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{{Short description|Temple founded 28 BCE in Rome, Italy}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Temple of Apollo Palatinus
| image = Rome, Temple of Apollo Palatinus podium (1994).jpg
| alt = Roman ruins: a vaguely rectangular platform on which fragments of a stone-block structure can be seen
| caption = The surviving remains of the temple's [[Podium (architecture)|podium]], photographed in 1994
| coordinates = {{coord|41.8888|N|12.4857|E|format=dms|display=it}}
| map dot label = Temple of Apollo Palatinus
| map_label_position = bottom
| map_type = Italy Rome Antiquity
| map_alt = Map of ancient Rome, with the Temple of Apollo Palatinus shown on the Palatine Hill in the southern part of the city centre.
| map_overlay = Roma Plan.jpg
| map_caption = Location of the temple within ancient Rome
| builder = [[Augustus Caesar|Octavian]]
| material =
| built = {{BCE|28}}
| event = Destroyed on the night of 18–19 March 363
| archaeologists = {{hlist|[[Pietro Rosa]]|[[Alfonso Bartoli]]|Gianfilippo Carettoni|Stephan Zink}}
| excavations = {{hlist|1863–1870|1937|1958–1984}}
| condition = Ruined
| public_access = Yes
| management = Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma
| designation1 = World Heritage Site
| designation1_offname =
| designation1_date = 1980
| designation1_number = 91ter
| designation1_partof = Historic Centre of Rome
}}

The '''Temple of Apollo Palatinus''' ('Palatine Apollo'), sometimes called the '''Temple of Actian Apollo''', was a temple of the god [[Apollo]] in Rome, constructed on the [[Palatine Hill]] on the initiative of [[Augustus]] (known as "Octavian" until 27&nbsp;BCE) between 36 and {{BCE|28}}. It was the first temple to Apollo within [[Pomerium|the city's ceremonial boundaries]], and the second of four temples constructed by Augustus. According to tradition, the site for the temple was chosen when it was struck by lightning, which was interpreted as a divine [[Omen|portent]]. Augustan writers situated the temple next to Augustus's personal residence, which has been controversially identified as the structure known as the {{Lang|la|[[domus Augusti]]}}.

The temple was closely associated with the victories of Augustus's forces at the battles of [[Battle of Naulochus|Naulochus]] and [[Battle of Actium|Actium]], the latter of which was extensively memorialised through its decoration. The temple played an important role in Augustan propaganda and political ideology, in which it represented the restoration of Rome's '[[Golden Age|golden age]]' and served as a signifier of Augustus's {{Lang|la|[[pietas]]}} (devotion to religious and political duty). It was used for the worship of Apollo and his sister [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]], as well as to store the prophetic [[Sibylline Books]]. Its [[Religious precinct|precinct]] was used for diplomatic functions as well as for meetings of the [[Roman Senate]], and contained the [[Portico of the Danaids]], which included libraries of Greek and Latin literature considered among the most important in Rome.

Augustan poets frequently mentioned and praised the temple in their works, often commenting on its lavish artistic decoration and statuary, which included three [[cult statue]]s and other works by noted Greek artists of the [[Archaic period (Greece)|archaic period]] and the fourth century&nbsp;BCE. These poets included [[Tibullus]], [[Virgil]] and [[Horace]], whose {{lang|la|[[Carmen Saeculare]]}} was first performed at the temple on 3&nbsp;June 17&nbsp;BCE during the [[Secular Games]].

The [[Great Fire of Rome]] in {{CE|64}} damaged the temple, but it was restored under the emperor [[Domitian]] ({{reign|81|{{CE|96}}}}). It was finally destroyed by another fire in 363&nbsp;CE, which was rumoured to be an act of [[arson]] committed by Christians. The temple has been excavated and partially restored in various phases since the 1860s, though only partial remains survive and their documentation is incomplete. Modern assessments of the temple have variously treated it as an extravagant, [[Hellenism (Greek culture)|Hellenising]] break with Roman tradition and as a conservative attempt to reassert the architectural and political values of the [[Roman Republic]]. It has been described by the archaeologist [[John Bryan Ward-Perkins|John Ward-Perkins]] as "one of the earliest and finest of the Augustan temples".{{sfn|Ward-Perkins|1981|p=36}}

== History ==

=== Background ===

The worship of [[Apollo]] in Rome began in the fifth century&nbsp;BCE. According to Roman tradition, the first temple to Apollo was promised to the god in 433&nbsp;BCE in return for his intercession during a plague. This temple was originally known as the Temple of Apollo Medicus and later as the [[Temple of Apollo Sosianus]], after [[Gaius Sosius]], who restored it around 32&nbsp;BCE. It was situated in the [[Campus Martius]], outside the ceremonial boundary ({{lang|la|[[pomerium]]}}) of Rome, since Apollo, whose worship originated in the Greek world, was considered a 'foreign' deity and so unsuitable for a temple within the city.{{refn|{{harvnb|Hill|1962|pp=125–126}}. For the origins of Apollo's worship in Rome, see {{harvnb|Jannot|2005|pages=144–145}}.}} According to the classicist [[Paul Zanker]], Apollo was held in Roman culture to represent discipline, morality, purification and the punishment of excess.{{Sfn|Zanker|1990|p=52}}

After securing control over the Roman state through victory in [[War of Actium|his civil war]] against [[Mark Antony]], [[Octavian]] (known as "Augustus" from 27&nbsp;BCE) made a political and ideological priority of the embellishment and restoration of Rome's built space. According to his biographer [[Suetonius]], he claimed to have found Rome built of brick, and to have left it built of marble.{{refn|{{harvnb|Ward-Perkins|1981|p=21}}; Suetonius records the remark at {{lang|la|Divus Augustus}} 28.3}} The construction and restoration of temples was a major part of this programme: Augustus claimed to have restored eighty-two of them in 28&nbsp;BCE alone.{{refn|{{harvnb|Ward-Perkins|1981|p=37}}. Augustus made the claim in {{lang|la|[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]}} 20.4.}} The archaeologist [[Susan Walker (archaeologist)|Susan Walker]] has described Rome under Augustus as a "moral museum", by which public architecture and artwork, particularly the display of Greek sculpture,{{Efn|According to Zanker, Greek art was held to have an "acknowledged moral superiority".{{sfn|Zanker|1990|p=89}}}} was used as part of Augustus's ideological project.{{Sfn|Walker|2000|p=61}} Augustus's developments on the [[Palatine Hill]] included the construction and restoration of several of its temples and the intensification of cult activity around it,{{Sfn|Tuck|2021|p=140}} making the Palatine, previously most significant as an elite residential area,{{sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=132}} Rome's "new seat of political and religious power", in the words of the classicist [[Ulrich Schmitzer]].{{sfn|Schmitzer|1999}}

The Temple of Apollo Palatinus was among the earliest of a series of monuments constructed by Augustus around Rome,{{sfn|Roccos|1989|p=571}} and his first major architectural project undertaken independently in the city.{{sfn|Zink|2008|p=47}}{{efn|Previous projects, such as the construction of the [[Temple of Caesar]], had been conducted in collaboration with others: in that case, his fellow [[Second Triumvirate|triumvirs]] Antony and [[Lepidus]].{{sfn|Claridge|2010|p=100}}}} Other Augustan monuments of the same period included the restoration of the [[Temple of Jupiter Feretrius]] in 32&nbsp;BCE,{{sfn|Welch|2005|p=134}} the construction of the [[Mausoleum of Augustus]] in 28&nbsp;BCE,{{sfn|Walker|2000|p=71}} and the completion in 29&nbsp;BCE of the [[Curia Julia]], a senate house whose construction was begun in 44&nbsp;BCE by Octavian's adoptive father, [[Julius Caesar]].{{sfn|Sumi|2015|p=218}} Apollo was a favourite god of Augustus.{{sfnm|1a1=Feeney|1y=2006|1p=468|2a1=Zanker|2y=1990|2p=57}} Two [[Laurus nobilis|laurel]] trees, symbolic both of Apollo and of victory, stood by the side of the front door of Augustus's house, highlighting the connection between Apollo, Augustus and his victory over Mark Antony at the [[Battle of Actium]].{{Sfn|Wiseman|2022|p=10}} According to a story related by Suetonius, who reports having read it in a work of the Greek author Asklepiades of Mendes, Augustus considered himself the son of Apollo, and Apollo as the patron deity of his family.{{refn|{{harvnb|Hill|1962|p=129}}. Suetonius records the story at {{lang|la|Divus Augustus}} 94.4.}} During the civil war, Augustus used the iconography of Apollo to contrast himself with Antony, who was closely associated with the antithetical god [[Dionysus]]; Augustus was criticised for his rumoured appearance at a feast in costume as Apollo.{{Sfn|Zanker|1990|p=49}} Augustus further explained his cultivation of Apollo through the tradition that Apollo had protected the hero [[Aeneas]], believed to have been the ancestor of the Romans and the progenitor of Augustus's family, the {{lang|la|[[Julia gens|gens Iulia]]}}.{{sfn|Favro|2007|p=238}}

=== Construction ===
[[File:Augustus of Prima Porta (2984423197).jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a white marble statue of a man in Roman military dress, his right arm raised.|The [[Augustus of Prima Porta|Prima Porta]] statue of [[Augustus]], produced from around 20&nbsp;BCE onwards, has been called "the most iconic image of Augustus". Its iconography connected him both to [[Apollo]] and to the art of fifth-century Greece.{{sfn|Gardner|2013|pages=53–54}}]]
The dedication of temples by generals following military victories was an established part of Roman political culture in the [[Roman Republic|Middle Republic]] ({{circa|200|100&nbsp;BCE}}), but had largely fallen out of fashion by 100&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Hekster|Rich|2006|p=152}} Octavian's vow to dedicate the temple followed the victory of his admiral [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Marcus Agrippa]] over [[Sextus Pompey|Sextus Pompeius]] at the [[Battle of Naulochus]] on 3 September 36&nbsp;BCE:{{sfn|Gros|1993|p=54}}{{efn|The classicists [[Olivier Hekster]] and John Rich dispute any direct connection between the victory and the temple;{{sfn|Hekster|Rich|2006|pages=154–155}} the classicist Robert Gurval has similarly argued that it is difficult to be certain that Octavian intended for the temple to be predominantly associated with Actium.{{refn|{{harvnb|Gurval|1995|loc=chapter 2}}, discussed in {{harvnb|Clauss|1996}}.}}}} Octavian probably announced the temple's construction in November, during a speech to the [[SPQR|Roman senate and people]].{{sfn|Morgan|2022|p=144}} In 36&nbsp;BCE, he began buying land in the area of the future temple. The Palatine was considered particularly sacred and among Rome's most fashionable residential districts,{{sfnm|1a1=Hekster|1a2=Rich|1y=2006|1pages=152, 158|2a1=Galinsky|2y=1996|2pages=213–214}} and had the additional advantage of being mostly owned by private citizens, from whom Octavian was able to buy land in a private capacity. The precise location of the temple was determined when a bolt of lightning struck part of Octavian's property. On the advice of the {{lang|la|[[Haruspex|haruspices]]}}, specialist priests who interpreted divine portents, this was considered to be an indication of a god's desire for a temple, and as urging the construction of a temple to Apollo within the city. Octavian declared that portion of his property to be public land, and initiated the construction of the temple.{{Refn|1={{harvnb|Hekster|Rich|2006|pages=152, 158}}; {{harvnb|Walker|2000|p=62}}. The Roman historian [[Cassius Dio]] reports the omen at [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=49.15&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0593 49.15.5].}}

The temple was dedicated on 9&nbsp;October 28&nbsp;BCE,{{Sfnm|1a1=Walker|1y=2000|1p=61|2a1=Roccos|2y=1989|2p=571}} a day traditionally associated with the worship of deities of victory.{{sfn|Galinsky|1996|p=214}} The temple's dedication followed Octavian's defeat of the forces of Antony and Queen [[Cleopatra]] of Egypt at the Battle of Actium in 31&nbsp;BCE, which was linked in Octavian's propaganda with the intercession of Apollo; in thanks for his victory, Octavian constructed a new sanctuary of Apollo at the site of his camp at Actium, and restored the god's existing sanctuary at the entrance to the [[Ambracian Gulf]], where the battle had taken place.{{Sfn|Delignon|2023|p=115}} It was the second of four temples built in Rome by Augustus, following the [[Temple of Caesar]] (dedicated in 29&nbsp;BCE) and preceding the [[Temple of Jupiter Tonans]] on the [[Capitoline Hill]] (dedicated in 22) and that of [[Mars Ultor]], dedicated in 2&nbsp;BCE in [[Forum Augustum|Augustus's newly-built forum]].{{sfn|Hekster|Rich|2006|p=153}}

The temple was formally dedicated to Apollo,{{Sfn|Walker|2000|p=61}} but considered also to be dedicated to his sister [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]],{{sfn|Wiseman|2022|p=29}} who was closely associated with Augustus's victory at Naulochus.{{sfn|Hekster|Rich|2006|p=155}} Roman temples were often dedicated to gods under particular [[epithet]]s, which could relate to the builder or location of the temple as well as to a specific aspect of the god in question.{{Sfn|Kajava|2022|pp=7–12}} Although the temple's official name was the ''Temple of Actian Apollo'' (using the epithet {{Lang|la|Actius}}), it was also informally known by the same god's epithets {{Lang|la|Actiacus}}, {{Lang|la|Navalis}}, {{Lang|la|Palati}} – all of which referred to Apollo's connection with the Battle of Actium – and {{Lang|la|Rhamnusius}}, an epithet of obscure significance which may have referred to the [[Nemeseion]] sanctuary at [[Rhamnous]] in [[Attica]], sometimes believed to have been the source of the temple's [[cult statue]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hill|1y=1962|1p=129|2a1=Richardson|2y=1992|2p=14}}

Cossutius, a brick-maker employed by [[Gaius Asinius Pollio]]&nbsp;– a politician and literary patron of the early Augustan era&nbsp;– was probably involved in the temple's construction: bricks bearing his stamp have been recovered from the temple and adjacent buildings.{{Sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=143}}{{efn|A minority view, first advanced by the architectural historian [[Christian Hülsen]],{{sfn|Platner|Ashby|1929|p=18}} holds that the temple known from Roman literary sources as the Temple of Apollo Palatinus was in the hitherto-unexcavated area of the {{ill|Vigna Barberini|it}} on the northern side of the Palatine Hill, but this suggestion is generally rejected in favour of the conventional identification.{{sfnm|1a1=Quenemoen|1y=2006|1p=229|2a1=Richardson|2y=1992|2p=14}} In this article, references to the archaeological site and excavated remains refer to the temple near the so-called {{lang|la|domus Augusti}}.}} Immediately adjacent to the temple,{{Efn|The precise relative position of the Temple of Apollo and the Portico of the Danaids is disputed: the portico is generally held either to have been situated on a terrace immediately below the temple, or to have surrounded it on its own level.{{sfnm|1a1=Galinsky|1y=1996|1p=219|2a1=Quenemoen|2y=2006|2pages=233, 236}}}} the [[Portico of the Danaids]] included two libraries of Greek and Latin literature,{{sfn|Walker|2000|p=62}} known collectively as the [[Library of Palatine Apollo]] and considered among the largest and most important libraries in Rome.{{Sfnm|1a1=Platner|1a2=Ashby|1y=1929|1p=84|2a1=Schmitzer|2y=1999|3a1=Rohmann|3y=2016|3p=242}} As well as literary works, these libraries contained artworks depicting some of their authors, and were noted as a repository of legal texts.{{sfn|Galinsky|1996|p=218}} The portico was used by Augustus to hold meetings of the [[Roman Senate]], particularly during his convalescence from illness in 23&nbsp;BCE,{{sfn|Thompson|1981|p=339}}{{Efn|The classicist David L. Thompson points out that the account of Suetonius, which provides the evidence for senate meetings in the temple [[Religious precinct|precinct]], is technically ambiguous as to where exactly in the sanctuary they occurred, but concludes that the portico and its libraries are the most likely answer.{{sfn|Thompson|1981|pages=338–339}}}} and to receive official guests and foreign ambassadors.{{sfn|Walker|2000|p=62}} The surviving sources are contradictory as to the opening of the libraries; they may have been opened at the same time as the temple, or at another point before 23&nbsp;BCE.{{refn|{{harvnb|Thompson|1981|p=339}}; see also {{harvnb|Tomei|2000|p=573}}.}}

=== Later history ===
After Augustus's death in 14&nbsp;CE, his successors as emperor occasionally used the temple's precinct for senate meetings. His immediate successor, [[Tiberius]], held one there in 16&nbsp;CE, while at least one more under [[Claudius]] ({{reign|41|54&nbsp;CE}}) is attested and was intended, in the judgement of the classicist David L. Thompson, as "a symbolic assertion of the imperial power".<!--{{sfn|Thompson|1981|p=339}}--> According to the Roman historian [[Tacitus]], Claudius's wife [[Agrippina the Younger]] had a secret door installed in the room used for the senate meetings, leading to a hiding-place from which she could listen to them. Thompson considers this account less as factual and more as symbolic of Agrippina's influence over the senate.{{refn|{{harvnb|Thompson|1981|p=339}}. Tacitus recounts this episode at ''[[Annals]]'' 13.5}} According to the archaeologist [[Pierre Gros]], the sanctuary served as a model for later complexes dedicated to the [[Roman imperial cult|imperial cult]] in the western Roman empire.{{sfn|Gros|1993|p=56}}

The temple was damaged in the [[Great Fire of Rome]] of 64&nbsp;CE, but restored under the emperor [[Domitian]] ({{reign|81|96&nbsp;CE}}); the Portico of the Danaids, probably also destroyed in 64, may never have been rebuilt.{{sfnm|1a1=Hill|1y=1962|1p=130|2a1=Gros|2y=1993|2p=56}} The temple was finally destroyed in another fire, during the night of 18–19 March&nbsp;363.{{sfn|Rohmann|2016|p=242}}{{efn|The archaeologist Caroline K. Quenemoen gives the date of destruction as 364&nbsp;CE.{{sfn|Quenemoen|2006|p=234}}}} The blaze may have destroyed the precinct as well as the temple itself:{{efn|The Roman historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], whose work is the primary source for the destruction, uses the word {{lang|la|templum}} ('temple') to refer to the damaged structure, which usually referred to the entire sacred area around the main temple building ({{lang|la|aedes}}).{{sfn|Rohmann|2016|p=242}}}} the Sibylline Books, housed within the temple, were narrowly rescued from the flames. The cause of the fire was never firmly established. The emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], who was in the process of an ultimately unsuccessful effort to re-establish Roman polytheism as the empire's dominant religion, considered it an act of [[arson]] by Christians: this view has been considered plausible in modern scholarship, particularly as the Sibylline Books were viewed as a symbol of Julian's anti-Christian religious policy, but no secure evidence on the matter exists. Christian writers saw the destruction as a matter of divine intervention: the fifth-century Church historian [[Theodoret]] falsely claimed that the temple had been struck by lightning, while the theologian [[John Chrysostom]] wrote that God had destroyed the temple to punish Julian's actions.{{sfn|Rohmann|2016|pages=242–243}} The temple may have been systematically dismantled after the fire; pieces of marble from it were possibly reused in the construction of a new building, of uncertain function, on top of the ruined podium at some point in [[late antiquity]].{{sfn|Claridge|2014|pages=133, 136}}

In the twelfth century, the philosopher [[John of Salisbury]] propagated an account that [[Pope Gregory I]] ({{reign|590|604}}) had destroyed the Library of Palatine Apollo to create more space for Christian scriptures, but his testimony is considered unreliable by modern scholarship.{{sfn|Rohmann|2016|p=243}} The only surviving remains of the temple's two libraries date to reconstructions made in the Domitianic period,{{Sfn|Fischer|2021|pp=84–85}} which rebuilt the structures on higher ground.{{sfn|Ward-Perkins|1981|p=37}}

== Description ==

=== Location ===
The temple was the second in Rome dedicated to Apollo; its position on the Palatine Hill made it the first within the Roman {{Lang|la|pomerium}}.{{Sfn|Hill|1962|p=126}} It was prominently visible from the [[Circus Maximus]] to the south of the Palatine.{{Sfn|Fischer|2021|p=85}} It was adjacent to the older [[Temple of Cybele (Palatine)|Temple of Cybele]], which had been dedicated in 191&nbsp;BCE,{{sfn|Price|1996|p=832}} and the ancient stairway known as the {{lang|la|Scalae Caci}} ('Stairs of [[Cacus]]').{{sfn|Richardson|1992|p=14}} It was also near the early-third-century [[Temple of Victory]]; the proximity of the monuments may have been intended to reinforce the links between Apollo and the military victories for which Augustus credited him.{{refn|{{harvnb|Tuck|2021|p=140}}. For the date of the Temple of Victory, see {{harvnb|Ando|2013|p=278}}.}}

The Temple of Apollo Palatinus was immediately south-east of a {{lang|la|[[domus]]}} ('house') constructed during the late Roman Republic ({{Circa|133–33&nbsp;BCE}}). In the 1950s, this house was designated by one of its excavators, [[Gianfilippo Carettoni]], as the [[House of Augustus|''domus Augusti'']] ('House of Augustus'), since Carettoni believed that it had been Augustus's personal residence.{{Sfn|Wiseman|2013|p=255}} Following Carettoni's excavations, the temple and the house were believed to have been connected by a ramp, though this theory was disproved by later excavations. The identification of the so-called {{Lang|la|domus Augusti}} and its relationship to both Augustus and the Temple of Apollo Palatinus are controversial. Excavations subsequent to Carettoni's indicate that the house was largely destroyed, while still under construction, to facilitate the building of the temple; they also found that the house was considerably larger than Carettoni believed, which meant that its identification as Augustus's personal residence contradicted the testimony of Roman biographers that the emperor's Palatine house had been noted for its modesty.{{refn|{{harvnb|Wiseman|2013|p=255}}, citing {{harvnb|Iacopi|Tendone|2006}}; see also {{harvnb|Claridge|2014|p=129}}.}}

According to Roman authors, the temple's sanctuary also included the {{Lang|la|[[Roma quadrata|Roma Quadrata]]}} ('Square Rome'), a monument to the [[Founding of Rome|foundation of the city]] by [[Romulus]]; a four-columned shrine known as the {{Lang|la|Tetrastylum}}; and the {{Lang|la|Auguratorium}}, a monument to the [[Augury|taking of the auspices]] by Romulus during the foundation of Rome, which may have been an alternative name for the {{Lang|la|Roma Quadrata}}.{{Sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=143}}

=== Architecture ===
[[File:Area-apollinis-palatine-plan.png|thumb|alt=Diagram of the area around the Temple of Apollo, showing the House of Augustus and the Portico of the Danaids (here immediately below the temple's steps)|upright=2.0|Plan of the area around the temple. The location of the [[Portico of the Danaids]] is debated, and the [[Arch of Octavius]] is generally located to the north of the temple.{{sfn|Quenemoen|2006|p=231}}]]
Scholars are divided on the interpretation of the temple's architecture. The archaeologist [[John Bryan Ward-Perkins|John Ward-Perkins]] has described its architecture and embellishment, particularly its use of proportions common in [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic architecture]] and its sculptural programme, as "a lively architectural experiment". He contrasts this with the conservatism of other Augustan projects, such as the restoration of the Temple of Cybele, which largely reused material from the existing structure.{{sfn|Ward-Perkins|1981|p=37}} On the other hand, the archaeologist [[Stephan Zink]] describes the temple as "an imposing revival of Republican architectural traditions".{{sfn|Zink|2008|page=47}} According to the Roman architectural writer [[Vitruvius]], the temple's [[intercolumniation]] was diastyle (that is, the gap between each pair of columns was three times a column's width).{{refn|{{harvnb|Wiseman|2022|p=29}}, citing Vitruvius, {{lang|la|[[De Architectura]]}} 3.3.4.}} Zink interprets this wide intercolumniation, unusual in contemporary architecture but common in older Roman and [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] temples, as a sign of conservatism.{{sfn|Zink|2008|page=63}} The archaeologist [[Barbara Kellum]] has suggested that the temple's intercolumniation may have specifically recalled that of the [[Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus]],{{Sfn|Kellum|1993|p=76}} Rome's most important temple.{{Sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=32}}

The temple's [[Religious precinct|precinct]] – the {{Lang|la|Area Apollonis}} – was built on a raised platform, approximately {{convert|9|m|ft}} above the terrace below and generally considered to have measured approximately {{convert|70|by|90|m|ft}},{{sfnm|1a1=Gros|1y=1993|1p=56|2a1=Quenemoen|2y=2006|2p=232|ps=. Quenemoen suggests alternative dimensions of {{convert|40|by|25|m|ft}}.{{sfn|Quenemoen|2006|p=236}}}} which included a [[retaining wall]] with blocks of [[tufa]].{{Sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=143}} This platform was constructed on top of the remains of older buildings on the site, which were demolished and their courtyards filled in.{{sfn|Zink|2015|p=369}} The entrance to the precinct was through a [[triumphal arch]], known as the {{Lang|la|[[Arch of Octavius|Arcus Octavii]]}}, in honour of Augustus's father, [[Gaius Octavius (father of Augustus)|Gaius Octavius]].{{Sfn|Hill|1962|p=130}} The sculptural programme of this arch, which included a statue group by the Greek sculptor Lysias showing Apollo and Diana mounted in a chariot, has been called "a further testimony to Apollo's Augustan vocation" by the archaeologist Maria Tomei.{{Sfn|Tomei|2000|p=560}}

A Roman temple generally included an enclosed inner part, known as the {{lang|la|[[cella]]}}, surrounded by a series of columns (the ''[[peristyle]]'') and approached via a porch or vestibule known as the {{lang|grc|[[pronaos]]}}.{{sfn|Stamper|2015|p=174}} Apart from the [[podium]], the Temple of Apollo Palatinus was constructed entirely from marble, making it the first temple in Rome to be built in this fashion.{{Sfn|Tuck|2021|p=140}} The number of columns supporting the temple is unclear; it is generally reconstructed as having had six columns across the front of the {{Lang|la|pronaos}}, though the archaeologist [[Amanda Claridge]] has proposed that it may instead have had four across the front and seven along its length.{{sfnm|1a1=Claridge|1y=2014|1p=141|2a1=Wiseman|2y=2022|2p=28}} [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capitals have been found among the temple's remains;{{Sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=143}} the columns which supported them are reconstructed to have reached {{convert|14|m|ft}} in height and have supplied evidence of [[Fluting (architecture)|fluting]].{{refn|{{harvnb|Gros|1993|p=55}}: for fluting, {{harvnb|Zink|2008|p=51}}.}} Apart from the [[Column drum|drums]] of the columns, all surviving fragments of the temple have furnished evidence of painted [[polychromy]].{{sfn|Zink|Piening|2009|p=110}} Parts of the column capitals were probably [[Gilding|gilded]], while other parts of the temple were painted in yellow [[ochre]] and red, blue, brown and green pigments.{{sfn|Zink|Piening|2009|p=113}} The podium of the temple was constructed using materials and techniques common during the late Republican period, using [[ashlar]] blocks of tufa and [[travertine]] (known to the Romans as {{lang|la|[[opus quadratum]]}}), under the walls and columns of the temple's {{lang|la|[[cella]]}}, surrounding a core of concrete (known to the Romans as {{lang|la|[[opus caementicium]]}}).{{sfnm|1a1=Quenemoen|1y=2006|1p=234|2a1=Zink|2y=2008|2p=48}} According to reconstructions made by the archaeologist [[Giuseppe Lugli]], the temple had overall dimensions of {{convert|22.4|by|38.8|m|ft}}, with a {{lang|la|cella}} {{convert|26|m|ft}} long and a {{lang|grc|pronaos}} {{convert|12.8|m|ft}} in length.{{refn|{{harvnb|Quenemoen|2006|p=234}}, citing {{harvnb|Lugli|1965|pages=266–267}}.}}

The surviving ruins do not allow a definitive reconstruction of the temple's orientation. It is generally believed to have faced south: the temple's first excavator, [[Pietro Rosa]], proposed this orientation in 1865, on the grounds that it would have the temple face out of the hillside in a similar manner to earlier Republican hillside sanctuaries found elsewhere in [[Latium]].{{Sfn|Claridge|2014|p=128}} In 1913, the prehistorian Giovanni Pinza suggested that the temple may have faced north, which he considered a better fit with the surviving accounts of its appearance in Roman literature, but his idea was generally rejected.{{sfnm|1a1=Claridge|1y=2014|1p=129|2a1=Wiseman|2y=2022|2pages=17, 28}} Some modern hypotheses, such as that of Claridge, have argued for a north-facing temple on the grounds that the more substantial foundations of the temple's southern side would be more likely to support the heavier {{lang|la|cella}} than the comparatively light {{lang|grc|pronaos}}, and that the temple's visual impact would have been greater if the façade faced north, from which direction the temple was generally accessed.{{sfnm|1a1=Claridge|1y=2010|1pages=142–143|2a1=Claridge|2y=2014|2pp=138–141|3a1=Wiseman|3y=2022|3p=29}}

The temple's building materials, such as Libyan ivory and so-called "[[Punic people|Punic]]" columns, recalled Rome's military conquests and successes.{{Refn|{{harvnb|Walker|2000|p=61}}. The ''Punic columns'' quotation is from Propertius, ''Elegies'' 2.31, and recalls the [[Punic Wars]] in which Rome defeated the city of [[Carthage]].}} Its primary material was white [[Carrara marble]] from the Italian town of [[Luni, Italy|Luna]],{{sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=143}} a material frequently used in Augustan building projects: Augustus is believed to have initiated its large-scale quarrying and exploitation.{{sfn|Ward-Perkins|1981|p=22}} Fragments of marble flooring have been found during excavations of the site.{{sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=143}} The columns of the Portico of the Danaids were made from yellow {{Lang|it|[[giallo antico]]}} marble quarried in [[Numidia]]. This is the earliest known use of {{Lang|it|giallo antico}} in Rome.{{sfnm|1a1=Walker|1y=2000|1p=72|1loc=note 2|2a1=Ward-Perkins|2y=1981|2p=36}}

The temple's architecture may have been designed to compete with that of the Temple of Apollo Sosianus,{{Sfn|Walker|2000|p=71}} which was reconstructed at approximately the same time.{{sfn|Walker|2000|pages=62–63}} The Temple of Apollo Sosianus was restored by and named for Gaius Sosius, a former supporter of Octavian's enemy Mark Antony. Augustus later tried to reduce its prominence by constructing the [[Theatre of Marcellus]] to block the view of its façade, and rebuilt the adjacent [[Porticus Octaviae]], named after his sister [[Octavia the Younger|Octavia]], whom Antony had abandoned in favour of Cleopatra.{{Sfn|Walker|2000|p=63}}

=== Sculptures and artwork ===
[[Image:Apollo Barberini Glyptothek Munich 211.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Statue of the god Apollo in the form of a young, smooth-faced man, holding a lyre in his left hand.|So-called "[[Apollo Barberini]]", 1st–2nd century&nbsp;CE: a statue of the "[[Apollo Citharoedus]]" type bearing similarities to the [[cult statue]] from the Temple of Apollo Palatinus.{{Sfn|Hill|1962|p=132}}]]
The temple contained three cult statues: one of Apollo in the "[[Apollo Citharoedus]]" ('[[lyre]]-playing Apollo') type, one of his sister Diana, and one of their mother [[Latona]]. A further statue of Apollo was situated in front of the temple. The cult statues were the work of Greek sculptors of the fourth century BCE: that of Apollo was made by [[Scopas]].{{sfnm|1a1=Coarelli|1y=2014|1p=143|2a1=Guerrini|2y=1958|2p=936}} On the basis of the temple's epithet {{lang|la|Rhamnusius}}, it has been conjectured that the statue originally came from the [[Nemeseion]] sanctuary at [[Rhamnous]] in [[Attica]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hill|1y=1962|1p=129|2a1=Richardson|2y=1992|2p=14}}{{efn|The classicist [[Linda Jones Roccos]] has argued that the statue was not in fact ancient, but rather made by an Augustan sculptor copying the style of earlier Greek statues, particularly the Athenian type known as "Apollo Patroos" ('Apollo the Ancestor').{{sfn|Roccos|1989|p=587}}}} Two badly-weathered fragments of colossal statuary excavated at the temple&nbsp;– one from a head, excavated in the temple's foundations,{{Sfn|Walker|2000|p=61}} and one from a foot&nbsp;– have been suggested as possible remains of the cult statue of Apollo.{{sfn|Roccos|1989|p=579}} Depictions of the statue on Roman coinage suggest that its base was decorated with anchors and the prows of ships, linking it to the naval victory at Actium, while its hands held a lyre and a [[libation]] bowl.{{Sfn|Delignon|2023|p=116}} Zanker has suggested that the choice of an Apollo Citharoedus for the cult statue, offering a libation as if in expiation, contrasted with the alternative iconography of Apollo as an "avenging archer", and would have suggested the bringing of peace and of atonement for the civil war.{{Sfn|Zanker|1990|pp=85–86}}

The cult statue of Latona was by [[Cephisodotus the Younger|Kephisdotos the Younger]], the son of the Athenian sculptor [[Praxiteles]]. That of Diana was originally sculpted by the [[Epidaurus|Epidaurian]] artist [[Timotheus (sculptor)|Timotheos]], but its head was remade by [[Avianus Evander]],{{Sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=143}} an Athenian artist who had been taken to Rome as a prisoner in the mid-first century&nbsp;BCE.{{Sfn|Guerrini|1958|p=936}} Other statues in the temple included a representation of the [[Chariot of the Sun|chariot of the sun]] on the [[acroterion]] of the temple's ridge,{{sfn|Gros|1993|p=54}} a group at the corners of the altar of four oxen made by the fifth-century Athenian sculptor [[Myron]],{{sfn|Richardson|1992|p=14}} and another set representing the daughters of [[Danaus]].{{Sfn|Walker|2000|p=61}} The Roman polymath [[Pliny the Elder]], writing in the second half of the first century&nbsp;CE, catalogued works of [[Bupalus and Athenis]], two [[Chios|Chian]] sculptors of the [[Archaic Greece|archaic period]] ({{Circa|800|480&nbsp;BCE}}), on the temple's [[pediment]]s.{{refn|{{harvnb|Walker|2000|p=61}}, citing Pliny, ''[[Natural History]]'' 36.13.}} The inclusion of statues by noted Greek artists, especially of the fourth and fifth centuries&nbsp;BCE and the archaic period, came to be almost universal in the temples built or restored by Augustus in Rome.{{Sfn|Walker|2000|p=71}} The temple also contained a series of engraved gemstones dedicated by Augustus's nephew [[Marcellus (nephew of Augustus)|Marcellus]].{{sfn|Richardson|1992|p=14}}

On the temple's doors, a scene depicting the killing of the children of [[Niobe]] by Apollo and Diana was rendered in ivory,{{Sfn|Wiseman|2013|p=250}} while the other door depicted the defeat of the [[Celts|Celtic]] attack on the [[Oracle of Delphi]], of which Apollo was the patron god, in 281&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Walker|2000|p=61}} One of the marble [[jamb]]s of the doors depicted a Delphic [[Sacrificial tripod|tripod]]{{sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=143}} flanked by [[griffin]]s, with an [[Acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]], symbolic of Apollo in his capacity as a god of regeneration, springing from it.{{refn|{{harvnb|Zink|Piening|2009|p=114}}. For the association between Apollo and the acanthus, see {{harvnb|Pollini|2012|p=292}}.}} The ''cella'' was lit by a chandelier said to have been taken by [[Alexander the Great]] from the Greek city of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]].{{sfn|Gros|1993|p=55}}

[[File:Erme femminili di età augustea, forse le danaidi, in nero antico e porfido (questa in larga parte ricreata), dall'area del tempio di apollo al palatino 04.jpg|upright=0.75|thumb|alt=Red stone statue of a woman, looking straight ahead and tugging at her clothing with her right hand.|A statue in {{lang|it|rosso antico}} marble, excavated in 1869 and restored in multiple phases thereafter,{{sfnm|1a1=Quenemoen|1y=2006|1p=229|2a1=Tomei|2y=1997|2p=56}} believed to have been either one of the original [[Danaïdes|Danaids]] from the temple or a version of such a statue made before 68&nbsp;CE{{sfn|Sheard|2022|loc=p. 52, citing {{harvnb|Candilio|1989|pages=86, 88}}}}]] The Portico of the Danaids included statues of the eponymous [[Danaïdes|Danaids]],{{refn|{{harvnb|Walker|2000|p=61|loc=with reference to Propertius, ''Elegies'' 2.31.}}}} the Egyptian sisters who killed their cousin-husbands on their wedding night in an act of {{Lang|la|impietas}}.{{efn|That is, a breach of {{lang|la|pietas}} and so of the compact between human beings and the gods: the murder of a close relative was seen as the most extreme example of {{lang|la|impietas}}.{{sfn|Potter|Mattingly|1999|p=126}}}} This artwork may have been intended to evoke and condemn the memory of Cleopatra, who had similarly married and then had assassinated her brother, [[Ptolemy XIV Philopator|Ptolemy XIV]].{{Sfn|Delignon|2023|pp=116–117}} The statues of the Danaids were situated between the portico's columns, near a statue of Danaus with drawn sword and faced by equestrian statues of their bridegrooms and victims, the sons of [[Aegyptus]].{{refn|{{harvnb|Richardson|1992|p=14}}. For the statue of Danaus, see {{harvnb|Gros|1993|p=55}}.}} Parts of at least four of these statues, around {{convert|1.2|m|ft}} in height and in the style of [[herm]]s, have been discovered. Three of these were sculpted from black {{lang|it| bigio morato}} marble, probably quarried in [[Ain El-Ksir]] in Tunisia or from [[Cape Tainaron]] in southern Greece,{{sfn|Cook|2018|p=283}} while at least one was made from red {{lang|it|[[rosso antico]]}} marble.{{sfn|Quenemoen|2006|p=229}} A series of painted [[terracotta]] panels in the [[Campana reliefs|Campana]] style, found in the area of the temple, may have originally belonged to the Portico of the Danaids.{{refn|{{harvnb|Coarelli|2014|p=114}}. Tuck places them as "lining" the inside of the portico.{{sfn|Tuck|2021|pages=141–142}}}} The panels show mythical scenes including [[Perseus]]'s defeat of [[Medusa]], the [[caryatids]] and the contest between [[Hercules]] and Apollo for the Delphic tripod.{{sfn|Gros|1993|p=55}}{{efn|The classicist [[Karl Galinsky]] has suggested that the scene may represent the two characters reconciling after their conflict.{{sfn|Galinsky|1996|p=223}}}} Kellum has interpreted the latter myth as an allegory for the military struggle between Augustus and Antony, given Augustus' identification with Apollo and Antony's similar claims of descent from and affinity with Hercules: the tripod, a traditional votive dedication of victorious generals, may also have been linked with Augustus's victory at Actium.{{refn|{{harvnb|Kellum|1993|pages=77–78}}: see also {{harvnb|Tuck|2021|p=142}}.}} Other scenes show the Egyptian goddess Isis trapped between two [[sphinx]]es, probably alluding to the defeat of Cleopatra,{{sfn|Kellum|1993|p=78}} and human beings worshipping sacred objects. These include one which may be a [[Candelabra|candelabrum]] – a symbol both of Apollo and of {{Lang|la|pietas}}{{sfn|Zanker|1990|p=89}} – a {{Transliteration|el|[[thymiaterion]]}} or a ''[[baetylus]]'', a cult object associated with Apollo.{{refn|{{harvnb|Gros|1993|p=55}}. For the association between the ''baetylus'' and Apollo, see {{harvnb|Zanker|1990|p=89}}.}} It has been suggested that a marble sculpture known as the {{lang|la|meta}} ('turning-post'), displayed in modern times in the [[Villa Albani]], may originally have been one of several monumentalised ''baetyli'' that stood around the sanctuary.{{sfnm|1a1=Zanker|1y=1990|1p=89|2a1=Longfellow|2y=2010|2p=281}}

The portico's libraries included a statue of Augustus with the appearance of Apollo.{{sfn|Gros|1993|p=55}} A statue of a young man ([[Ephebos|ephebe]]) in black [[basalt]], discovered by Rosa in 1869 in the [[cryptoporticus]] to the temple's east, is believed to have come from the temple.{{sfnm|1a1=Tomei|1y=1997|1p=60|2a1=Coarelli|2y=2014|2p=157}} A common building material in the temple's sculptures was [[Pentelic marble]] from [[Mount Pentelicus]] near Athens: this material was frequently used in Athenian building projects of the fifth and fourth centuries&nbsp;BCE, and was particularly prized in Rome.{{refn|{{harvnb|Giustini|Brilli|Gallocchio|Pensabene|2018|p=252}} (on the use of Pentelic marble in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus); {{harvnb|Bernard|2010|pages=49–50}} (on the status of Pentelic marble in Rome).}}

Walker has suggested that the sculptural decoration of the Temple of Apollo Palatinus served a complex ideological purpose: to elevate the standard of Rome's public art, to showcase the material wealth generated by the Roman Empire's expansion, and to promote Augustan moral values such as the value of [[Roman citizenship]] and of modesty in dress and personal behaviour.{{Sfn|Walker|2000|p=71}} Between 161 and 169&nbsp;CE, a further statue of the "Apollo Comaeus" ('Long-Haired Apollo') type was taken from the Persian city of [[Seleucia]] and installed in the temple by the Roman emperor [[Lucius Verus]], following the city's capture in the [[Roman–Parthian War of 161–166]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hill|1y=1962|1p=132|2a1=Harper|2y=2021|2p=16}}

== Function ==
{{main|Roman temple}}
[[File:Fragmentary relief of tripod (Rome Pal Ant 475909).jpg|alt=Photograph of a fragment of white marble sculpture, showing a tripod sculpted in bas-relief.|thumb|A relief from the temple in [[Pentelic marble]], showing a [[Delphi]]c [[Sacrificial tripod|tripod]]]]
It is unclear whether the Temple of Apollo Palatinus was intended to supplant or complement the existing centre for Apollo's worship at the Temple of Apollo Sosianus.{{sfn|Miller|2006}} According to the classicist [[Bénédicte Delignon]], the temple served to establish Apollo as the [[tutelary deity]] of Rome and as a representation of Augustus's symbolic refoundation of the city.{{Sfn|Delignon|2023|p=115}} In Augustus's political propaganda, it represented the restoration of Rome's '[[Golden Age|golden age]]', a key aspect of Augustan ideology,{{sfnm|1a1=Delignon|1y=2023|1p=116|2a1=Sauron|2y=1994|2p=501}} marked by the end of civil war and the reaffirmation of Roman {{Lang|la|[[pietas]]}}.{{Sfn|Delignon|2023|p=116}} The visual iconography was particularly ideologically charged: though it made no direct references to Augustus, it employed several images and tropes commonly associated with him in contemporary culture.{{Sfn|Zanker|1990|p=195}} The classicist [[Gilles Sauron]] has interpreted many of the temple's artworks, including that of the Danaids and the scenes on the temple's doors, as emblematic of the divine punishment of {{Lang|la|impietas}}.{{Sfn|Delignon|2023|p=117}}

Assessments of the sanctuary's primary significance vary. Walker has described the temple as "Augustus's personal shrine",{{Sfn|Walker|2000|p=62}} a view echoed by Zanker, who considers that the adjacent house was that of Augustus, has suggested that the two buildings combined in a manner reminiscent of a Hellenistic palace-complex.{{refn|{{harvnb|Wiseman|2022}}, p. 12, citing {{harvnb|Zanker|1983|pages=51–52}}.}} Pointing to the prominence of the sanctuary's libraries, the classical archaeologist [[Lilian Balensiefen]] has described the temple as a "literary sanctuary" in which Apollo was venerated in his capacity as a god of learning.{{Sfn|Fischer|2021|p=85}} For Zanker, the temple was part of a cultural programme intended both to emulate and to surpass the artistic achievements of ancient Greece.{{Sfn|Zanker|1990|p=89}} The temple was also used for meetings of the senate.{{Sfn|Morgan|2022|p=144}}

Over time, the temple was given additional functions, likely on an {{lang|la|ad hoc}} basis rather than as part of any preconceived plan.{{sfn|Galinsky|1996|p=213}} From around 20&nbsp;BCE,{{Sfn|Delignon|2023|p=126}} the temple was used to store the [[Sibylline Books]], a series of prophetic writings believed to date from the time of Rome's semi-legendary king [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus|Tarquinius Superbus]] ({{circa|510&nbsp;BCE}}), which Augustus moved there from the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. They were stored in gold cases in the base of the cult statue of Apollo.{{refn|{{harvnb|Coarelli|2014|p=143}}, citing [[Suetonius]], {{lang|la|Divus Augustus}} 31.3.}} The temple became a popular site for the dedication of [[votive]] offerings, particularly statues. According to Augustus's autobiography, the {{lang|la|[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]}}, he melted down approximately 80 silver statues of himself that had been offered there by Rome's citizens, sold the resulting metal and used the proceeds to purchase gold tripods in honour of Apollo.{{sfn|Gros|1993|p=55}}

The temple played a significant role in the [[Secular Games]], a religious and artistic festival revived by Augustus in 17&nbsp;BCE and repeated irregularly thereafter.{{sfn|Turcan|2013|p=83}} On 3&nbsp;June, the third day of the inaugural games, Augustus and his lieutenant [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] made sacrifices to Apollo and Diana at the temple.{{sfnm|1a1=Galinsky|1y=1996|1p=218|2a1=Wiseman|2y=2012|2p=374}} The poet [[Horace]] wrote his {{lang|la|[[Carmen Saeculare]]}}, a religious hymn, for the occasion: it received its first performance on the same day, sung at the temple by a choir of 27 boys and 27 girls and accompanied by sacrifices to Apollo and Diana.{{refn|{{harvnb|Wiseman|2012|p=374}}; {{harvnb|Cooley|2023|p=277}}. For the position of the choir and sacrifices within the Secular Games, see {{harvnb|Zanker|1990|p=169}}. Zanker gives the choir as three choruses, each composed of seven boys and seven girls.{{sfn|Zanker|1990|p=169}}}} In years where the Secular Games were held, priests known as the {{lang|la|[[quindecimviri sacris faciundis]]}}, who had responsibility for the temple's Sibylline Books, met at the temple on 25 May and cast lots to determine which of them would sit on the various tribunals which distributed purifying agents&nbsp;– torches, [[Sulfur|sulphur]] and [[bitumen]]&nbsp;– to the Roman people. The temple was then used, alongside the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, the [[Temple of Diana (Rome)|Temple of Diana on the Aventine]] and the Temple of Jupiter Tonans, to receive offerings of [[First Fruits|first fruits]] ({{lang|la|fruges}}) and as centres for the distribution of the aforementioned purifying agents ({{lang|la|purgamenta}}).{{sfn|Forsythe|2012|pages=73–74}}

== Reception ==
[[File:Antefisse e lastre di età augustea, dall'are adel tempio di apollo, contesa di apollo ed ercole per il tripode delfico 01.jpg|alt=A terracotta plaque showing two male figures facing each other towards the centre: Apollo, on the left, and Hercules, wearing the Nemean Lion's skin, on the right.|thumb|Terracotta plaque from the temple's precinct, showing the contest between [[Hercules]] and [[Apollo]] for the Delphic tripod]]
In modern times, the temple has been described by Ward-Perkins as "one of the earliest and finest of the Augustan temples".{{sfn|Ward-Perkins|1981|p=36}} It was noted by contemporaries as among Rome's most impressive monuments,{{Sfn|Morgan|2022|p=144}} and described by the historians [[Velleius Paterculus]] and [[Josephus]] in the 1st century&nbsp;CE as the greatest of Augustus's building projects.{{Sfn|Platner|Ashby|1929|pp=16–17}} Suetonius similarly described it as among Augustus's most important architectural works, alongside the [[Forum of Augustus]], the [[Temple of Mars Ultor]] and the Temple of Jupiter Tonans.{{sfn|Babcock|1967|p=189|ps=. Suetonius, at ''Divus Augustus'' 29.1–3, uses the phrase {{lang|la|vel praecipua}} ({{lit|among the foremost}}).}} Delignon has suggested that the [[proem]] of the poet [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Georgics]]'', published in 29&nbsp;BCE, may have alluded to the proposed or incipient construction of the temple.{{sfn|Delignon|2023|p=132}}

The Roman poet [[Propertius]] attended the opening of the temple and wrote two [[Elegy|elegies]] to celebrate it.{{sfnm|1a1=Walker|1y=2000|1p=61|2a1=Roccos|2y=1989|2p=571}} The first of these (conventionally numbered 2.31) was written around the time of the temple's dedication and published in either 25 or 24&nbsp;BCE.{{Sfn|Delignon|2023|p=118}} Propertius's contemporary Horace published an [[ode]] (1.31) in 23&nbsp;BCE, ostensibly written on the day of the temple's dedication to celebrate Apollo.{{sfn|Delignon|2023|pp=120–122}} Around 20&nbsp;BCE, the poet [[Tibullus]] wrote an elegy (2.5) commemorating the appointment of [[Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus|Marcus Valerius Messalinus]] as a priest of Apollo with responsibility for inspecting the Sibylline Books stored at the temple.{{sfn|Delignon|2023|p=126}}

The temple's political significance and association with Actium became universal themes of poetic responses to the monument from 16&nbsp;BCE onwards, when Propertius published the second of his elegies on the temple (4.6).{{Sfn|Delignon|2023|pp=122–123}} A common motif in these poetic works was the association between the Sibylline Books and the works of the poets themselves.{{Sfn|Fischer|2021|p=90}} The newly intensified religious significance of the Palatine Hill also featured in its presentation in the eighth book of Virgil's ''[[Aeneid]]'', composed between 29 and 19&nbsp;BCE, in which the king [[Evander of Pallantium|Evander]] walks Aeneas around the future site of the temple;{{sfn|Schmitzer|1999}} later in ''Aeneid'' 8, the Battle of Actium is reconstructed as a [[Theomachy|theomachic]] contest on the [[Shield of Aeneas]], and Augustus's triple triumph of 29&nbsp;BCE is anachronistically imagined as having taken place at the temple.{{sfn|Delignon|2023|p=129}} Many of the responses to the temple in Augustan poetry have been read as appropriating, subverting or challenging its political and ideological significance.{{Sfn|Delignon|2023|p=115}} [[Ovid]], in the ''{{lang|la|[[Ars Amatoria]]}}'' (published around 4&nbsp;BCE), wrote of the temple as a particularly fruitful place to find pretty women.{{refn|{{harvnb|Walker|2000|p=62}}; {{lang|la|Ars Amatoria}} 3.379–389.}} Later, in the {{lang|la|[[Tristia]]}} (composed between 9 and 18&nbsp;BCE), he included the temple in an imagined tour of the monuments of central Rome.{{refn|{{harvnb|Delignon|2023|pp=124–125}}; ''Tristia'' 3.1. For the dates of the {{lang|la|Tristia}} and {{lang|la|Ars Amatoria}}, see {{harvnb|Thorsen|2013|p=381}}.}}

The temple's cult statue of Apollo was depicted on the [[Sorrento Base]], a late-Augustan or early-Tiberian (that is, {{circa|14&nbsp;CE}}) statue plinth first identified as a depiction of it by the architectural historian [[Christian Hülsen]] in 1894.{{sfn|Roccos|1989|pages=573–574}} Gros has suggested that a group of bronze statues found in the [[Villa of the Papyri]] in [[Herculaneum]], known as "dancers" or "Danaids", were modelled after those of the Danaids from the Portico of the Danaids.{{sfn|Gros|1993|p=55}}

== Archaeological study ==
[[File:Remains of Temple Apollo Palatinus.jpg|alt=A large capital from the top of a Roman column.|thumb|Remains of a [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capital from the temple.]]
In modern times, only the cement core of the temple's podium, measuring {{convert|19.2|by|37.0|by|4.7|m|ft}},{{sfn|Quenemoen|2006|p=234}} survives,{{Sfn|Coarelli|2014|p=143}} as well as isolated architectural fragments including blocks from the {{lang|la|cella}}.{{sfn|Zink|2008|p=47}} Pietro Rosa made the first full excavations of the area around the temple in the nineteenth century. He began working on the Palatine in 1861, in the employ of [[Napoleon III]], the owner of the [[Farnese Gardens]] which included the site of the temple.{{sfn|Cooley|2006|p=207}} In 1863, he discovered the {{lang|la|Arcus Octavii}} to the north of the temple,{{sfn|Quenemoen|2006|p=229}} followed by the concrete core of the temple's podium in 1865.{{sfn|Wiseman|2022|p=11}} In the same year, he consolidated the surviving fragments of the temple and built a staircase over them.{{sfn|Zink|2008|p=47}} In 1869 he discovered the surviving fragments of statuary in the Portico of the Danaids,{{sfn|Quenemoen|2006|p=229}} and he carried out his final excavations in 1870. During Rosa's excavations, the site was opened to the public on Thursdays, though visitors had to obtain a permit from the French government, and Rosa often led tours himself.{{sfn|Cooley|2006|pages=207–208}}

Further excavations took place under [[Alfonso Bartoli]] in 1937, as part of Bartoli's extensive excavations in the Roman Forum and on the Palatine; he removed {{convert|40,000|m3|cuyd}} of earth to bring the whole {{lang|la|domus Augusti}} complex down to its Roman level.{{sfnm|1a1=Lugli|1y=1946|1p=6|2a1=Carettoni|2y=1960|2p=193|3a1=Coarelli|3y=2014|3p=142}} In the 1950s, Giuseppe Lugli re-surveyed and documented the surviving remains: this work was described in 2008 as the most detailed existing study of the temple's ruins, though it contains contradictions and ambiguities, particularly over the width of the column axis (that is, the distance between the centres of adjacent columns).{{refn|{{harvnb|Zink|2008|p=49}}; for Lugli's survey, see {{harvnb|Claridge|2014|p=129}}.}}

Rosa misidentified the temple as the third-century&nbsp;BCE [[Temple of Jupiter Victor|Temple of Jupiter Invictus]] (or Jupiter Victor), believing its location on the side of the Palatine to be reminiscent of that of other Republican-era sanctuaries.{{sfn|Claridge|2014|p=128}} The architect [[Henri Deglane (architect)|Henri Deglane]], a member of the [[École française de Rome|French School at Rome]], accepted this identification in his 1885–1886 reconstruction of what he called the "Palace of the Caesars" on the Palatine Hill.{{sfn|Claridge|2014|p=129}} In 1910, Giovanni Pinza studied the concrete used in the temple and concluded that it was early Augustan in date, being similar to that used for the [[Mausoleum of Augustus]], completed in 28&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Claridge|2014|loc=p. 129, n. 11}} The first to identify the temple as Apollo Palatinus was the nineteenth-century art historian [[Franz von Reber]]; this identification was advanced in a 1914 article by the classicist [[Oliffe Legh Richmond]], who argued for it largely from the correspondence between the excavated remains and literary {{lang|la|[[wikt:testimonia|testimonia]]}} of the temple. By 1952, scholars had generally come to accept Pinza's conclusion that the temple had been constructed on top of the remains of houses constructed in the late Republican period (that is, {{circa|100|30&nbsp;BCE}}), which eliminated any possibility of its being third-century in date.{{refn|{{harvnb|Coarelli|2014|p=143}}; {{harvnb|Hill|1962|p=131}}; {{harvnb|Claridge|2014|p=129}}. Richmond's article is {{harvnb|Richmond|1914}}.}} The temple was by this time almost universally accepted as Apollo Palatinus.{{sfn|Bishop|1956|p=187}}

The area around the temple, including its sanctuary and the rest of the {{lang|la|domus Augusti}} complex, was further excavated by Carettoni between 1958 and 1984.{{sfnm|1a1=Wiseman|1y=2022|1p=11|2a1=Zink|2y=2015|2p=359}} The excavations of 1968 saw the excavation of the temple's {{lang|grc|pronaos}} as well as the beginning of the collection of the fragmentary terracotta plaques, which continued in 1969 and 1970.{{sfn|Gros|1993|p=55}} Carettoni's excavations were only partially published.{{sfn|Hekster|Rich|2006|p=149|ps=. The published reports are {{harvnb|Carettoni|1967}} and {{harvnb|Carettoni|1978}}.}} The work of both Rosa and Carettoni involved extensive reconstruction, which was continued thereafter by the {{ill|Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma|it|Soprintendenza Speciale Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio di Roma}}.{{sfn|Zink|2012|p=390}}

Zink carried out an architectural survey of the temple from 2006, primarily aimed at reconstructing the dimensions, measurements and form of its plan and elevation.{{Sfn|Zink|2012|p=389}} In 2008, he investigated the architectural remains of the façade for the traces of its original colouring, together with the conservator and colour scientist Heinrich Piening.{{sfn|Zink|Piening|2009|p=109}} Between 2009 and 2013, Zink also documented the architectural remains in an area south-west of the temple, revealing a building dating to the [[Archaic Rome|archaic period]] (that is, between the sixth and early fifth centuries&nbsp;BCE), which he posited to have been a small shrine.{{sfn|Zink|2015|pages=359–360, 362}}

==Footnotes==
===Explanatory notes===
{{notelist}}

===References===
{{Reflist|20em}}

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* {{cite book |last=Walker |first=Susan |year=2000 |author-link=Susan Walker (archaeologist) |chapter=The Moral Museum: Augustus and the City of Rome |editor-last1=Coulston |editor-first1=Jon |editor-last2=Dodge |editor-first2=Hazel |title=Ancient Rome: The Archaeology of the Eternal City |publisher=Oxford University School of Archaeology |place=Oxford |isbn=978-0-947816-55-1 |pages=61–75}}
* {{cite book |last=Ward-Perkins |first=John Bryan |year=1981 |author-link=John Bryan Ward-Perkins |title=Roman Imperial Architecture |url=https://archive.org/details/romanimperialarc00jbwa |access-date=2023-06-04 |publisher=Yale University Press |place=New Haven |isbn=978-0-300-05292-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Welch |first=Tara S. |year=2005 |title=The Elegiac Cityscape: Propertius and the Meaning of Roman Monuments |publisher=Ohio State University Press |place=Columbus |isbn=978-0-8142-1009-3}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=T. P. |year=2012 |author-link=T. P. Wiseman |title=A Debate on the Temple of Apollo Palatinus: ''Roma Quadrata'', Archaic Huts, the House of Augustus, and the Orientation of Palatine Apollo |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |volume=25 |pages=371–387 |issn=2331-5709 |doi=10.1017/S1047759400001252 |s2cid=192155842}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=T. P. |year=2013 |author-link=T. P. Wiseman |title=Review: The Palatine, from Evander to Elagabalus |journal=Journal of Roman Studies |volume=103 |pages=234–268 |doi=10.1017/S0075435813000117 |jstor=43286787 |s2cid=163022927 |issn=1753-528X}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=T. P. |year=2022 |author-link=T. P. Wiseman |title=Palace-Sanctuary or Pavilion? Augustus' House and the Limits of Archaeology |journal=Papers of the British School at Rome |volume=90 |pages=9–34 |doi=10.1017/S0068246221000295 |s2cid=246725531}}
* {{cite journal |last=Zanker |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Zanker |year=1983 |title=Der Apollontempel auf dem Palatin: Ausstattung und politische Sinnbezüge nach der Schlacht von Actium |trans-title=The Temple of Apollo on the Palatine: Furnishings and Political Significance after the Battle of Actium |language=de |journal=Città e architettura nella Roma imperiale (Analecta Romana Instituti Danici Supplementi) |volume=10 |pages=21–40}}
* {{cite book |last=Zanker |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Zanker |year=1990 |orig-date=1988 |title=The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus |translator-last=Shapiro |translator-first=Alan |publisher=University of Michigan Press |place=Ann Arbor |isbn=978-0-472-08124-0}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Zink |first1=Stephan |last2=Piening |first2=Heinrich |year=2009 |title=Haec aurea templa: The Palatine Temple of Apollo and its Polychromy |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |volume=22 |pages=109–122 |doi=10.1017/S1047759400020614 |s2cid=190723108}}
* {{cite journal |last=Zink |first=Stephan |year=2008 |title=Reconstructing the Palatine Temple of Apollo: A Case Study in Early Augustan Temple Design |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |volume=21 |pages=47–63 |doi=10.1017/S1047759400004372 |s2cid=194951253}}
* {{cite journal |last=Zink |first=Stephan |year=2012 |title=Old and New Archaeological Evidence for the Plan of the Palatine Temple of Apollo |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |volume=25 |pages=389–402 |doi=10.1017/S1047759400001264 |hdl=20.500.11850/422855 |s2cid=194963325 |hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Zink |first=Stephan |year=2015 |title=The Palatine Sanctuary of Apollo: The Site and its Development, 6th to 1st c. B.C. |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |volume=28 |pages=358–370 |doi=10.1017/S1047759415002524 |hdl=20.500.11850/106901 |s2cid=190832524 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/296357/files/S1047759415002524.pdf |hdl-access=free}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{commons-inline}}
* [http://www.unicaen.fr/rome/visite3.php?langue=anglais&action=maquette&idMonu=32 Images and bibliography]

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[[Category:Temples on the Palatine|Apollo]]
[[Category:Temples of Apollo|Palatinus]]
[[Category:1st-century BC religious buildings and structures]]