View source for Tel Megiddo

{{Short description|Site of an ancient city in northern Israel's Jezreel Valley}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Tel Megiddo
| native_name = {{Script/Hebrew|תל מגידו}}
| alternate_name = Tell el-Mutesellim
| image = תל מגידו.JPG
| alt = 
| caption = An aerial view of Tel Megiddo
| map_type = Israel jezreel#Israel#West Asia
| map_size = 250
| map_alt = 
| coordinates = {{coord|32|35|07|N|35|11|04|E|display=inline,title}}
| location = Near [[Megiddo, Israel|Kibbutz Megiddo]], [[Israel]]
| region = [[Levant]]
| type = Settlement
| part_of = [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]], [[Canaan]]

, [[New Kingdom of Egypt|Egyptian empire]]
| area = 
| builder = 
| material = 
| built = 
| abandoned = 350 BCE
| epochs = 
| cultures = 
| dependency_of = 
| occupants = 
| event = 
| excavations = 
| archaeologists = 
| condition = 
| ownership = 
| management = 
| public_access = 
| website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
| notes = 
| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_offname = Biblical Tells&nbsp;– Megiddo, [[Hazor (archaeological site)|Hazor]], [[Tel Be'er Sheva|Beer Sheba]]
| designation1_date = 2005 <small>(29th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])</small>
| designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1108 1108]
| designation1_criteria = ii, iii, iv, vi
| designation1_type = Cultural
| designation1_free1name = Region
| designation1_free1value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
}}

'''Tel Megiddo''' (from {{langx|he|תל מגידו}}) is the site of the [[ancient city]] of '''Megiddo''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|g|ɪ|d|oʊ}}; {{langx|el|Μεγιδδώ}}), the remains of which form a [[Tell (archaeology)|tell]] or archaeological mound, situated in northern [[Israel]] at the western edge of the [[Jezreel Valley]] about {{convert|30|km}} southeast of [[Haifa]] near the [[List of towns and villages depopulated during the 1947–1949 Palestine war|depopulated Palestinian town]] of [[Lajjun]] and subsequently [[Megiddo, Israel|Kibbutz Megiddo]]. Megiddo is known for its historical, geographical, and theological importance, especially under its Greek name [[Armageddon]]. During the [[Bronze Age]], Megiddo was an important [[Canaan]]ite [[city-state]]. During the [[Iron Age]], it was a royal city in the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]].

Megiddo's strategic location at the northern end of the [[defile (geography)|defile]] of the [[Wadi Ara]], which acts as a pass through the [[Carmel Ridge]], and its position overlooking the rich [[Jezreel Valley]] from the west gave it much of its importance.

Excavations have unearthed 20 strata of ruins since the [[Neolithic]] phase, indicating a long settlement period.<ref name="Cline, Eric" /> The site is protected as [[National parks and nature reserves of Israel|Megiddo National Park]] and is a [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/9642 |title = UNESCO World Heritage Centre - Document - Tel Megiddo National Park}}</ref>

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==Etymology==
Megiddo was known in the [[Akkadian language]] used in [[Assyria]] as Magiddu, Magaddu. In [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], it was Maketi, Makitu, and Makedo. In the Canaanite-influenced Akkadian used in the [[Amarna letters]], it was known as Magidda and Makida. It was {{langx|grc-x-koine|Μαγεδών/Μαγεδδώ}}, ''Magedón/Mageddó'' in the [[Septuagint]];{{efn|{{cite web |title=Ἰησοῦς τοῦ Ναυὴ - Κεφάλαιο 12 - Joshua - The Septuagint: LXX |url=https://www.septuagint.bible/joshua/-/asset_publisher/TKUcY6iZbwnU/content/iesous-tou-naue-kephalaio-12?inheritRedirect=false&redirect=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.septuagint.bible%2Fjoshua%3Fp_p_id%3D101_INSTANCE_TKUcY6iZbwnU%26p_p_lifecycle%3D0%26p_p_state%3Dnormal%26p_p_mode%3Dview%26p_p_col_id%3Dcolumn-1%26p_p_col_pos%3D1%26p_p_col_count%3D2 |website=www.septuagint.bible |quote="βασιλέα ''Μαγεδών'' "The king of Magedón"}}; {{cite web |title=Ἰησοῦς τοῦ Ναυὴ - Κεφάλαιο 17 - Joshua - The Septuagint: LXX |url=https://www.septuagint.bible/joshua/-/asset_publisher/TKUcY6iZbwnU/content/iesous-tou-naue-kephalaio-17?inheritRedirect=false&redirect=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.septuagint.bible%2Fjoshua%3Fp_p_id%3D101_INSTANCE_TKUcY6iZbwnU%26p_p_lifecycle%3D0%26p_p_state%3Dnormal%26p_p_mode%3Dview%26p_p_col_id%3Dcolumn-1%26p_p_col_pos%3D1%26p_p_col_count%3D2 |website=www.septuagint.bible |quote="καὶ ἔσται Μανασσῆ ἐν ᾿Ισσάχαρ καὶ ἐν ᾿Ασὴρ Βαιθσὰν καὶ αἱ κῶμαι αὐτῶν καὶ τοὺς κατοικοῦντας Δὼρ καὶ τὰς κώμας αὐτῆς, καὶ τοὺς κατοικοῦντας '''Μαγεδδώ''', καὶ τὰς κώμας αὐτῆς..." ("And Manasses shall have Issachar and Aser Baethsan and their villages, and the inhabitants of Dor, and its villages, and the inhabitants of '''Mageddó''' and its villages..."}}; {{cite web |title=Κτριταὶ - Κεφάλαιο 5 - Judges - The Septuagint: LXX |url=https://www.septuagint.bible/judges/-/asset_publisher/TKUcY6iZbwnU/content/ktritai-kephalaio-5?inheritRedirect=false&redirect=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.septuagint.bible%2Fjudges%3Fp_p_id%3D101_INSTANCE_TKUcY6iZbwnU%26p_p_lifecycle%3D0%26p_p_state%3Dnormal%26p_p_m |website=www.septuagint.bible |quote="ἦλθον αὐτῶν βασιλεῖς, παρετάξαντο, τότε ἐπολέμησαν βασιλεῖς Χαναὰν ἐν Θαναὰχ ἐπὶ ὕδατι '''Μαγεδδώ'''." "Kings set themselves in array, then the kings of Chanaan fought in Thanaach at the water of '''Mageddó'''."}}; {{cite web |title=Judges 5 - LXX |url=https://www.biblestudytools.com/lxx/judges/5.html |website=Bible Study Tools |language=en}}}} {{langx|la|Mageddo|links=no}} in the [[Vulgate]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ministry |first1=TruthBeTold |title=English Latin Bible: Basic English 1949 - Biblia Sacra Vulgata 405 |date=18 August 2017 |publisher=TruthBeTold Ministry |isbn=978-82-8381-038-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xaWUDwAAQBAJ&dq=mageddo+in+latin+bible&pg=PT1807 |language=en|quote="...et abiit Iosias rex in occursum eius et occisus est in Mageddo cum vidisset eum..."}}</ref>

The [[Book of Revelation]] describes an [[apocalypse|apocalyptic]] battle at [[Armageddon]] in [[Revelation 16]]:16: {{langx|grc-x-koine|Ἁρμαγεδών|Harmagedōn}}, a [[transliteration]] of the Hebrew ''Har Megiddo'' "Mount Megiddo".<ref>[https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/introducing-megiddo/ Introducing Megiddo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810213508/https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/introducing-megiddo/ |date=10 August 2020 }}, in ''Megiddo Expedition'', retrieved on 25 March 2020: "In the New Testament it appears as Armageddon (a Greek corruption of the Hebrew Har [=Mount] Megiddo), location of the millennial battle between the forces of good and evil[.]"</ref> From this appearance in a well-known [[eschatology|eschatological]] text, the term "Armageddon" has come to signify any world-ending catastrophe.{{efn|<ref>{{cite web |title=Megiddo |url=https://www.touristisrael.com/megiddo/9448/ |website=TouristIsrael |date=23 January 2013 |quote=For Christians the word Megiddo is synonymous with the end of the world as mentioned in the Book of Revelation, Megiddo or Armageddon as it is also known will be the site of the Final Battle.}}</ref>}}

==History==
{{further|Bronze Age#Near East timeline}}
Megiddo was important in the ancient world. It guarded the western branch of a narrow pass on the most important [[trade route]] of the ancient [[Fertile Crescent]], linking Egypt with [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Anatolia]] and known today as [[Via Maris]]. Because of its strategic location, Megiddo was the site of several battles. It was inhabited approximately from 5000 to 350 BCE,<ref name="Cline, Eric" /> or even, as Megiddo Expedition archaeologists suggest, since around 7000 BCE.<ref>[https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/introducing-megiddo/ Introducing Megiddo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810213508/https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/introducing-megiddo/ |date=10 August 2020 }}, in ''Megiddo Expedition'', retrieved on 21 March 2020.</ref>

===Neolithic===
====Yarmukian Culture====
Archaeological Stratum XX in Tel Megiddo began around [[5000 BCE]] during the [[Neolithic]].<ref name="Cline, Eric">Cline, Eric, (2020). [https://www.degruyter.com/database/EBR/entry/MainLemma_2744/html "Megiddo"], in Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception, Vol. 18, De Gruyter.</ref> The first [[Yarmukian culture]] remains were found at this level in 1930s excavations, but they were not recognized as such then. These remains, found in Area BB, were pottery, a figurine, and flint items.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Garfinkel |first=Yosef |date=1993 |title=The Yarmukian Culture in Israel. |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1993_num_19_1_4587 |journal=Paléorient |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=115, 117 |doi=10.3406/paleo.1993.4587 |issn= |doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Chalcolithic===
====Wadi Rabah culture====
The [[Chalcolithic]] period came next, with significant content around 4500–3500 BCE, as part of the [[Wadi Rabah culture]], at the following base level of Tel Megiddo, as other large tell sites in the region, was located near a spring.<ref>Issar, A., & Mattanyah Zohar, (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ekIUhiJee3wC&dq=megiddo+wadi+rabah&pg=PA70 "Climate Change: Environment and Civilization in the Middle East"], Springer Science & Business Media, p. 70.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nativ |first1=Assaf |last2=Rosenberg |first2=Danny |last3=Nadel |first3=Dani |title=The Southern tip of the Northern Levant? The Early Pottery Neolithic assemblage of Tel Ro'im West, Israel |journal=Paléorient |date=2014 |volume=40 |issue=1 |page=99 |doi=10.3406/paleo.2014.5618 |jstor=24672271 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24672271 |issn=0153-9345|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Early Bronze Age===
====Early Bronze I====
Megiddo's Early Bronze Age I (3500–2950 BCE) was originally worked in 1933–1938 by the Oriental Institute, now the [[Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures]]. Decades later, a temple from the end of this period was found and dated to Early Bronze Age IB (ca. 3000 BCE) and described by its excavators, [[Matthew J. Adams|Adams]], Finkelstein, and Ussishkin,<ref>Adams, Matthew J., Israel Finkelstein, and David Ussishkin, (2014). [https://www.ajaonline.org/field-report/1766 "The Great Temple of Early Bronze I Megiddo"], in ''American Journal of Archaeology'' Vol. 118, No. 2, April, pp. 285–305.</ref> as "the most monumental single edifice so far uncovered" in the early Bronze Age [[Levant]] and among the largest structures of its time in the [[Ancient Near East|Near East]].<ref name="Wiener, Noah">Wiener, Noah." [http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-israel/early-bronze-age-megiddos-great-temple-and-the-birth-of-urban-culture-in-the-levant/ Early Bronze Age: Megiddo's Great Temple and the Birth of Urban Culture in the Levant]" ''Bible History Daily'', [[Biblical Archaeology Society]], 2014.</ref>

Samples, obtained by Israel Finkelstein's Megiddo Expedition, at the temple-hall in the year 2000, provided calibrated dates from the 31st and 30th century BCE.<ref>[https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/2004-results/ Megiddo Expedition 2004], in Area J of Tel Megiddo.</ref> The temple is the most monumental Early Bronze I structure known in the Levant, if not the entire Ancient Near East. Archaeologists' view is that "taking into account the manpower and administrative work required for its construction, it provides the best manifestation for the first wave of urban life and, probably, city-state formation in the Levant".<ref name="auto">[https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/2006-results/ Megiddo Expedition 2006], in Area J of Tel Megiddo.</ref>

To the South of this temple there is an unparalleled monumental compound. It was excavated by the Megiddo Expedition in 1996 and 1998, and belongs to the later phase of Early Bronze IB,<ref name="in Area J" /> ca. 3090–2950 BCE.<ref>Sapir-Hen, Lidar, Deirdre N. Fulton, Matthew J. Adams, and Israel Finkelstein, (2022). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/718777 "The Temple and the Town at Early Bronze Age I Megiddo: Faunal Evidence for the Emergence of Complexity"], in Bulletin of ASOR, Volume 387, May 2022, Abstract: "...faunal assemblages from...Megiddo, a cult site, and Tel Megiddo East, a town site...are dated to the Early Bronze Age IB (EB IB; 3090–2950 b.c.e.), at the dawn of urbanization in the Near East."</ref> It consists of several long, parallel stone walls, each of which is 4 meters wide. Between the walls were narrow corridors, filled hip-deep with the remains of animal sacrifice. These walls lie immediately below the huge ‘megaron’ temples of the Early Bronze III (2700–2300 BCE).<ref name="in Area J">[https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/1994-1998-results/ Megiddo Expedition 1994-1998], in Area J of Tel Megiddo.</ref> The megaron temples remained in use through the Intermediate Bronze period.<ref>David Ussishkin. “The Sacred Area of Early Bronze Megiddo: History and Interpretation.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 373, 2015, pp. 69–104</ref>

Magnetometer research, before the 2006 excavations, found that the entire Tel Megiddo settlement covered an area of ca. 50 hectares, being the largest known Early Bronze Age I site in the Levant.<ref name="auto" /> In 2014, Pierre de Miroschedji stated that Tel Megiddo had around 25 hectares in the Early Bronze IA and IB periods, when most settlements in the region only covered a maximum area of 5 hectares, but that excavations suggest large sites like Tel Megiddo were "sparsely built, with dwellings disorderly distributed and separated by open spaces."<ref>De Miroschedji, Pierre, (2014). [https://www.academia.edu/44928645/The_Southern_Levant_Cisjordan_during_the_Early_Bronze_Age "The Southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Early Bronze Age"], in M.L. Steiner and A.E. Killebrew (eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant c.8000–332 BCE'', Oxford University Press, pp. 309, 310.</ref>

====Early Bronze II–III====
Tel Megiddo was still among the large fortified sites, between 5 and 12 hectares, during the Early Bronze II–III period, when its palace testifies that it was a real city-state "characterized by a strong social hierarchy, a hereditary centralized power, and the functioning of a palatial economy."<ref>De Miroschedji, Pierre, (2014). [https://www.academia.edu/44928645/The_Southern_Levant_Cisjordan_during_the_Early_Bronze_Age "The Southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Early Bronze Age"], in M.L. Steiner and A.E. Killebrew (eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant c.8000–332 BCE'', Oxford University Press, pp. 314, 319, and Fig. 22.1.</ref>

====Early Bronze IV====
The town declined in the Early Bronze Age IV period (2300–2000 BCE) as the Early Bronze Age political systems collapsed at the last quarter of the third millennium BCE.<ref>Golden, Jonathan M., 2004. [http://www.amas.hk/pdf/shengjingshenxue/Ancient%20Canaan%20and%20Israel%20New%20Perspectives%20(Jonathan%20M.%20Golden)%20(z-lib.org).pdf Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives], ABC-CLIO, Library of Congress, Santa Barbara-California, p. 144.</ref>

===Middle Bronze Age===
====Middle Bronze I====
Early in the second millennium BCE, at the beginning of the [[Middle Bronze Age]] (ca. 1950 BCE), urbanism once again took hold throughout of the southern Levant. Large urban centers served as political power in city-states.

====Middle Bronze II====
By the later Middle Bronze Age, the inland valleys were dominated by regional centers such as Megiddo, which reached a size of more than 20 hectares, including the upper and lower cities.<ref>Golden, Jonathan M., 2004. [http://www.amas.hk/pdf/shengjingshenxue/Ancient%20Canaan%20and%20Israel%20New%20Perspectives%20(Jonathan%20M.%20Golden)%20(z-lib.org).pdf Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives], ABC-CLIO, Library of Congress, Santa Barbara-California, pp. 144–145.</ref> A royal burial was found in Tel Megiddo, dating to the later phase of the Middle Bronze Age, around 1700–1600 BCE, when the power of Canaanite Megiddo was at its peak and before the ruling dynasty collapsed under the might of Thutmose's army.<ref>Bohstrom, Phlippe, (13 March 2018). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190803114716/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2018/03/megiddo-armageddon-dna-royal-burial-canaan-archaeology/ "Exclusive Royal Burial in Ancient Canaan May Shed New Light on Biblical City"], in ''National Geographic''.</ref>

In mortuary contexts, in a dental calculus of individual MGD018 (c. 1630–1550 BCE), at Tel Megiddo, [[turmeric]] and [[soybean]] proteins were found, which are South Asian products, suggesting he may have been a merchant or trader who "consumed foods seasoned with turmeric or prepared with soy oil in the Levant, in South Asia, or elsewhere," indicating the possible existence of an Indo-Mediterranean trade.<ref>Scott, Ashley, et al., (2020). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347765726_Exotic_foods_reveal_contact_between_South_Asia_and_the_Near_East_during_the_second_millennium_BC "Exotic foods reveal contact between South Asia and the Near East during the second millennium BCE"], in: ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'' 118(2), pp. 7–8, and Table 1.</ref> Sesamum protein ([[sesame]]), another South Asian product, was found in individual MGD011 (c. 1688–1535 BCE).<ref>Scott et al. (2020), Table 1, p.4.</ref>

===Late Bronze Age===
[[File:Megido City Gate1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Late Bronze Age city gate]]
Late Bronze age, as per radiocarbon datings in areas H and K of Tel Megiddo, began in the first half of the 16th century BCE (c. 1585–1545 BCE).<ref>The Megiddo Expedition, (March 17, 2024). "Megiddo: News from the Bronze Age," Webinar Session 1.</ref>

====Late Bronze II – Egyptian Period====
At the [[Battle of Megiddo (15th century BCE)|Battle of Megiddo]] the city was subjugated by [[Thutmose III]] (r. 1479–1425 BCE), and became part of the Egyptian Empire. The city still prospered, and a massive and elaborate government palace was constructed in the Late Bronze Age.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/Canaan/LateBronzeAge.html |website=University of Penn Museum |title=Merchants and Empires. Late Bronze Age. 1539-1200 BCE}}</ref> Thutmose III's campaign is attested in Stratum IX at Tel Megiddo, a well fortified site in Late Bronze Age I.<ref>Finkelstein, Israel, (2024). [https://www.austriaca.at/?arp=0x003ed9ca "Megiddo and Thutmose III: An Update"], in: Egypt and the Levant XXXIII, pp. 255–262, Abstract: "The work shows that it was the city of Stratum IX of LB I that confronted the pharaoh. And, contrary to conventional wisdom, it also demonstrates that in the Stratum IX era, Megiddo was better protected than it was in the Middle Bronze Age, as the old brick wall was still in use, and houses that created a continuous outer stone wall were constructed on top of it."</ref>

In the [[Amarna Period]] (c. 1353–1336 BCE), Megiddo was a [[vassal]] of the [[Egyptian Empire]]. The [[Amarna letter EA 245|Amarna Letter E245]] mentions local ruler [[Biridiya]] of Megiddo. Other contemporary rulers mentioned were [[Labaya]] of [[Shechem]] and Surata of Akka, nearby cities. This ruler is mentioned in the corpus from the city of 'Kumidu', the Kamid al lawz. This indicates that there were relations between Megiddo and Kumidu.

Megiddo's Stratum VIIB lasted until slightly before or in the reign of [[Ramesses III]] (c. 1184–1153 BCE).<ref name="journals.uchicago.edu">Levy, Eythan, et al., (2021). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/719048 "The Date of Appearance of Philistine Pottery at Megiddo: A Computational Approach"], in ''Bulletin of ASOR'', Ahead of Print.</ref>

===Iron Age===
====Iron Age I====
Iron Age I (c. 1150–950 BCE) began in Tel Megiddo around 1150 BCE.<ref>Langgut, Dafna, and Israel Finkelstein, (May 24, 2023). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371010349 "Environment, subsistence strategies and settlement seasonality in the Negev Highlands (Israel) during the Bronze and Iron Ages: The palynological evidence"], in: PLoS ONE 18(5): e0285358, pp. 5–6: "Based on [L]ake Kinneret [Sea of Galilee] and Dead Sea high-resolution, well-dated palynological-climatological investigation, [...] Iron I (ca. 1150–950 [BCE]) and the Iron IIA (ca. 950–780 BCE), [t]he Iron IIB (ca. 780–680 BCE) and Iron IIC (ca. 680–586 BCE)[...]"</ref> Egypt's control of this Canaanite region ended around 1130 BCE,<ref>Pioske, Daniel, (2022). [https://www.academia.edu/104986860 "The Historian and the Assemblage: On the Interpretation of Texts and Artifacts for the History of Ancient Israel"], in: The Ancient Israelite World, p. 61: "But around 1130 BC Egyptian control of Canaan comes to an end."</ref> as Stratum VIIA was destroyed around this date or shortly thereafter,<ref>Arie, Eran, (2023). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ugDkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 "Canaanites in a Changing World: The Jezreel Valley during the Iron Age I"], in: From Nomadism to Monarchy, p. 120: "The destruction of Tel Megiddo VIIA has traditionally been dated to 1130 BC, due to several Egyptian objects bearing names of Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty, the latest of whom is Ramesses VI, [but] recent excavations in area H, [o]nly some 30 meters from the palace, [in] the only destruction [a]ssociated with the nearby burnt palace, [uncovered] two complete Philistine strainer jugs [...]"</ref> attested in the palace and adjacent Level H-11 building.<ref name="Finkelstein, Israel, et al., (2017)">Finkelstein, Israel, et al., (2017). [https://www.academia.edu/44266410 "New Evidence on the Late Bronze/Iron I Transition at Megiddo: Implications for the End of the Egyptian Rule and the Appearance of Philistine Pottery"], in Egypt and the Levant 27, p. 277: "[T]he destruction of Stratum VIIA in the palace and adjacent Level H-11 building – took place in the early Iron I, in the middle decades of the 11th century BCE [''sic'']."</ref> A Canaanite dynasty still controlled the city after the Egyptians abandoned the region.<ref>Arie, Eran, (2023). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ugDkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 "Canaanites in a Changing World: The Jezreel Valley during the Iron Age I"], in: From Nomadism to Monarchy, p. 120: "[I]t appears that the Canaanite dynasty ruling Megiddo successfully continued to control the city for some decades after the Egyptians had withdrawn from the region, until local factors led to the destruction of the city around 1080 BCE or shortly thereafter."</ref> The beginning of [[Philistine Bichrome ware|Philistine Bichrome pottery]] at Megiddo was after 1124 BCE, or in the period (c. 1128–1079 BCE), based on radiocarbon datings with a confidence of 95.4%.<ref name="journals.uchicago.edu" />

'''Stratum VIB''' (Iron IA; Early Iron I) can be aligned with the late [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt|20th Dynasty]] of Egypt. The Transitional Iron IA/IB may reflect the end of the Egyptian Empire in the Southern Levant.

'''Stratum VIA''' (Iron IB; Late Iron I) correspond with the [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt|21st Dynasty]] in Egypt and ends with destruction at the transitional Iron I/II.

====Iron Age I/II transition====
The Iron I/II transition saw a fierce conflagration that consumed Stratum VIA.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kleiman |first1=Assaf |first2=Erin |last2=Hall |first3=Rachel |last3=Kalisher |first4=Zachary C. |last4=Dunseth |first5=Lidar |last5=Sapir-Hen |first6=Robert S. |last6=Homsher |first7=Matthew J. |last7=Adams |first8=Israel |last8=Finkelstein |display-authors=1 |year=2023 |title=Crisis in Motion: The Final Days of Iron Age I Megiddo |journal=Levant |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=66–93 |doi=10.1080/00758914.2023.2230039|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Arie 2011:89–94</ref><ref>Ussishkin 2018:309–15</ref><ref>Ilan et al. 2000:97–99</ref> The transition saw the end of the old culture which had lingered since the Late Bronze and the beginning of a new culture forming the Northern Kingdom. Scholars debate the exact timing of this transition.

The city represented by Stratum VI is considered completely Canaanite by [[Israel Finkelstein]]. It is thought to have a mixed Canaanite and [[Philistine]] character by archaeologists [[Yigael Yadin]] and [[Amihai Mazar]] (2005).<ref>{{Cite book |title="And in Length of Days Understanding" (Job 12:12): Essays on Archaeology in the Eastern Mediterranean and Beyond in Honor of Thomas E. Levy |last=Bruins |first=Hendrik J. |publisher=Springer Nature |year=2023 |isbn=978-3-031-27330-8 |pages=811–837 |editor-last=Ben-Yosef |editor-first=Erez |chapter=Time and Paradigm at Tel Megiddo: David, Shoshenq I, Hazael and Radiocarbon Dating |editor-last2=Jones |editor-first2=Ian W. N. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcPOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA811|quote=See Fig. 2, p. 813.}}</ref> It fell victim to fire,<ref name="Wiener, Noah" /> when the earliest fragmentary Gate 3165 from Stratum VIA in the Late Iron Age I (c. 1050–950 BCE) was destroyed along with the whole city at the end of this period,<ref name="Finkelstein, Israel, et al., (2019)">{{cite journal |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |first2=Matthew J. |last2=Adams |first3=Erin |last3=Hall |first4=Eythan |last4=Levy |display-authors=1 |year=2019 |doi=10.1080/03344355.2019.1650492 |title=The Iron Age Gates of Megiddo: New Evidence and Updated Interpretations |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=46 |issue=2 |page=167}}</ref> marking the end of Iron I in the Jezreel Valley and of Canaanite culture there.<ref>Arie, Eran, (2023). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ugDkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 "Canaanites in a Changing World: The Jezreel Valley during the Iron Age I"], in: ''From Nomadism to Monarchy'', p. 120: "The massive and complete destruction of Tel Megiddo VIA and Tel Yoqne'am XVII mark the end of the Iron I in the valley [of Jezreel] and have been considered the end of Canaanite culture in the northern valleys, since the region's material culture in the subsequent Iron IIA is remarkably different in most respects[...]"</ref> This destruction was "caused by the growing proto-Israelite power in the central hill country, out of which [emerged] the [[Northern Kingdom of Israel]] [that] should be dated to the first half of the 10th century BCE," related to "the biblical narrative of the war led by Deborah and Barak in Judges 4–5."<ref>Arie, Eran, (2023). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ugDkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 "Canaanites in a Changing World: The Jezreel Valley during the Iron Age I"], in: From Nomadism to Monarchy, p. 120: "[P]reserved in the biblical narrative of the war led by Deborah and Barak in Judges 4–5, [t]he only possible background for this story is the battles [b]etween the Israelites from the hill country and the Canaanites who lived in the valley during the Iron I [...]"</ref>

Ben-Dor Evian and Finkelstein (2023), based on an updated Bayesian model and recent [[radiocarbon dating]]s, proposed that Stratum VIA ended sometime between 999 and 974 BCE,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben-Dor Evian |first1=Shirley |first2=Israel |last2=Finkelstein |doi=10.1086/727430 |title=The Sheshonq Fragment from Megiddo: A New Interpretation|url=https://www.academia.edu/112554867 |journal=Bulletin of ASOR |volume=390 |date=2023 |pages=97–111 |quote=An updated Bayesian model for Megiddo (with additional dates for the Iron IIA) places [the end of Stratum VIA] in the 999–974 B.C.E. range (989–953 B.C.E. if the nearby Tel Rehov dates are incorporated in the model —for both, see Finkelstein and Piasetzky in press).}}</ref> not due to the conquest of [[Shoshenq I]] but by "the expansion of the highlanders into the valley, a development that soon brought about the emergence of the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Israelite Northern Kingdom]]."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kleiman |first1=Assaf |first2=Erin |last2=Hall |first3=Rachel |last3=Kalisher |first4=Zachary C. |last4=Dunseth |first5=Lidar |last5=Sapir-Hen |first6=Robert S. |last6=Homsher |first7=Matthew J. |last7=Adams |first8=Israel |last8=Finkelstein |display-authors=1 |year=2023 |title=Crisis in Motion: The Final Days of Iron Age I Megiddo |journal=Levant |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=66–93 |doi=10.1080/00758914.2023.2230039 |quote=As for the destruction of Stratum VIA, a radiocarbon study published a few years ago, which was based on a larger quantity of samples, suggested that the event occurred in the range of 985–935 BCE (Toffolo et al. 2014). A more recent model puts it in the early 10th century BC (Finkelstein and Piasetzky in press) ...|doi-access=free }}</ref> Applying Bayesian model inference (OxCal v.4.4 software), archaeologist Enrique Gil Orduña (2024) considers this destruction took place sometime around 986 to 983 BCE.<ref>Gil Orduña, Enrique, (June 29, 2024). [https://revistas.uam.es/cupauam/article/view/19541/17355 "A Bayesian Statistical Reassessment of Levantine Late Iron Age I Radiocarbon Data"], in: ''Cuadernos de Prehistoria y Arqueología de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid'', 50(1), p. 151.</ref>

====Iron Age II====
There have been several contradictory proposals for the political history of the Early Iron Age excavation layers.<ref>Thomas, Z., "The Political History of Megiddo in the Early Iron Age and the Ambiguities of Evidence", ''Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History'', 9(1), pp. 69–94, 2022</ref> The destruction of Stratum V was attributed, by Yadin and Mazar, to [[Shoshenq I]], the first pharaoh of the [[22nd Dynasty of Egypt]], who would have taken Megiddo sometime around 926 BCE,<ref>Bruins, Hendrik J., (2023), (Fig. 2, p. 812).</ref> which is attested in a [[cartouche]] on a stele fragment, found in a spoil heap of the Shumacher excavation by the Oriental Institute team, and in a partial and damaged list of toponyms at the [[Temple of Karnak]].<ref name="Megiddo Expedition">Megiddo Expedition, [https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/history-of-megiddo/ "History of Megiddo"], Tel Aviv University.</ref> However, recalibration of radiocarbon datings, using calibration curve (IntCal20), supports Finkelstein's view that the destruction of Stratum V was due to [[Hazael]]'s campaign, c. 835 BCE (9th century BCE).<ref>Bruins, Hendrik J., (2023): "...the destruction layer of Stratum VA-IVB dates to the ninth century BC, supporting Finkelstein who related this devastation to Hazael's Campaign..." (p. 811, and Fig. 2).</ref>

[[File:Outer_opening_of_the_chambered_gate_at_Megiddo_(B)_(20693218186).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Gate 2156, built by proto-Israelite power or during the [[Omrides|Omride dynasty]], (Late Iron Age IIA, c. 900–780 BCE).]]
Rulers of the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Israelite Northern Kingdom]] improved the fortress from around 900 to 750 BCE. The palaces, water systems and fortifications of the site at this period were among the most elaborate Iron Age constructions found in the Levant.<ref name="Megiddo Expedition" /> There is a putative "Solomonic gate" (Gate 2156), which belongs to Stratum VA-IVB, dated by recent excavations and new radiocarbon analysis by Megiddo Expedition, led by Israel Finkelstein, during the time of the [[Omrides]], (c. 886–835 BCE), in the Late Iron Age IIA (around 900–780 BCE).<ref name="Finkelstein, Israel, et al., (2019)" />

Hendrik J. Bruins recalibrated Israel Finkelstein's radiocarbon available samples, using the latest 2020 calibration curve (IntCal20), and concluded that the initial establishment of Stratum VB belongs to the 10th century BC, during the time of the possible [[United Monarchy]], based on two radiocarbon samples.<ref>{{Cite book |title="And in Length of Days Understanding" (Job 12:12): Essays on Archaeology in the Eastern Mediterranean and Beyond in Honor of Thomas E. Levy |last=Bruins |first=Hendrik J. |publisher=Springer Nature |year=2023 |isbn=978-3-031-27330-8 |pages=811–837 |editor-last=Ben-Yosef |editor-first=Erez |chapter=Time and Paradigm at Tel Megiddo: David, Shoshenq I, Hazael and Radiocarbon Dating |editor-last2=Jones |editor-first2=Ian W. N. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcPOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA811}}</ref> These two samples are RTT-5498 and RTK-6755, dated to 961 cal BC (median) and 928 cal BCE (median) respectively.<ref>Bruins, Hendrik J., (2023), (p. 828).</ref> Four other samples from Stratum VA-IVB, which are RTK-6408, 6760, 6429, and RTT-3948, belong to the period of the Omrides, dated to 865, 858, 858, and 857 cal BCE (median) respectively.<ref>Bruins, Hendrik J., (2023), (Table 2, p. 828).</ref>

Tel Megiddo became an important city, before being destroyed, possibly by [[Aramaean]] raiders. The Aramean occupation was around 845–815 BCE.<ref>Shaar, Ron, et al., (2022). [https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2022JB024962 "Archaeomagnetism in the Levant and Mesopotamia Reveals the Largest Changes in the Geomagnetic Field"], in: JGR Solid Earth Volume127, Issue12, December 2022: "In addition, the Aramean occupation (845–815 BCE), which is dated using both radiocarbon and historical constraints, is also used as a useful chronological anchor."</ref> [[Jeroboam II]] (c. 789–748 BCE) reigned over Megiddo.

====Assyrian Period====
[[File:The Assyrian City in Megiddo.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] phase, when the site was called Magiddu, c. 732–609 BCE – plan and ruins.]]
[[Tiglath-Pileser III]] of Assyria conquered Megiddo in 732 BCE, turning it to the capital of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]]'s province of Magiddu.<ref name="Wiener, Noah" /> [[Hoshea]] (c. 732–721 BCE), the last king of the Israelite Northern Kingdom, was vassal to Tiglath-Pileser III. The site was rebuilt as an administrative center for Tiglath-Pileser III's occupation of [[Samaria]].

====Egyptian Period====
In 609 BCE, Megiddo was conquered by [[Egyptians]] under [[Necho II]], during the [[Battle of Megiddo (609 BCE)|Battle of Megiddo]].

====Babylonian Period====
Its importance soon dwindled, and it was thought as finally abandoned around 586 BCE.<ref>Bahn, Paul. ''Lost Cities: 50 Discoveries in World Archaeology''. London: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1997. 88–91. Print.</ref> Since that time it would have remained uninhabited, preserving ruins pre-dating 586 BCE without settlements ever disturbing them. Archaeologist [[Eric H. Cline|Eric Cline]] considers that Tel Megiddo came to an end later, around 350 BCE, during [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid times]].<ref name="Cline, Eric" /> Then, the town of al-[[Lajjun]], not to be confused with the al-Lajjun archaeological site in [[Jordan]], was built up near to the site, but without inhabiting or disturbing its remains.

===Roman Age===
====Megiddo church====
{{main|Megiddo church (Israel)}}
The [[Megiddo church (Israel)|Megiddo church]] is next to [[Megiddo Junction]], inside the precinct of the [[Israel Prison Service|Megiddo Prison]]. It was built within the ancient city of [[Legio]]. It is believed to date to the 3rd century, making it one of the oldest Christian churches in the world. It was a few hundred yards from the Roman base camp of [[Legio VI Ferrata]]. A [[centurion]] donated one of the mosaics found in the church.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zion |first=Ilan Ben |date=2023-08-15 |title=Israel may uproot ancient Christian mosaic near Armageddon. Where it could go next sparks outcry |url=https://apnews.com/article/jesus-bible-armageddon-israel-museum-mosaic-christian-2b3a1806e238e995d51d11a8acbf2935 |access-date=2023-08-15 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref>

===Modern Israel===
[[File:JPF-Jezreel Valley and Mount Tabor.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|A view of [[Jezreel Valley]] and [[Mount Tabor]] from Megiddo]]

Megiddo is south of [[Megiddo (kibbutz)|Kibbutz Megiddo]] by {{convert|1|km}}. Today, [[Megiddo Junction]] is on [[highway 65 (Israel)|the main road]] connecting the center of Israel with lower [[Galilee]] and the north. It lies at the northern entrance to [[Wadi Ara]], an important mountain pass connecting the Jezreel Valley within Israel's coastal plain.<ref>Davies, Graham, ''Megiddo'', (Lutterworth press, 1986), pg 1.</ref>

In 1964, during [[Pope Paul VI]]'s visit to the [[Holy Land]], Megiddo was the site where he met with Israeli dignitaries, including President [[Zalman Shazar]] and the Prime Minister [[Levi Eshkol]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530163848/http://megiddo.tau.ac.il/history.html|url-status=dead|title=The Megiddo Expedition|archive-date=May 30, 2009|website=The Megiddo Expedition}}</ref>

===Battles===
Famous battles include:
* [[Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC)|Battle of Megiddo (15th century BCE)]]: fought between the armies of the Egyptian [[pharaoh]] [[Thutmose III]] and a large [[Canaan]]ite coalition led by the rulers of Megiddo and [[Kadesh (Syria)|Kadesh]].
* [[Battle of Megiddo (609 BC)|Battle of Megiddo (609) BCE]]: fought between [[Necho II]], [[pharaoh]] of the [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt]], and the [[Kingdom of Judah]], during which King [[Josiah]] fell.
* [[Battle of Megiddo (1918)]]: fought during [[World War I]] between Allied troops, led by General [[Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Edmund Allenby]] and the defending [[Ottoman army]].

==Archaeological features==
A path leads up through a six-chambered gate, considered by some archaeologists to have been built by [[Solomon]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Historical Biblical Archaeology and the Future: The New Pragmatism |last=Schniedewind |first=William M. |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-134-93746-2 |pages=241–249 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Thomas Evan |chapter=Excavating the Text of I Kings 9: In Search of the Gates of Solomon |orig-date=2010 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLbsCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Solomon, Scripture, and Science: The Rise of the Judahite State in the 10th Century BC |journal=Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology |last=Dever |first=William G. |volume=1 |pages=102–125 |doi=10.52486/01.00001.4 |year=2021 |issn=2788-8819 |doi-access=free}}</ref> but which Israel Finkelstein dates to the Omrides, found in Stratum VA-IVB, late Iron IIA period.<ref name="Finkelstein, Israel, et al., (2019)" /> It overlooks the excavations of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures. A solid circular stone structure has been interpreted as an altar or a high place from the Canaanite period. Further on is a grain pit from the Israelite period for storing provisions in case of siege. There are stables, originally thought to date from the time of Solomon but now dated a century and a half later to the time of [[Ahab]]. A water system consists of a square shaft {{convert|35|m|ft|0}} deep, the bottom of which opens into a tunnel bored through rock for {{convert|100|m|ft|-1}} to a pool of water.

===The Great Temple===
[[File:Tell Megiddo - 4.2006 -36.JPG|thumb|185px|A circular [[altar]]-like shrine from the Early Bronze Age]]

Megiddo's 5,000-year-old "Great Temple", dated to the Early Bronze Age IB (ca. 3000 BC), has been described by its excavators as "the most monumental single edifice so far uncovered in the EB I Levant and ranks among the largest structures of its time in the Near East."<ref>Wiener, Noah. "[http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-israel/early-bronze-age-megiddos-great-temple-and-the-birth-of-urban-culture-in-the-levant/ Early Bronze Age: Megiddo's Great Temple and the Birth of Urban Culture in the Levant]" ''Bible History Daily'', Biblical Archaeology Society, 2014.</ref> The structure includes an immense 47.5 by 22 meters sanctuary. The temple was more than ten times larger than a typical temple of that era and was determined to be the site of ritual [[animal sacrifice]]. Corridors were used as ''[[:wikt:favissae|favissae]]'' (deposits of cultic artifacts) to store bones after ritual sacrifice. More than 80% of the animal remains were young sheep and goats. The rest were cattle.<ref>Shapira, Ran, (Oct. 1, 2014). [https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/2014-10-01/ty-article/.premium/animal-sacrifice-at-5-000y-old-temple/0000017f-dc7e-db22-a17f-fcff56470000 "5,000-year Old Megiddo Temple Yields Evidence of Industrial Animal Sacrifice"], in Haaretz.</ref>

===Jewelry===
{{main|Megiddo Treasure}}
In 2010, a collection of jewelry pieces was found in a ceramic jug.<ref>[http://www.globalscientia.com/article/asia-middle-east/education-culture/unique-gold-earring-found-intriguing-collection-ancient Unique Gold Earring Found in Intriguing Collection of Ancient Jewelry at Tel Megiddo]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/20463-gold-egyptian-earring-israel.html|title=Gold Egyptian Earring Found in Israel|website=[[Live Science]]|date=21 May 2012|access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref> The jewelry dates to around 1100 BC.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/megiddo-dig-unearths-cache-of-buried-canaanite-treasure.premium-1.431797|title=Megiddo Dig Unearths Cache of Buried Canaanite Treasure|first=Nir|last=Hasson|access-date=7 January 2017|newspaper=Haaretz|date=2012-05-22}}</ref> The collection includes beads made of [[carnelian]] stone, a ring and earrings. The jug was subjected to molecular analysis to determine the contents. The collection was probably owned by a wealthy Canaanite family, likely belonging to the ruling elite.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/nation_world/20120526_Trove_of_3_000-year-old_jewelry_found_in_Israel.html|title=Trove of 3,000-year-old jewelry found in Israel|website=inquirer.com|date=26 May 2012 }}</ref>

===Megiddo ivories===
[[File:Female sphynx plaque, Megiddo, Stratum VIIA, Late Bronze IIB, 1300-1200 BC, ivory - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC07703.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|A female [[Sphinx|sphynx]] plaque, ivory, Megiddo 1300-1200 BC]]

The Megiddo ivories are thin carvings in [[ivory]] found at Tel Megiddo, mostly excavated by Gordon Loud. The ivories are on display at the [[Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures]] in Chicago and the [[Rockefeller Museum]] in Jerusalem. They were found in the stratum VIIA or Late Bronze Age layer of the site. Carved from [[hippopotamus]] [[incisor]]s from the [[Nile]], they show Egyptian stylistic influence. An ivory pen case was found inscribed with the [[cartouche]] of [[Ramses III]].

===Megiddo stables===
[[File:Tell Megiddo Preservation 2009 037.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|Southern stables]]

At Megiddo two stable complexes were excavated from Stratum IVA, one in the north and one in the south. Stratum VA-IVB has also been proposed for this area.<ref>Kleiman, Assaf, et al. “Building 338 at Megiddo: New Evidence from the Field.” Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 66, no. 2, 2016, pp. 161–76</ref><ref>Ussishkin, David. “The Date of Building 338 at Megiddo: A Rejoinder.” Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 67, no. 1, 2017, pp. 50–60</ref> The southern complex contained five structures built around a lime paved courtyard. The buildings were divided into three sections.<ref name="Amihai Mazar 1992">Amihai Mazar, ''Archaeology of the Land of the Bible'' (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 476–78.</ref>

Two long stone paved aisles were built adjacent to a main corridor, paved with lime. The buildings were about twenty-one meters long by eleven meters wide. Separating the main corridor from outside aisles was a series of stone pillars. Holes were bored into many of these pillars so horses could be tied to them. The remains of stone mangers were found in the buildings. These mangers were placed between the pillars to feed the horses.<ref name="Amihai Mazar 1992"/>

It is suggested that each side could hold fifteen horses, giving each building an overall capacity of thirty horses. The buildings on the northern side of the city were similar in their construction. There was no central courtyard. The capacity of the buildings of the north was about three hundred horses altogether. Both complexes could hold from 450 to 480 horses combined.<ref name="Amihai Mazar 1992"/>

The buildings were found during excavations between 1927 and 1934. The head excavator initially interpreted the buildings as stables. Since then, his conclusions have been challenged by [[James B. Pritchard]], Dr Adrian Curtis of Manchester University [[Ze'ev Herzog]], and [[Yohanan Aharoni]], who suggest they were storehouses, marketplaces or barracks.<ref name="Amihai Mazar 1992"/>

=== The Bronze Age tomb ===
In February 2023, the remains of two elite brothers buried with [[Pottery of ancient Cyprus|Cypriot pottery]], food and other valuable possessions were found in a [[Bronze Age]] [[tomb]]. [[Bioarchaeology|Bioarchaeologists]] identified the early evidence of a Bronze Age [[Skull|cranial]] [[surgery]] called [[Trepanning|trepanation]] in one of the brothers. The study published in [[PLOS One]], reports that the younger brother died in his teens or early 20s, most likely from an infectious illness like [[leprosy]] or [[tuberculosis]]. The older brother, who died immediately after the surgery, had angular notched trephination and was thought to be between the ages of 20 and 40. A 30-millimetre (1.2-inch) square-shaped hole was created on the frontal bone of the skull after his scalp was cut with a sharp instrument with a bevelled edge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kalisher |first1=Rachel |last2=Cradic |first2=Melissa S. |last3=Adams |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Martin |first4=Mario A. S. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=Israel |date=2023-02-22 |title=Cranial trephination and infectious disease in the Eastern Mediterranean: The evidence from two elite brothers from Late Bronze Megiddo, Israel |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=e0281020 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0281020 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=9946252 |pmid=36812179|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1881020K }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Strickland |first=Ashley |date=2023-02-22 |title=An elite Bronze Age man had brain surgery more than 3,000 years ago |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/02/22/world/bronze-age-brain-surgery-scn/index.html |access-date=2023-02-24 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Milligan |first=Markus |date=2023-02-22 |title=Evidence of Bronze Age cranial surgery found at ancient Megiddo |url=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2023/02/evidence-of-bronze-age-cranial-surgery-found-at-ancient-megiddo/146270 |access-date=2023-02-24 |website=HeritageDaily - Archaeology News |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Excavations==
Megiddo has been excavated three times and is currently being excavated. The first excavations were carried out between 1903 and 1905 by [[Gottlieb Schumacher]] for the German Society for the Study of Palestine, excavating one main north-south trench and some subsidiary trenches and probes.<ref>Schumacher, Gottlieb; Watzinger, Carl (1908): ''[https://archive.org/details/tellelmutesellim01schuuoft Tell el Mutesellim; Bericht über die 1903 bis 1905 mit Unterstützung SR. Majestät des deutschen Kaisers und der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft vom deutschen Verein zur Erforschung Palästinas Veranstalteten Ausgrabungen]'' Volume: 1</ref> Techniques used were rudimentary by later standards, and Schumacher's field notes and records were destroyed in [[World War I]] before being published. After the war, [[Carl Watzinger]] published the remaining data from the dig.<ref>Schumacher, Gottlieb; Watzinger, Carl, 1877-1948, (1929): ''[https://archive.org/details/tellelmutesellim02schuuoft Tell el Mutesellim; Bericht über die 1903 bis 1905 mit Unterstützung SR. Majestät des deutschen Kaisers und der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft vom deutschen Verein zur Erforschung Palästinas Veranstalteten Ausgrabungen]'', vol. 2.</ref>

In 1925, digging was resumed by the Oriental Institute of the [[University of Chicago]], financed by [[John D. Rockefeller Jr.]], continuing until the outbreak of the [[Second World War]]. The work was led initially by [[Clarence Stanley Fisher|Clarence S. Fisher]], and later by [[P. L. O. Guy]], Robert Lamon, and Gordon Loud.<ref>[http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oic4.pdf oi.uchigao.edu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009114905/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oic4.pdf |date=9 October 2012 }} Clarence S. Fisher, The Excavation of Armageddon, Oriental Institute Communications 4, University of Chicago Press, 1929</ref><ref>[http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oic9.pdf oi.uchigao.edu] P. L. O. Guy, New Light from Armageddon: Second Provisional Report (1927-29) on the Excavations at Megiddo in Palestine, Oriental Institute Communications 9, University of Chicago Press, 1931</ref><ref>[https://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip42.pdf oi.uchigao.edu] Robert S. Lamon and Geoffrey M. Shipton, Megiddo 1. Seasons of 1925-34: Strata I-V, Oriental Institute Publication 42, Oriental Institute of Chicago, 1939, {{ISBN|978-0-226-14233-3}}</ref><ref>[http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip62_text.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009122316/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip62_text.pdf|date=9 October 2012}}, Gordon Loud, Megiddo 2. Seasons of 1935-1939 - The Text, Oriental Institute Publication 62, Oriental Institute of Chicago, 1948, {{ISBN|978-965-266-013-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Plates|url=http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip62_plates.pdf|work=oi.uchigao.edu|author=Gordon Loud|publisher=Megiddo 2. Seasons of 1935-1939, Oriental Institute Publication 62, Oriental Institute of Chicago|date=1948|isbn=978-0-226-49385-5}}</ref><ref>[https://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIP127.pdf oi.uchigao.edu] Timothy P. Harrison, Megiddo 3. Final Report on the Stratum VI Excavations, Oriental Institute Publication 127, Oriental Institute of Chicago, 2004, {{ISBN|978-1-885923-31-8}}</ref> The Oriental Institute intended to completely excavate the whole tel, layer by layer. Money ran out before they could do so. Today, excavators limit themselves to a square or a trench because they must leave something for future archaeologists with better techniques and methods. During these excavations, it was discovered that there were around eight levels of habitation. Many of the uncovered remains are preserved at the [[Rockefeller Museum]] in [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures]]. The East Slope area of Megiddo was excavated to the bedrock to serve as a spoil area. The full results of that excavation were not published until decades later.<ref>[https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/oip139.pdf] Eliot Braun, Early Megiddo on the East Slope (the “Megiddo Stages”): A Report on the Early Occupation of the East Slope of Megiddo (Results of the Oriental Institute’s Excavations, 1925-1933, Oriental Institute Publication 139, Oriental Institute of Chicago, 2013, {{ISBN|978-1-885923-98-1}}</ref>

[[Yigael Yadin]] conducted excavations in 1960, 1966, 1967 (with [[Yigal Shiloh|Yigal shiloh]]), and 1971 for the [[Hebrew University]].<ref>Yigael Yadin, "New Light on Solomon's Megiddo," ''Biblical Archaeology'', vol. 23, pp. 62–68, 1960</ref><ref>Yigael Yadin, "Megiddo of the Kings of Israel," ''Biblical Archaeology'', vol. 33, pp. 66–96, 1970</ref> Anabel Zarzecki-Peleg published the formal results of those digs in [[Hebrew University]]'s ''Qedem'' 56 (2016).<ref>Anabel Zarzecki-Peleg, Yadin's Expedition to Megiddo - Final Report of the Archaeological Excavations (1960,1966,1967, and 1971/2 Seasons, Vols. I&II, Jerusalem, Israel Exploration Society - Qedem #56, Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2016</ref>

Since 1994, Megiddo has been the subject of biannual excavation campaigns conducted by the Megiddo Expedition of [[Tel Aviv University]], co-directed by [[Israel Finkelstein]], [[David Ussishkin]], [[Norma Franklin]], and [[Baruch Halpern]] with [[Eric H. Cline]] of [[The George Washington University]] serving as associate director (USA), together with a consortium of international universities.<ref>Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin and Baruch Halpern (eds.), ''Megiddo III: The 1992–1996 Seasons'', Tel Aviv University, 2000, {{ISBN|978-965-266-013-8}}</ref><ref>Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin and Baruch Halpern (eds.), ''Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons'', Tel Aviv University, 2006, {{ISBN|978-965-266-022-0}}</ref><ref>Finkelstein, Israel, David Ussishkin, and Eric H. Cline, eds. Megiddo V: The 2004–2008 Seasons. Vol. 31. Penn State Press, 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-57506-276-1}}</ref><ref>Finkelstein, Israel, et al. Megiddo VI: The 2010-2014 Seasons. Eisenbrauns, 2022 {{ ISBN|978-1-64602-165-9}}</ref> One notable feature of the dig is close on-site cooperation between archaeologists and specialist scientists, with detailed chemical analysis being performed at the dig itself using a field [[infrared spectrometer]].<ref>Haim Watzman (2010), [http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101130/full/468614a.html Chemists help archaeologists to probe biblical history], ''Nature'', '''468''' 614–615. {{doi|10.1038/468614a}}</ref>

In 2010, the [[Jezreel Valley Regional Project]], directed by Matthew J. Adams of [[Bucknell University]] in cooperation with the Megiddo Expedition, undertook excavations of the eastern extension of the Early Bronze Age town  at the site known as Tel Megiddo East.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-israel/early-bronze-age-megiddos-great-temple-and-the-birth-of-urban-culture-in-the-levant/|title=Early Bronze Age: Megiddo's Great Temple and the Birth of Urban Culture in the Levant - Biblical Archaeology Society|date=9 October 2016|access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Lajjun]]
* [[Cities of the ancient Near East]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233585548_Putting_Sheshonq_I_in_his_Place] Rupert Chapman, Putting Sheshonq I in his Place, 2009 (dating, context and analysis of the Sheshonq Fragment), with a reconstruction of the stele
*[https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Breasteds-reconstruction-of-the-Sheshonq-I-Victory-Stela-1929-Fig-9_fig6_233585548] Breasted’s reconstruction of the Sheshonq I Victory Stela (1929: Fig 9). Download Scientific Diagram
*Marian H Feldman, Luxurious forms: Redefining a Mediterranean "International Style," 1400-1200 B.C., The Art Bulletin, New York, vol. 84, iss. 1, March 2002
*[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/oip33.pdf] P. L. O. Guy, Megiddo Tombs, Oriental Institute Publications 33, The University of Chicago Press, 1938
*[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/oip32.pdf] Robert S. Lamon, The Megiddo Water System, Oriental Institute Publication 32, University of Chicago Press, 1935
*[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/oip52.pd] Gordon Loud, The Megiddo Ivories, Oriental Institute Publication 52, University of Chicago Press, 1939 {{ISBN|978-0-226-49390-9}}
*Martin, Mario AS, Israel Finkelstein, and Eli Piasetzky, "Radiocarbon-dating the Late Bronze Age: cultural and historical considerations on Megiddo and beyond", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 384.1, pp.&nbsp;211–240, 2020
*[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/oip26.pdf] H.G. May, Material Remains of the Megiddo Cult, Oriental Institute Publication 26, University of Chicago Press, 1935
*[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/oimp31.pdf] Gabrielle V. Novacek, Ancient Israel: Highlights from the Collections of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Oriental Institute Museum Publications 31, Oriental Institute, 2011 {{ISBN|978-1-885923-65-3}}
*[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/saoc17.pdf] Geoffrey M. Shipton, Notes on the Megiddo Pottery of Strata VI-XX, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 17, University of Chicago Press, 1939
*John A. Wilson, The Megiddo Ivories, American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 42, no. 3, pp.&nbsp;333–336, (Jul. - September, 1938)
*Zarzecki-Peleg, Anabel, "Reexamining Area DD at Megiddo", The Fire Signals of Lachish: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Israel in the Late Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Persian Period in Honor of David Ussishkin, edited by Israel Finkelstein and Nadav Na’aman, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp.&nbsp;373–386, 2011

==External links==
{{Commons category|Tel Megiddo}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130621052448/http://www.parks.org.il/parks/ParksAndReserves/Megiddo%20National%20Park/Pages/default.aspx Tel Megiddo National Park] - official site at the Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority
*[https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/ The Megiddo Expedition]
*[http://www.jezreelvalleyregionalproject.com/ Jezreel Valley Regional Project]
*[http://discovermagazine.com/2015/nov/14-witness-to-armageddon Pamela Weintraub, ''Rewriting Tel Megiddo's Violent History: At the ancient site of Megiddo, archaeologists unearth new scientific insights that may turn centuries of gospel on its head.'', ''Discover'' Magazine, November 2015 issue]
*[http://www.bibleplaces.com/megiddo.htm Megiddo At Bibleplaces.com]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101206084706/http://bigbible.org/israel/megiddo/index.html Megiddo: Tell el-Mutesellim] from ''Images of Archaeological Sites in Israel''
*{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09526a.htm|title=Mageddo|encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]}} - contains list of Biblical references
*[http://home.planet.nl/~slofs018/Megiddo.htm#Gaianos Excavation of an early christian building in Megiddo, with floor mosaics (fish) and three inscriptions]
*[http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=3&ArticleID=5 The Devil Is Not So Black as He Is Painted: BAR Interviews Israel Finkelstein] Biblical Archaeology Review
* [http://oi.uchicago.edu/museum/highlights/palestine.html Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Palestine Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110005934/http://oi.uchicago.edu/museum/highlights/palestine.html |date=10 November 2013 }}
*''[http://www.uwlax.edu/urc/jur-online/PDF/2005/westpfahl.pdf The Megiddo Expedition: Archaeology and the Bible] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729185337/http://www.uwlax.edu/urc/JUR-online/PDF/2005/westpfahl.pdf |date=2016-07-29 }}'', UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research VIII (2005)
*[http://www2.oberlin.edu/library/special/may.html H.G. May Archaeology of Palestine Collection] - contains images of several archaeological sites, including Tel Megiddo
*[https://israelfinkelstein.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/schumacher-tell-el-mutsellim-plates-eng-trans-1908.pdf English translation Schumacher's Tell el-Mutesellim, Volume I: Report of Finds]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6hA2ftvVTBk&list=PLmXaxHgt2ww8u6j2uOlnGRQTWLrk8FPkt&index=19 Digging Up Armageddon: Chicago's Search for the Lost City of Solomon Eric Cline - ISAC - Nov 17, 2021]

{{World Heritage Sites in Israel}}
{{National parks of Israel}}{{Ancient states and regions of the Levant}}
{{Sites of the Israelite Settlement}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Megiddo}}
[[Category:Tel Megiddo| ]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 7th millennium BC]]
[[Category:Populated places disestablished in the 4th century BC]]
[[Category:1903 archaeological discoveries]]
[[Category:Amarna letters locations]]
[[Category:Apocalypticism]]
[[Category:Archaeological museums in Israel]]
[[Category:Bronze Age sites in Israel]]
[[Category:Bronze Age palaces in Israel]]
[[Category:Canaanite cities]]
[[Category:City-states]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Israel]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible cities]]
[[Category:Iron Age sites in Israel]]
[[Category:Ivory works of art]]
[[Category:Museums in Northern District (Israel)]]
[[Category:Museums of the ancient Near East in Israel]]
[[Category:National parks of Israel]]
[[Category:New Testament cities]]
[[Category:Prehistoric sites in Israel]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Northern District (Israel)]]
[[Category:Tells (archaeology)]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Israel]]
[[Category:Neolithic sites of Asia]]
[[Category:Yarmukian culture]]
[[Category:Jezreel Valley]]