon |first1=Varissara |title=Exclusive: Thailand's plan to fight inequality in education |url=https://govinsider.asia/intl-en/article/exclusive-thailand-education-inequality-teerakiat-jareonsettasin |access-date=3 June 2024 |work=GovInsider |date=17 September 2018}}</ref>

Students in ethnic minority areas score consistently lower in standardised national and international tests.<ref name="Draper 2012">{{Citation |last=Draper |first=John |title=Revisiting English in Thailand |url=http://asian-efl-journal.com/quarterly-journal/2012/12/01/revisiting-english-in-thailand/ |work=Asian EFL Journal |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=9–38 |year=2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312225048/http://asian-efl-journal.com/quarterly-journal/2012/12/01/revisiting-english-in-thailand/ |url-status=live |issn=1738-1460 |archive-date=12 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=OECD |title=Structural Policy Country Notes: Thailand |url=http://www.oecd.org/dev/asia-pacific/Thailand.pdf |year=2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312224513/http://www.oecd.org/dev/asia-pacific/Thailand.pdf |url-status=live |publisher=OECD |archive-date=12 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Khaopa |first=Wannapa |date=12 December 2012 |title=Thai students drop in world maths and science study |work=The Nation |url=https://www.nationthailand.com/detail/national/30195966 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312224452/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/national/Thai-students-drop-in-world-maths-and-science-stud-30195966.html |archive-date=12 March 2014}}</ref> This is likely due to unequal allocation of educational resources, weak teacher training, poverty, and low Thai language skill, the language of the tests.<ref name="Draper 2012" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Draper |first=John |date=12 December 2011 |title=Solving Isaan's education problem |publisher=The Isaan Record |url=http://isaanrecord.com/2011/12/12/op-ed-solving-isaans-education-problem |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226030123/http://isaanrecord.com/2011/12/12/op-ed-solving-isaans-education-problem/ |archive-date=26 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Draper |first=John |date=21 February 2014 |title=PISA Thailand regional breakdown shows inequalities between Bangkok and Upper North with the rest of Thailand |publisher=The Isaan Record |url=http://isaanrecord.com/2014/02/21/pisa-thailand-regional-breakdown-shows-inequalities-between-bangkok-and-upper-north-with-the-rest-of-thailand |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312225108/http://isaanrecord.com/2014/02/21/pisa-thailand-regional-breakdown-shows-inequalities-between-bangkok-and-upper-north-with-the-rest-of-thailand/ |archive-date=12 March 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, Thailand was ranked 89th out of 100 countries globally for English proficiency.<ref>{{Cite news |title=English skills drop again |work=Bangkok Post |date=27 November 2020 |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/2026031/english-skills-drop-again |access-date=10 August 2021}}</ref> Thailand is the third most popular study destination in ASEAN. The number of international degree students in Thailand increased by 9.7 times between 1999 and 2012, from 1,882 to 20,309 students. Most of international students come from neighbor countries<ref name="WENR 2018">{{Cite web |date=6 February 2018 |title=Education in Thailand |url=https://wenr.wes.org/2018/02/education-in-thailand-2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919062516/https://wenr.wes.org/2018/02/education-in-thailand-2 |archive-date=19 September 2020 |access-date=13 May 2020 |publisher=WENR}}</ref> like China, Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite web |title=สถิติอุดมศึกษา Higher Education Statistics 2558–2560 |url=http://www.mua.go.th/assets/img/pdf/61.10.26_%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%202558-2560_V4.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025160558/http://www.mua.go.th/assets/img/pdf/61.10.26_%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%202558-2560_V4.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2021 |access-date=13 May 2020 |publisher=Office of The higher Education Commission}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in Thailand|Healthcare in Thailand|Hospitals in Thailand}}

[[File:Siriraj Hospital,Bangkok.jpg|thumb|[[Siriraj Hospital]] in Bangkok, the oldest and largest hospital in Thailand]]
Thailand ranks world's sixth, and Asia's first in the 2019 [[Global Health Security Index]] of global health security capabilities in 195 countries,<ref>{{Cite web |title=2019 Global Health Security Index |url=https://www.ghsindex.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803202057/https://www.ghsindex.org/ |archive-date=3 August 2020 |access-date=15 May 2020 |publisher=GHS INDEX}}</ref> making it the only [[developing country]] on the world's top ten. Thailand had 62 hospitals accredited by [[Joint Commission|Joint Commission International]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Search for JCI-Accredited Organizations |url=https://www.jointcommissioninternational.org/en/about-jci/accredited-organizations/#f:_Facet_Country= |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001181625/https://www.jointcommissioninternational.org/en/about-jci/accredited-organizations/#f:_Facet_Country= |archive-date=1 October 2020 |access-date=15 May 2020 |publisher=JCI}}</ref> In 2002, [[Bumrungrad International Hospital|Bumrungrad]] became the first hospital in Asia to meet the standard.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Finch |first=Steve |date=2014-01-07 |title=Thailand top destination for medical tourists |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |volume=186 |issue=1 |pages=E1–E2 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.109-4655 |pmc=3883860 |pmid=24246587}}</ref>

Health and medical care is overseen by the [[Ministry of Public Health (Thailand)|Ministry of Public Health]] (MOPH), with total national expenditures on health amounting to 4.3 per cent of GDP in 2009. [[Non-communicable disease]]s form the major burden of morbidity and mortality, while infectious diseases including malaria<ref>{{Cite journal |date=20 November 2023 |others=Design and layout by Claude Cardot, cover design by Lushomo |title=World malaria report 2023 |url=https://www.who.int/teams/global-malaria-programme/reports/world-malaria-report-2023 |journal=World Health Organization |pages=22–23, 85 |isbn=978-92-4-008617-3}}</ref> and tuberculosis,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mingchay |first1=Pichanon |last2=Paitoonpong |first2=Leilani |last3=Kawkitinarong |first3=Kamon |last4=Ohata |first4=Pirapon June |last5=Suwanpimolkul |first5=Gompol |date=2024-08-20 |title=Tuberculosis at a university hospital, Thailand: A surprising incidence of TB among a new generation of highly exposed health care workers who may be asymptomatic |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=17 |issue=8 |article-number=e0273027 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0273027 |doi-access=free |pmc=9401166 |pmid=36001595}}</ref> as well as traffic accidents, are also important public health issues.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-06 |title=14,737 lives lost on Thai roads in 2022 |url=https://www.nationthailand.com/thailand/general/40023780 |access-date=2024-10-20 |website=nationthailand}}</ref>

In December 2018, the interim parliament voted to legalise the use of [[cannabis]] for medical reasons, making Thailand the first Southeast Asian country to allow the use of [[medical cannabis]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Olam |first1=Kocha |last2=Goldschmidt |first2=Debra |date=25 December 2018 |title=Thailand approves medical marijuana |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/12/25/health/thailand-medical-marijuana-bn/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226030858/https://edition.cnn.com/2018/12/25/health/thailand-medical-marijuana-bn/index.html |archive-date=26 December 2018 |access-date=26 December 2018 |publisher=CNN}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Thailand}}

[[File:Silk Loom Jim Thompson House photo D Ramey Logan.jpg|140px|thumb|left|Thai women wearing [[sabai]], [[Jim Thompson House]]]]
Thai culture and traditions incorporate influences from India, China, Cambodia, and the rest of Southeast Asia. Thailand's national religion, [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]], is central to modern [[Thai identity]]. [[Buddhism in Thailand|Thai Buddhism]] has evolved over millennia from the [[Dvaravati|Mon kingdom of Dvaravati]] in [[Central Thailand]] (6th–11th century). Nowadays it includes many regional beliefs originating from [[Hinduism]], [[animism]], as well as ancestor worship. The [[Thai solar calendar|official calendar]] in Thailand is based on the Eastern version of the [[Buddhist calendar|Buddhist Era]] (BE). The ancient Thai identity originates from the [[Tai peoples|Tai-speaking groups]] who migrated from southern China to Southeast Asia in 6th to 11th century.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Stentiford |first=Barry M. |date=2022 |title=Tai Peoples |url=https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/tai-peoples |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251102203705/https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/tai-peoples |archive-date=2 November 2025 |access-date=2 November 2025 |website=EBSCO Knowledge Advantage}}</ref> The Tai brought the [[Thai language]] and established city-states.<ref name=":6" /> They mixed with the existing Austro-Asiatic groups like the [[Mon people|Mon]] and [[Khmer people|Khmer]] while absorbing their cultures and beliefs in the [[Chao Phraya River|Chao Phraya Basin]].<ref name=":6" /> The prevalent culture of [[Central Thailand]] formed the basis of the modern Thai identity. This was [[Thaification|spread nationwide]] by the [[Plaek Phibunsongkhram|Phibun]] regime to assimilate the ethnic groups in the 1940s.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wongworakul|first=Eve|url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/d0392aa1bf6a48659b9d15fc557f7a2e|title=History of Pad Thai as a Symbol of Nationalism in Thailand|website=[[ArcGIS|arcgis.com]]|date=21 December 2020|access-date=9 May 2024|archive-date=10 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510003143/https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/d0392aa1bf6a48659b9d15fc557f7a2e|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Reynolds|first=E. Bruce|title=Phibun Songkhram and Thai Nationalism in the Fascist Era|journal=European Journal of East Asian Studies|volume=3|issue=1|pages=99–134|date=2004|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|doi=10.1163/1570061033004686|jstor=23615170}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Thepboriruk|first=Kanjana Hubik|title=Dear Thai Sisters: Propaganda, Fashion, and the Corporeal Nation under Phibunsongkhram|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/231696876.pdf|journal=Southeast Asian Studies|date=August 2019|volume=8|issue=2|pages=233–258|access-date=9 May 2024|archive-date=10 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510003143/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/231696876.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Several ethnic groups mediated change between their traditional local culture, national Thai, and global cultural influences. [[Overseas Chinese]] also form a significant part of Thai society, particularly in and around Bangkok. Thai Chinese businesses prosper as part of the larger [[bamboo network]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murray L Weidenbaum |url=https://archive.org/details/bamboonetworkhow00weid |title=The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia |publisher=Martin Kessler Books, Free Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-684-82289-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bamboonetworkhow00weid/page/4 4]–8 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

[[File:Loi_Krathong_2010_John_Shedrick.jpg|thumb|People floating krathong rafts during the [[Loi Krathong]] festival in Chiang Mai, Thailand]]
Respect for elderly and superiors (by age, position, monks, or certain professions) is Thai [[mores]], reflecting in many classes of [[Thai honorifics|honorifics]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}} ''[[Thai greeting|Wai]]'' is a familiar Thai greeting, and is generally offered first by a person who is younger or lower in social status and position.<ref name=":5" /> Older siblings have duties to younger ones.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scroope |first=Chara |date=2016 |title=Thai – Family |url=https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/thai-culture/thai-culture-family |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=Cultural Atlas}}</ref>

[[Taboo]]s in Thai culture include touching someone's head or pointing with the feet, as the head is considered the most sacred and the foot the lowest part of the body.<ref name=":5">{{cite thesis |last=Smutkupt |first=Suriya |title=A Descriptive Study of Thai Nonverbal Communication |access-date=17 March 2025 |publisher=Portland State University |url=https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3592&context=open_access_etds |doi=10.15760/etd.2584 |pages=4, 18, 20, 31–32 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218163745/https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3592&context=open_access_etds |archive-date=18 February 2024 |year=1976 |url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Art ===
{{Main|Thai art}}

[[File:WatPhraKeaw Ramayana Chariot.JPG|thumb|Scene from the [[Ramakien]] depicted on a mural at [[Wat Phra Kaew]]]]

The origins of Thai art were influenced by [[Buddhist art]] and by scenes from the Indian epics. Traditional Thai [[sculpture]] almost exclusively depicts [[Buddha image|images of the Buddha]], being very similar with the other styles from [[Southeast Asia]]. Traditional Thai [[painting]]s usually consist of book illustrations, and painted ornamentation of buildings such as [[palace]]s and [[temple]]s.

Thai art was influenced by indigenous civilisations of the [[Dvaravati|Mon]] and other civilisations. By the Sukothai and Ayutthaya periods, Thai had developed into its own unique style and was later further influenced by the other Asian styles, mostly by [[Indian art|Sri Lankan]] and [[Chinese art|Chinese]]. Thai sculpture and painting, and the royal courts provided patronage, erecting temples and other religious shrines as acts of merit or to commemorate important events.<ref name="Buddhist Arts of Thailand">{{Cite web |title=Buddhist Arts of Thailand |url=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/budartthai2.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211220801/http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/budartthai2.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2019 |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

Traditional Thai paintings showed subjects in two [[dimension]]s without [[Perspective (graphical)|perspective]]. The size of each element in the picture reflected its degree of importance. The primary technique of [[Composition (visual arts)|composition]] is that of apportioning areas: the main elements are isolated from each other by space transformers. This eliminated the intermediate ground, which would otherwise imply perspective. Perspective was introduced only as a result of [[Western world|Western]] influence in the mid-19th century. Monk artist [[Khrua In Khong]] is well known as the first artist to introduce [[linear perspective]] to Thai traditional art.<ref>{{Cite news |last=PCL |first=Post Publishing |title=Wat Borommaniwat |work=Bangkok Post |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/travel/sightseeing/26933/wat-borommaniwat}}</ref>

The most frequent narrative subjects for paintings were or are: the [[Jataka]] stories, episodes from the life of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], the Buddhist [[heaven]]s and [[hell]]s, themes derived from the Thai versions of the ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'', and scenes of daily life. Some of the scenes are influenced by [[Thai folklore]] instead of following strict Buddhist [[iconography]].<ref name="Buddhist Arts of Thailand" />

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Architecture of Thailand}}

[[File:The sculptures of two mythical giant demons, Thotsakan and Sahatsadecha, guarding the eastern gate of the main chapel of Wat Arun, Bangkok.jpg|thumb|Two sculptures in front of the eastern gate to the main chapel of [[Wat Arun]]]]

The [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]] movement is designed to display might and riches. The temples in Ayutthaya seldom built eaves stretching from the masterhead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=โครงการจักทำองค์ความรู้ด้านการสำรวจสถาปัตยกรรมเพื่อการอนุรักษ์โบราณสถาน |url=http://www.finearts.go.th/olddata/files/01_Knowledge_1-3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213140750/http://www.finearts.go.th/olddata/files/01_Knowledge_1-3.pdf |archive-date=13 December 2019 |access-date=13 December 2019 |publisher=[[Fine Arts Department]], Ministry of Culture(Thailand)}}</ref> [[Buddhist temples in Thailand]] are known as "[[wat]]s", from the [[Pāḷi]] ''vāṭa'', meaning an enclosure: a temple has an enclosing wall that divides it from the secular world. Wat [[architecture]] demonstrates many differences in layout and style, but they all adhere to the same principles.<ref>{{Cite web |title=วัด |url=http://www.elca.ssru.ac.th/suriyun_ch/pluginfile.php/132/block_html/content/009%20%20%20%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9A.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617135050/http://www.elca.ssru.ac.th/suriyun_ch/pluginfile.php/132/block_html/content/009%20%20%20%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9A.pdf |archive-date=17 June 2020 |access-date=13 December 2019}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Thai literature}}

Thai literature has had a long history. Even before the establishment of the Sukhothai Kingdom there existed oral and written works.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

During the [[Sukhothai Kingdom]], most literary works were written in simple prose with certain alliteration schemes. Major works include King [[Ram Khamhaeng Inscription]] describing life at the time, which is considered the first literary work in Thai script, but some historians questioned its authenticity.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Terwiel |first=Barend Jan |date=January 2007 |title=Using Ockham's Razor with respect to the Ram Khamhaeng Controversy |url=https://www.academia.edu/9903229 |conference="Breaking the Bonds" Hamburg 24–26 November 2006 |access-date=8 December 2017 |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530042606/https://www.academia.edu/9903229 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Trai Phum [[Phra Ruang]]'', written in 1345 by King [[Maha Thammaracha I]], expounds Buddhist philosophy based on an extensive study with reference to over 30 sacred texts and could be considered the nation's first piece of research [[dissertation]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Thai literature |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Thai-literature |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019151510/https://www.britannica.com/art/Thai-literature |archive-date=19 October 2020 |access-date=11 May 2020 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

[[File:Sunrise on Hat Saikaew, Koh Samet.jpg|thumb|Sculptures of [[Phra Aphai Mani]] and the Mermaid from the [[epic poem]] ''[[Phra Aphai Mani]]'', a work of [[Sunthorn Phu]]]]

During the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]], new [[Thai poetry|poetic]] forms were created, with different rhyme schemes and metres. It is common to find a combination of different poetic forms in one poetic work. ''Lilit [[Yuan Phai]]'' is a narrative poem describing [[Ayutthaya–Lan Na War (1441–1474)|the war]] between King [[Borommatrailokkanat]] of Ayutthaya and Prince [[Tilokaraj]] of [[Lan Na]]. One literary work is ''Kap He Ruea'', composed by Prince [[Thammathibet]] in the ''[[nirat]]'' tradition. Traditionally, the verse is sung during the [[royal barge]] procession<ref>{{Cite journal |date=May 9, 2024 |title=การสร้างสรรค์ภาพประกอบศิลปะดิจิทัล: ภาพเย่เนี่เยอ บทแห่งชมกนในพระนิพนธ์เจ้าฟ้าธรรมธิเบศร (เจ้าฟ้ากุ้ง) |trans-title=Digital Art Illustration Creation: Ye Nie Ye, the Chapter of Chomkan in the writings of Prince Dharma Thibesra (Prince Kung) |url=https://so07.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/HUSO-J/article/view/2936/3101 |journal=Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Nakhon Pathom Rajabhat University |language=th |volume=14 |issue=2}}</ref> and has been the model for subsequent poets to emulate. The same prince also composed the greatly admired ''Kap Ho Khlong'' on the Visit to Than Thongdaeng and ''Kap Ho Khlong Nirat Phrabat''.<ref name="Embassy">{{Cite web |title=Culture Overview: Literature and Performances |url=http://www.thaiembassy.org/lima/en/thai-people/7305/79482-Literature-and-Performances.html |publisher=thaiembassy}}</ref> The [[Thonburi Kingdom|Thonburi]] period produced ''[[Ramakien]]'', a verse drama contributed by [[King Taksin the Great]].

During the 18th century [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Rattanakosin]] period, which still fought with the Burmese, many of the early Rattanakosin works dealt with war and military strategy. Some examples are ''Nirat Rop Phama Thi Tha Din Daeng'', ''Phleng Yao Rop Phama Thi Nakhon Si Thammarat''. There were also verse recitals with musical accompaniment, such as [[Mahori]] telling the story of ''[[Kaki Klon Suphap|Kaki]]'' and [[Sepha]], relating the story of ''[[Khun Chang Khun Phaen]]''. Other recitals include [[Sri Thanonchai]]. The Thai poet [[Sunthorn Phu]] is known as "the bard of Rattanakosin" ({{langx|th|กวีเอกแห่งกรุงรัตนโกสินทร์}}). Sunthorn Phu is best known for his epic poem ''[[Phra Aphai Mani]]'', a versified fantasy-adventure novel, a genre of Siamese literature known as {{transliteration|th|nithan kham klon}} ({{langx|th|นิทานคำกลอน}}).<ref name="Embassy" />

Some of the most well-known modern Thai writers include [[Kukrit Pramoj]], [[Kulap Saipradit]], (penname [[Siburapha]]), Suweeriya Sirisingh (penname Botan), [[Chart Korbjitti]], [[Prabda Yoon]], and [[Duanwad Pimwana]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scrima |first=Andrea |date=April 2019 |title=Duanwad Pimwana and Mui Poopoksakul with Andrea Scrima |url=https://brooklynrail.org/2019/04/books/Duanwad-Pimwana-and-Mui-Poopoksakul-with-Andrea-Scrima |journal=The Brooklyn Rail |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref>

=== Music and dance ===
{{Main|Music of Thailand|Dance in Thailand}}

[[File:Dance of the Ramayana.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Khon]] show]]
Aside from folk and regional dances (southern Thailand's [[Menora (dance)|Menora]] and [[Ramwong]], for example), the two major forms of Thai classical dance drama are [[Khon]] and [[Lakhon nai]]. In the beginning, both were exclusively court entertainments, and it was not until much later that a popular style of dance theatre, [[likay]], evolved as a diversion for common folk.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thai Traditional Dances – Dance costume Thailand |url=https://www.thai2siam.com/thai-traditional-dances |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203174740/https://www.thai2siam.com/thai-traditional-dances |archive-date=3 February 2020 |access-date=12 May 2020 |publisher=Thai to Siam}}</ref> Folk dance forms include dance theater forms like [[likay]], numerous regional dances (''ram''), the ritual dance [[ram muay]], and homage to the teacher, [[Wai khru ram muay|wai khru]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guffey |first1=Ryan V. |last2=Kaewkaen |first2=Anothai |date=2017-09-01 |title=Historical Practices and Modern Interpretations: Understanding the Wai Khru Ceremony as a Thai Educational and Cultural Tradition |url=https://digitalcommons.lindenwood.edu/ela/vol5/iss1/3 |journal=Journal of Educational Leadership in Action |volume=5 |issue=1 |at=Wai Khru: Guide to Rites and Symbolism |doi=10.62608/2164-1102.1049 |issn=2164-1102|doi-access=free}}</ref> Both ram muay and wai khru take place before all traditional [[muay Thai]] matches.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

The three primary classical ensembles are the [[Piphat]], [[Khrueang sai]], and [[Mahori]]. Mahori employ small ching hand cymbals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Mi |last2=Roongruang |first2=Panya |date=May 30, 2022 |title=The Mahori Music At Bangkok Thonburi University |url=https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/ajrc/article/view/256015 |journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Religions and Cultures |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=51}}</ref>

=== Media ===
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| footer            = [[Tony Jaa]] and [[Lalisa Manobal]]{{efn-lr|Lisa spells her surname ''Manobal'' in the Latin alphabet. However, ''Manoban'' is a better approximation of the Thai pronunciation and is the spelling recommended by the [[Royal Thai General System of Transcription]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Title of single by Blackpink's Lisa is her real name|url=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2021/08/26/entertainment/kpop/lisa-blackpink-lalisa-manobal/20210826112900544.html|author=Yim Seung-hye|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|date=August 26, 2021|access-date=September 10, 2021|archive-date=September 10, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910114715/https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2021/08/26/entertainment/kpop/lisa-blackpink-lalisa-manobal/20210826112900544.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Blackpink Lisa Deceiving Other Members with Her Real Name???|url=https://mnews.joins.com/article/22677888?IgnoreUserAgent=y#home|author=Ryu Jae-yeon|website=[[JoongAng Ilbo]]|date=July 1, 2018|access-date=March 17, 2021|archive-date=May 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526081742/https://mnews.joins.com/article/22677888?IgnoreUserAgent=y#home}}</ref>}}<!-- NO MBE as per [[Talk:Blackpink#Member's MBE POSTNOM in lede]] otherwise it'll be considered as DISRUPTIVE EDITING -->
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{{Main|Mass media in Thailand|Censorship in Thailand|Cinema of Thailand|Thai television soap opera}}

Thai films are exported and exhibited in [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Expanding the Asean screen |work=Bangkok Post |date=23 October 2015 |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/life/arts-and-entertainment/740772/expanding-the-asean-screen |url-status=live |access-date=10 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210161236/https://www.bangkokpost.com/life/arts-and-entertainment/740772/expanding-the-asean-screen |archive-date=10 February 2023 |last1=Rithdee |first1=Kong}}</ref> Thai cinema has developed its own unique identity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 April 2007 |title=Thai films get in on the action |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/thai-films-get-action-133270 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911145033/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/thai-films-get-action-133270 |archive-date=11 September 2020 |access-date=10 May 2020 |work=The Hollywood Reporter}}</ref>

The Thai heist thriller film ''[[Bad Genius (2017 film)|Bad Genius]]'' (2017) was one of the most internationally successful Thai films; it broke Thai film earning records in several Asian countries,<ref>{{Cite web |title='Thai wave' in showbiz poised for big splash in China |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Business-trends/Thai-wave-showbiz-faces-golden-opportunity-to-court-Chinese-market |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603095710/https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Business-trends/Thai-wave-showbiz-faces-golden-opportunity-to-court-Chinese-market |archive-date=3 June 2020 |access-date=10 May 2020 |publisher=NIKKEI Asian Review}}</ref> Bad Genius won in 12 categories at the 27th [[Suphannahong National Film Awards]], and also won the Jury Award at the 16th [[New York Asian Film Festival]] with a worldwide collection of more than $42 million.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 May 2019 |title=From Singapore to Malaysia: Markets Leading the Expansion of Southeast Asian Cinema |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/markets-leading-expansion-southeast-asian-cinema-1211133/item/cannes-spotlight-southeast-asia-singapore-1211134 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911145002/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/markets-leading-expansion-southeast-asian-cinema-1211133/item/cannes-spotlight-southeast-asia-singapore-1211134 |archive-date=11 September 2020 |access-date=10 May 2020 |work=The Hollywood Reporter}}</ref>

''[[Shutter (2004 film)|Shutter]]'' (2004) was one of the best-known Thai horror movies and was recognized worldwide.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Scheck |first=Frank |date=24 March 2008 |title="Shutter" a bland horror remake |url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/film-film-shutter-dc/shutter-a-bland-horror-remake-idUKN2313717520080324 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915003528/https://uk.reuters.com/article/film-film-shutter-dc/shutter-a-bland-horror-remake-idUKN2313717520080324 |archive-date=15 September 2020 |access-date=10 May 2020 |work=Reuters}}</ref> Films such as ''[[Ong-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior]]'' (2003) and ''[[Tom-Yum-Goong]]'' (2005), starring [[Tony Jaa]], feature distinctive aspects of Thai martial arts "[[Muay Thai]]". Thailand television dramas, known as [[Thai television soap opera|Lakorn]], have become popular in Thailand and regionally.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 July 2018 |title=Thailand's 'lakorn' soap operas come to PH |url=https://entertainment.inquirer.net/281741/thailands-lakorn-soap-operas-come-ph |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603095607/https://entertainment.inquirer.net/281741/thailands-lakorn-soap-operas-come-ph |archive-date=3 June 2020 |access-date=10 May 2020 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer}}</ref>

The entertainment industries are estimated to have directly contributed $2.1 billion in GDP to the Thai economy in 2011. They also directly supported 86,600 jobs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The economic contribution of the film and television industries in Thailand |url=https://www.mpa-apac.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/The_Economic_Contribution_of_the_Film_and_Television_Industries_in_Thailand1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603095649/https://www.mpa-apac.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/The_Economic_Contribution_of_the_Film_and_Television_Industries_in_Thailand1.pdf |archive-date=3 June 2020 |access-date=10 May 2020 |publisher=Oxford Economics}}</ref> Amongst several [[dance-pop]] artists who have made internationally successful are [[Lisa (rapper)|Lisa]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 December 2019 |title=7 Rising Style Stars to Watch in 2020 |url=https://www.vogue.com/vogueworld/slideshow/7-style-stars-to-watch-in-2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603095812/https://www.vogue.com/vogueworld/slideshow/7-style-stars-to-watch-in-2020 |archive-date=3 June 2020 |access-date=11 May 2020 |publisher=VOGUE}}</ref> [[Violette Wautier]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-23 |title=Universal Music Group ดัน วิโอเลต วอเทียร์ เป็นศิลปินสากลเต็มตัว เปิดตัวแรง! จนเพลงจากอัลบั้ม Glitter and Smoke ติดท็อปชาร์ตถึง 12 ประเทศ {{!}} HITZ THAILAND |url=https://hitz.teroradio.com/news/48967/universal-music-group-%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99-%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%95-%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C-%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7%EF%BF%BD%C2%A6 |access-date=2024-09-10 |website=hitz.teroradio.com |archive-date=10 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240910045850/https://hitz.teroradio.com/news/48967/universal-music-group-%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99-%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%95-%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C-%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7%EF%BF%BD%C2%A6}}</ref> [[Illslick]], and [[Tata Young]].

=== Cuisine ===
{{Further|Thai cuisine}}

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Thai cuisine is one of the most popular in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History on Pad Thai {{!}} Rice Bowl Deluxe |url=https://ricebowldeluxe.com/a-brief-history-on-pad-thai/ |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=Rice Bowl Deluxe |date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101210545/https://ricebowldeluxe.com/a-brief-history-on-pad-thai/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Common ingredients include [[garlic]], [[lemongrass]], [[kaffir lime]], [[galangal]], [[turmeric]], [[coriander]], and [[coconut milk]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Phad Thai Diplomacy: Get To Know The Best Thai Restaurants Outside Thailand |url=https://guide.michelin.com/th/en/article/features/phad-thai-diplomacy-get-to-know-the-best-thai-restaurants-outside-thailand |access-date=2024-01-01 |website=MICHELIN Guide|archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101210546/https://guide.michelin.com/th/en/article/features/phad-thai-diplomacy-get-to-know-the-best-thai-restaurants-outside-thailand |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-09 |title=Thai Lemongrass – What is it and how is it used in Thai food? |url=https://theunusualtrip.com/thai-lemongrass/ |access-date=2024-01-01|archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101210546/https://theunusualtrip.com/thai-lemongrass/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Galangal as a Thai Food Ingredient |url=https://www.thaicookbook.tv/thai-food-ingredients/roots-and-rhizomes/galangal-thai-kha/ |access-date=2024-01-01 |website=thaicookbook.tv|archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101210545/https://www.thaicookbook.tv/thai-food-ingredients/roots-and-rhizomes/galangal-thai-kha/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Turmeric as a Thai Food Ingredient |url=https://www.thaicookbook.tv/thai-food-ingredients/roots-and-rhizomes/turmeric-kha-min/ |access-date=2024-01-01 |website=thaicookbook.tv|archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101210545/https://www.thaicookbook.tv/thai-food-ingredients/roots-and-rhizomes/turmeric-kha-min/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Coriander / Cilantro Leaves as a Thai Food Ingredient |url=https://www.thaicookbook.tv/thai-food-ingredients/fresh-herbs-and-spices/coriander-leaves-cilantro-thai-phak-chi/ |access-date=2024-01-01 |website=thaicookbook.tv|archive-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101210545/https://www.thaicookbook.tv/thai-food-ingredients/fresh-herbs-and-spices/coriander-leaves-cilantro-thai-phak-chi/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Each region of Thailand has its specialities: ''kaeng khiao wan'' ([[green curry]]) in the central region, ''som tam'' ([[green papaya salad]]) in the northeast, ''[[khao soi]]'' in the north, and [[Massaman curry|''massaman'' curry]] in the south.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

In 2017, seven Thai dishes appeared on a list of the "World's 50 Best Foods"—an online worldwide poll by [[CNN Travel]]. Thailand had more dishes on the list than any other country. They were: ''[[tom yam]] goong'' (4th), ''[[pad Thai]]'' (5th), ''som tam'' (6th), ''massaman'' curry (10th), [[green curry]] (19th), [[Thai fried rice]] (24th) and ''[[nam tok mu]]'' (36th).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tim Cheung |date=12 July 2017 |title=Your pick: World's 50 best foods |publisher=CNN|url=http://travel.cnn.com/explorations/eat/readers-choice-worlds-50-most-delicious-foods-012321/ |access-date=5 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708091757/http://travel.cnn.com/explorations/eat/readers-choice-worlds-50-most-delicious-foods-012321/ |archive-date=8 July 2017}}</ref> Two desserts were also listed in CNN's 50 Best Desserts Around The World: [[mango sticky rice]] and [[tub tim krob]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 December 2018 |title=Mango Sticky Rice & Tub Tim Krob Listed in CNN's 50 Best Desserts Around The World |work=Buriram Times |url=http://www.buriramtimes.com/mango-sticky-rice-tub-tim-krob-listed-in-cnns-50-best-desserts-around-the-world/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190101080431/http://www.buriramtimes.com/mango-sticky-rice-tub-tim-krob-listed-in-cnns-50-best-desserts-around-the-world/ |archive-date=1 January 2019 |access-date=23 April 2022}}</ref>

The staple food in Thailand is rice, particularly [[jasmine rice]], which forms part of almost every meal. Thailand is a leading exporter of rice, and Thais consume over 100&nbsp;kg of milled rice per person per year.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2013 |title=World Rice Statistics Online Query Facility |url=http://ricestat.irri.org:8080/wrsv3/entrypoint.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426121256/http://ricestat.irri.org:8080/wrsv3/entrypoint.htm |archive-date=26 April 2016 |access-date=30 January 2016 |website=International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) |publisher=FAO}}</ref> Thailand is also the world leader in edible insect industry<ref>{{Cite news |last=Board |first=Jack |date=18 August 2019 |title=Food of the future? Five-star edible insects served up as Thailand gets creative with bug business |work=Channel News Asia (CNA) |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/thailand-insect-farming-food-protein-source-11786032 |url-status=live |access-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819123158/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/thailand-insect-farming-food-protein-source-11786032 |archive-date=19 August 2019}}</ref> and well known for its street food; Bangkok is sometimes called the street food capital of the world.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The 10 best street food cities in the world, per VirtualTourist.com, Frommer's |work=Daily News|location=New York |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/eats/10-best-street-food-cities-world-virtualtourist-frommer-article-1.1125775 |url-status=live |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034522/http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/eats/10-best-street-food-cities-world-virtualtourist-frommer-article-1.1125775 |archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Hairy Bikers' Asian Adventure, Thailand – Bangkok and the Central Plains |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03wc3zr |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204150257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03wc3zr |archive-date=4 December 2017 |access-date=17 July 2022 |publisher=BBC |type=Video}}</ref>

=== Units of measurement ===
{{Further|Thai units of measurement}}
Thailand generally uses the [[metric system]], but [[Thai units of measurement|traditional units of measurement]] for land area are used, and [[imperial units]] of measurement are occasionally used for building materials. Years are numbered as B.E. ([[Thai solar calendar|Buddhist Era]]) in educational settings, civil service, government, contracts, and newspaper datelines. However, in banking, and increasingly in industry and commerce, standard Western year (Christian or [[Common Era]]) counting is the standard practice.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 December 1923 |title=Weights and measures in Thailand |url=http://www.cockatoo.com/english/thailand/thailand-weights-measures.htm |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010141820/http://asiatour.com/thailand-regions-2009/ |archive-date=10 October 2017 |access-date=25 April 2010 |publisher=Cockatoo.com}}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Thailand}}

{{See also|Thailand at the Olympics|Rugby union in Thailand|Golf in Thailand|Football in Thailand|List of sporting events held in Thailand}}
[[File:Muay Thai Fight Us Vs Burma (80668065).jpeg|thumb|[[Muay Thai]], Thailand's signature sport]]
[[Muay Thai]] ({{Lit.|Thai boxing}}) is a [[combat sport]] that uses stand-up striking along with various [[clinch fighting|clinching]] techniques. Muay Thai became widespread internationally in the late-20th to 21st centuries. Famous practitioners include [[Buakaw Banchamek]], [[Samart Payakaroon]], and [[Apidej Sit-Hirun]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2017 |title=Top 10 Muay Thai Fighters You Should Know |url=http://www.muaythaicitizen.com/top-10-muay-thai-fighters/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507133329/http://www.muaythaicitizen.com/top-10-muay-thai-fighters/ |archive-date=7 May 2020 |access-date=11 May 2020 |publisher=muaythaicitizen}}</ref> [[Association football]] has overtaken Muay Thai as the most widely followed sport in Thailand. The [[Thailand national football team]] has played the [[AFC Asian Cup]] six times and reached the semifinals in 1972. The country has hosted the Asian Cup twice, in [[1972 AFC Asian Cup|1972]]<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Panahi |first1=Majeed |last2=Veroeveren |first2=Pieter |date=12 June 2009 |title=Asian Nations Cup 1972 |url=https://www.rsssf.org/tables/72asch.html |access-date=2024-10-20 |website=www.rsssf.org}}</ref> and in [[2007 AFC Asian Cup|2007]] (along with Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam for the 2007).

[[Volleyball]] is rapidly growing as one of the most popular sports. The [[Thailand women's national volleyball team|women's team]] has often participated in the [[FIVB Volleyball Women's World Championship|World Championship]], [[FIVB Volleyball Women's World Cup|World Cup]], and [[FIVB Volleyball World Grand Prix|World Grand Prix]] [[Asian Championship]]. They have won the [[Asian Women's Volleyball Championship|Asian Championship]] twice and the [[AVC Cup for Women|Asian Cup]] once. [[Takraw]] is a sport native to Thailand in which the players hit a rattan ball and are only allowed to use their feet, knees, chest, and head to touch the ball. [[Sepak takraw]] is a form of this sport which is similar to volleyball. A rather similar game but played only with the feet is [[buka ball]].

[[Rugby football|Rugby]] is also a growing sport in Thailand with the [[Thailand national rugby union team]] rising to be ranked 61st in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Rugby Board – THAILAND |url=http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000019/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928002735/http://www.irb.com/unions/union%3D11000019/index.html |archive-date=28 September 2011 |access-date=25 April 2010 |publisher=World Rugby}}</ref> Thailand became the first country in the world to host an international 80 welterweight rugby tournament in 2005.<ref>[http://nationmultimedia.com/2005/07/19/sport/index.php?news=sport_18070310.html The Nation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425010652/http://nationmultimedia.com/2005/07/19/sport/index.php?news=sport_18070310.html |date=25 April 2011}}, 19 July 2005.</ref> Thailand has also attracts golfers from Japan, Korea, and Western countries.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nualkhair |first=Chawadee |date=10 July 2009 |title=Thailand woos foreign golfers with sun, sand traps |work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/lifestyleMolt/idUSTRE56913I20090710 |url-status=live |access-date=25 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715051308/http://www.reuters.com/article/lifestyleMolt/idUSTRE56913I20090710 |archive-date=15 July 2009}}</ref> There are more than 200 world-class golf courses nationwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why to book with golf2thailand.com: Thailand Golf Courses Thailand Golf Packages |url=http://www.golf2thailand.com/golf_course_thailand.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615203517/http://www.golf2thailand.com/golf_course_thailand.asp |archive-date=15 June 2006 |access-date=25 April 2010 |publisher=Golf2thailand.com}}</ref> For basketball, the Chang Thailand Slammers won the 2011 [[ASEAN Basketball League]] Championship.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chang Thailand Slammers – AirAsia ASEAN Basketball League |url=http://www.aseanbasketballleague.com/teams/view/6/chang-thailand-slammers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605045404/http://www.aseanbasketballleague.com/teams/view/6/chang-thailand-slammers |archive-date=5 June 2012 |access-date=2 June 2012 |publisher=aseanbasketballleague.com}}</ref> The [[Thailand national basketball team]] had its most successful year at the [[Basketball at the 1966 Asian Games|1966 Asian Games]] where it won the silver medal.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2012 |title=Thailand Basketball |url=http://www.best-basketball-tips.com/thailand-basketball.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501100255/http://www.best-basketball-tips.com/thailand-basketball.html |archive-date=1 May 2012 |access-date=2 June 2012 |publisher=best-basketball-tips.com}}</ref>

[[File:Bangkok Lumpinee Boxing Stadium 1.jpg|thumb|[[Lumpinee Boxing Stadium]]]]
The [[Lumpinee Boxing Stadium]] originally sited at [[Rama IV Road]] near [[Lumphini Park]] hosted its final Muay Thai boxing matches on 8 February 2014 after the venue first opened in December 1956. On 11 February 2014, the stadium was relocated to Ram Intra Road due to the new venue's capacity.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 February 2014 |title=End of an era for Muay Thai at Lumpini |work=Bangkok Post |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breakingnews/393517/end-of-an-era-as-lumpini-boxing-stadium-closes-its-doors-on-friday |access-date=6 February 2014 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010141109/https://www.bangkokpost.com/archive/end-of-an-era-as-lumpini-boxing-stadium-closes-its-doors-on-friday/393517 |archive-date=10 October 2017}}</ref> [[Thammasat Stadium]] in Bangkok was built for the [[1998 Asian Games]]. [[Rajamangala National Stadium]] is the biggest sporting arena in Thailand, with a capacity of around 50,000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajamangala Stadium – Bangkok |url=https://www.stadiumguide.com/rajamangala-stadium/ |access-date=2024-10-20 |website=The Stadium Guide}}</ref>


== See also ==
{{portal|Thailand|Asia}}
* [[International rankings of Thailand]]
* [[Outline of Thailand]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist-lr}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |title=Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Thailand |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-138-55841-0 |editor-last=Chachavalpongpun |editor-first=Pavin |oclc=1110657073}}
* {{cite book |last=Cooper |first=Robert George |title=Culture Shock! Thailand: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette |publisher=Marshall Cavendish Editions |year=2008 |isbn=978-981-4828-77-2 |oclc=1101343921}}
* {{cite book |last=London |first=Ellen |title=Thailand Condensed: 2000 Years of History & Culture |publisher=Marshall Cavendish Editions |year=2008 |isbn=978-981-261-520-6}}
* {{cite book |title=Lonely Planet's Best of Thailand |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2020 |series=Lonely Planet guidebooks |location=Footscray, Vic. |oclc=1312080896}}
* {{cite book |last=Mishra |first=Patit Paban |title=The History of Thailand |publisher=Greenwood |year=2010 |oclc=548555562}}
* {{cite book |title=Thailand: Its People, Its Society, Its Culture |publisher=HRAF Press |year=1974 |editor-last=Moore |editor-first=Frank J. |oclc=722730}}
* {{cite book |last=Zawacki |first=Benjamin |title=Thailand: Shifting Ground Between the US and a Rising China |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2021 |edition=2nd |oclc=1232148433}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|Thailand|commonscat=yes|voy=Thailand}}

'''Government'''
* [http://www.thaigov.go.th/ Thaigov.go.th] – Government of Thailand
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081210073951/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-t/thailand.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] (archived 10 December 2008)
* [http://www.mfa.go.th/ Mfa.go.th] – Ministry of Foreign Affairs
* [http://internet.nectec.or.th/webstats/internetmap.current.iir?Sec=internetmap_current Thailand Internet information] – National Electronics and Computer Technology Center
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150428064708/http://www.m-culture.go.th/english/ Ministry of Culture] (archived 28 April 2015)

'''General information'''
<!--Wikipedia is NOT a weblink directory. Please only add weblinks of top quality here, otherwise please consider using DMOZ (http://dmoz.org) -->
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/thailand/ Thailand]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [http://countrystudies.us/thailand/ Thailand] entry in [[Library of Congress Country Studies]]. 1987
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090207001737/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/thailand.htm Thailand] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 7 February 2009)
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15581957 Thailand] from the [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589625/Thailand Thailand] ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' entry
* {{wikiatlas|Thailand}}
* [http://map.longdo.com/en Longdo Map] – Thailand maps in English and Thai
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TH Key Development Forecasts for Thailand] from [[International Futures]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130116235916/http://popcensus.nso.go.th/file/popcensus-20-12-54.pdf 2010 Thailand population census by Economic and Social statistics Bureau] (archived 16 January 2013)

'''Travel'''
* [http://www.tourismthailand.org/ Tourism Authority of Thailand] – official tourism website

'''Other'''
* [http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140731093617/http://www.commonlanguageproject.net/?page_id%3D41#Thailand Thailand Country Fact Sheet] from the Common Language Project (archived 31 July 2014)
* {{cite web |last=Southeast Asia Visions |title=Browse the Southeast Asia Visions Collection |url=https://dlxs.library.cornell.edu/s/sea/browse_image/date/1900.php |publisher=Cornell University Library}}

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