View source for Taxus baccata

{{Short description|Species of conifer in the family Taxaceae}}
{{For|the taxonomic synonym described by Thunb.|Cephalotaxus harringtonii}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Taxus baccata MHNT.jpg
| image_caption = ''Taxus baccata'' (European yew) shoot with immature [[conifer cone|cones]], and a mature cone bearing an [[aril]]
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn_status />
| genus = Taxus
| species = baccata
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| range_map = Taxus baccata range.svg
| range_map_caption = Natural (native [green] + naturalised [ochre]) range<ref name="Atlas">Benham, S. E., Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. '''''Taxus baccata'' in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats'''. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), ''[http://forest.jrc.ec.europa.eu/european-atlas-of-forest-tree-species/ European Atlas of Forest Tree Species]''. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e015921+</ref>
| synonyms_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Taxus baccata L.|url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000408637#synonyms|access-date=2021-10-09|website=www.worldfloraonline.org}}</ref>
| synonyms = {{Collapsible list|
*    ''Cephalotaxus adpressa'' <small>Beissn.</small> 
*    ''Cephalotaxus brevifolia'' <small>Beissn.</small> 
*    ''Cephalotaxus tardiva'' <small>Siebold ex Endl.</small> 
*    ''Taxus adpressa'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus aure'' <small>K.Koch</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''aurea'' <small>(J.Nelson) Pilg.</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''dovastoniana'' <small>(Leight.) Rehder </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''elegantissima'' <small>(C.Lawson) Beissn. </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''erecta'' <small>(Loudon) Pilg. </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''ericoides'' <small>(Carrière) Pilg. </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''expansa'' <small>(Carrière) Rehder </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''glauca'' <small>(Jacques ex Carrière) Beissn.</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''linearis'' <small>(Carrière) Pilg.</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''lutea'' <small>Rehder </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''pendula'' <small>(J.Nelson) Pilg.</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''pendula-graciosa'' <small>(Overeynder) Beissn.</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''pyramidalis'' <small>(C.Lawson) Beissn.</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''repandens'' <small>(Parsons) Rehder </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''semperaurea'' <small>(Dallim.) Rehder </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''stricta'' <small>(C.Lawson) Rehder </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''variegata'' <small>(Weston) Rehder </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' f. ''xanthocarpa'' <small>Kuntze </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''adpressa-aurea'' <small>A.Henry </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''cavendishii'' <small>Hornibr.</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''dovastoniana'' <small>Leight.</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''dovastonii-aurea'' <small>Sénécl.</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''dovastonii-aureovariegata'' <small>Beissn.</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''dovastonii-variegata'' <small>Gordon</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''elegantissima'' <small>C.Lawson</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. I <small>Loudon </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''glauca'' <small>Jacques ex Carrière </small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''lutea'' <small>Endl.</small>
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''macrocarpa'' <small>Lavallée</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''pendula-overeynderi'' <small>Fitschen</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''prostrata'' <small>Bean</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''pyramidalis'' <small>C.Lawson</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccata'' var. ''variegata'' <small>Weston</small> 
*    ''Taxus baccifera'' <small>Theophr. ex Bubani</small> 
*    ''Taxus columnaris'' <small>K.Koch</small> 
*    ''Taxus communis'' <small>J.Nelson</small> 
*    ''Taxus communis'' var. ''pyramidalis'' <small>(hort. ex Ravenscr., C. Lawson et al.) Nelson</small> 
*    ''Taxus disticha'' <small>Wender. ex Henkel & Hochst.</small> 
*    ''Taxus dovastonii'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus elegantissima'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus elvastonensis'' <small>Beissn.</small> 
*    ''Taxus empetrifolia'' <small>Gordon</small> 
*    ''Taxus erecta'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus ericoides'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus expansa'' <small>K.Koch</small> 
*    ''Taxus fastigiata'' <small>Lindl.</small> 
*    ''Taxus foxii'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus hibernica'' <small>Hook. ex Loudon</small> 
*    ''Taxus horizontalis'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus imperialis'' <small>Gordon</small> 
*    ''Taxus jacksonii'' <small>K.Koch</small> 
*    ''Taxus lugubris'' <small>Salisb.</small> 
*    ''Taxus marginata'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus michelii'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus microphylla'' <small>Gordon</small> 
*    ''Taxus mitchellii'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus monstrosa'' <small>Gordon</small> 
*    ''Taxus nana'' <small>Parl.</small> 
*    ''Taxus parvifolia'' <small>Wender.</small> 
*    ''Taxus pectinata'' <small>Gilib.</small> 
*    ''Taxus pendula'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus pyramidalis'' <small>(hort. ex Ravenscr., C. Lawson et al.) Severin</small> 
*    ''Taxus pyramidalis'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus recurvata'' <small>C.Lawson</small> 
*    ''Taxus sparsifolia'' <small>Loudon</small> 
*    ''Taxus tardiva'' <small>(Siebold ex Endl.) C.Lawson</small> 
*    ''Taxus variegata'' <small>Carrière</small> 
*    ''Taxus virgata'' <small>Wall. ex Gordon</small> 
*    ''Verataxus adpressa'' <small>(Carrière) Carrière</small> 
}}
}}

'''''Taxus baccata''''' is a [[species]] of [[evergreen]] tree in the [[family (botany)|family]] Taxaceae, native to [[Western Europe]], [[Central Europe]] and [[Southern Europe]], as well as [[Northwest Africa]], and parts of [[Southwest Asia]].<ref name=rushforth>Rushforth, K. (1999). ''Trees of Britain and Europe''. Collins {{ISBN|0-00-220013-9}}.</ref> It is the tree originally known as '''yew''', though with other related trees becoming known, it may be referred to as '''common yew''',<ref name = RHSPF/> '''European yew''', or in North America '''English yew'''.<ref>{{PLANTS|id=TABA80|taxon=Taxus baccata|access-date=8 December 2015}}</ref> It is a woodland tree in its native range, and is also grown as an ornamental tree, hedge or topiary. The plant is poisonous, with toxins that can be absorbed through inhalation, ingestion, and transpiration through the skin.<ref name="afm2" /> Consuming any part of the tree, excluding the [[aril]], can be deadly and the consumption of even a small amount of the foliage can result in death.<ref name=ProMed1/><ref name=ProMed2/><ref name=JVDI/><ref name="Poisonous">{{Cite book|last1=Fuller|first1=Thomas C.|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_0-op0XwlDmQC|title=Poisonous plants of California|last2=McClintock|first2=Elizabeth M.|date=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520055683|location=Berkeley|oclc=13009854}}</ref>

==Taxonomy and naming==
The word ''yew'' is from [[Old English]] ''īw, ēow'', ultimately from [[Proto-Indo-European]] ''*h₁eyHw-''. Possibly entered [[Proto-Germanic language|Germanic languages]]<sup>(discussion:[[Eihwaz]])</sup> through a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]], see [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] ''*ivos'', [[Breton language|Breton]] ''ivin,'' [[Old Irish]] ''[[iodhadh|ēo]]'', [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''yw''(ywen) and [[French language|French]] ''[[:fr:If (Botanique)|if]]''. In [[German language|German]] it is known as ''Eibe''. ''Baccata'' is [[Latin]] for 'bearing berries'. The word ''yew'' as it was originally used seems to refer to the colour brown.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.siue.edu/artsandsciences/colloquia/pdf/SIMMS07.doc|title=A Celto-Germanic Etymology for Flora and Fauna which will Boar Yew |access-date=25 February 2023|author=Douglas Simms}}</ref> The yew (μίλος) was known to [[Theophrastus]], who noted its preference for mountain coolness and shade, its evergreen character and its slow growth.<ref>Theophrastus, ''Enquiry into Plants'', iii.10.2; iv.1.3, etc.</ref>

Most Romance languages, with the notable exception of French (''if''), kept a version of the Latin word ''taxus'' (Italian ''tasso'', Corsican ''tassu'', Occitan ''teis'', Catalan ''teix'', Gasconic ''tech'', Spanish ''tejo'', Asturian ''texu'', Portuguese ''teixo'', Galician ''teixo'' and Romanian ''tisă'') from the same root as ''toxic''. In Slavic languages, the same root is preserved: Polish ''cis'', Ukrainian, Slovakian and Russian ''tis'' (''тис''), Serbian-Croatian-Bosnian-Montenegrin ''tisa''/''тиса'',  ''tis'', Slovenian ''tisa''. Albanian borrowed it as ''tis''.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

In [[Iran]], the tree is known as ''sorkhdār'' ({{langx|fa|سرخدار}}, literally "the red tree").

Common yew was one of the many species first described by [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]. It is one of around 30 conifer species in seven genera in the family [[Taxaceae]], which is placed in the order [[Pinales]].{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

== Description ==
[[File:Taxus baccata tree.jpg|thumb|A ''T. baccata'' tree]]
[[File:Taxus baccata MHNT seed.jpg|thumb|Seeds of ''Taxus baccata'']]

Yews are small to medium-sized evergreen trees, growing {{convert|10|-|20|m|ft|round=5|abbr=on}} (exceptionally up to {{convert|28|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=or}}) tall, with a trunk up to {{convert|2|m|ftin|abbr=on}} (exceptionally {{convert|4|m|ftin|abbr=on|disp=or}}) in diameter. The bark is thin, scaly brown, and comes off in small flakes aligned with the stem. The leaves are flat, dark green, {{convert|1|-|4|cm|in|frac=2}} long, {{convert|2|-|3|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}} broad, and [[Phyllotaxis|arranged]] spirally on the stem, but with the leaf bases twisted to align the leaves in two flat rows on either side of the stem, except on erect leading shoots where the spiral arrangement is more obvious. The leaves are poisonous.<ref name=rushforth/><ref name=afm2>Mitchell, A. F. (1972). ''Conifers in the British Isles''. Forestry Commission Booklet 33.</ref>

The [[conifer cone|seed cones]] are modified, each cone containing a single seed, which is {{convert|4|-|7|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} long, and partly surrounded by a fleshy scale which develops into a soft, bright red berry-like structure called an [[aril]]. The aril is {{convert|8|-|15|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} long and wide and open at the end. The arils mature 6 to 9 months after pollination, and with the seed contained, are eaten by [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]], [[waxwing]]s and other birds, which disperse the hard seeds undamaged in their droppings. Maturation of the arils is spread over 2 to 3 months, increasing the chances of successful seed dispersal. {{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

The seeds themselves are poisonous and bitter, but are opened and eaten by some bird species, including [[hawfinch]]es,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wbrc.org.uk/WorcRecd/Issue%2020/hawfinch1.htm |title=The Hawfinch |publisher=Wbrc.org.uk |access-date=2010-07-22}}</ref> [[European greenfinch|greenfinches]], and [[great tit]]s.<ref name=Snow>{{cite book |last=Snow |first=David |title=Birds and Berries |year=2010 |publisher=A & C Black |location=London |isbn=9781408138229 |pages=29–30 |author2=Snow, Barbara }}</ref> The aril is not poisonous; it is gelatinous and very sweet tasting. The male cones are globose, {{convert|3|-|6|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} in diameter, and shed their [[pollen]] in early spring. Yews are mostly [[Dioecy|dioecious]], but occasional individuals can be variably monoecious, or change sex with time.<ref name=rushforth/><ref name=afm2/><ref name=DJ>Dallimore, W., & Jackson, A. B. (1966). ''A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae'' 4th ed. Arnold.</ref>

== Distribution and habitat ==
''T. baccata'' is native to all countries of Europe (except Iceland), the Caucasus, and beyond from Turkey eastwards to northern Iran. Its range extends south to Morocco and Algeria in North Africa.<ref name="iucn_status" /> A few populations are also present in the archipelagos of the Azores<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schirone |first1=Bartolomeo |last2=Ferreira |first2=Raquel Caetano |last3=Vessella |first3=Federico |last4=Schirone |first4=Avra |last5=Piredda |first5=Roberta |last6=Simeone |first6=Marco Cosimo |title=Taxus baccata in the Azores: a relict form at risk of imminent extinction |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |date=1 June 2010 |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1547–1565 |doi=10.1007/s10531-010-9786-0 |bibcode=2010BiCon..19.1547S |s2cid=11157386 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-010-9786-0 |access-date=7 December 2021 |language=en |issn=1572-9710|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and Madeira.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vessella |first1=Federico |last2=Simeone |first2=Marco Cosimo |last3=Fernandes |first3=Francisco Manuel |last4=Schirone |first4=Avra |last5=Gomes |first5=Martinho Pires |last6=Schirone |first6=Bartolomeo |title=Morphological and molecular data from Madeira support the persistence of an ancient lineage of Taxus baccata L. in Macaronesia and call for immediate conservation actions |journal=Caryologia |date=1 June 2013 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=162–177 |doi=10.1080/00087114.2013.821842 |s2cid=83854471 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00087114.2013.821842 |access-date=7 December 2021 |issn=0008-7114|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The limit of its northern [[Scandinavia]]n distribution is its sensitivity to frost, with [[Climate change|global warming]] predicted to allow its spread inland.<ref name="iucn_status">{{Cite iucn|title=''Taxus baccata''|page=e.T42546A117052436|author=Farjon, A.|date=2013|volume=2013|errata=2017|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42546A2986660.en}}</ref> It has been introduced elsewhere, including the United States.<ref name="POWO_306036-2">{{cite web |title=''Taxus baccata'' L. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:306036-2 |access-date=2021-12-07 }}</ref>  Aside from its natural habitat, it is also common to find English Yew in gardens because it is very tolerant to pruning, and in cemeteries, as it symbolizes death.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brooks-Lim |first1=Elizabeth W. L. |last2=Mérette |first2=Sandrine A. |last3=Hawkins |first3=Barbara J. |last4=Maxwell |first4=Carolyn |last5=Washbrook |first5=Andrew |last6=Shapiro |first6=Aaron M. |date=March 2022 |title=Fatal ingestion of Taxus baccata : English yew |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1556-4029.14941 |journal=Journal of Forensic Sciences |language=en |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=820–826 |doi=10.1111/1556-4029.14941 |pmid=34779510 |s2cid=244116064 |issn=0022-1198|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

''T. baccata''{{'}}s richest central European populations are in [[Switzerland|Swiss]] yew-beech woodlands, on cool, steep [[marl]] slopes up to {{Convert|1400|m|ft}} in elevation in the [[Jura Mountains]] and [[Alpine foothills]]. In [[England]] it grows best in steep slopes of the [[Downland|chalk downs]], forming extensive stands invading the grassland outside the beech woods. In more [[continental climate]]s of Europe it fares better in [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|mixed forests]], of both [[conifer]]ous and mixed broadleaf-conifer composition. Under its evergreen shade, no other plants can grow.<ref name="iucn_status" />

''T. baccata'' prefers steep rocky [[calcareous]] slopes. It rarely develops beyond saplings on acid soil when under a forest canopy, but is tolerant of soil pH when planted by humans, such as their traditional placement in [[churchyard]]s and [[Cemetery|cemeteries]], where some of the largest and oldest trees in northwestern Europe are found.<ref name="iucn_status" /> It grows well in well-drained soils,<ref name="PFaF" /> tolerating nearly any soil type, typically [[humus]] and [[Base-richness|base-rich]] soils, but also on [[rendzina]] and [[sand]] soils given adequate moisture. They can survive temporary flooding and moderate droughts. Roots can penetrate extremely compressed soils, such as on rocky terrain and vertical cliff faces.<ref name="Atlas" />

''T. baccata'' normally appears individually or in small groups within the [[understory]], but also forms stands throughout its range,<ref name="Atlas" /> such as in sheltered calcareous sites.<ref name="PFaF" /> ''T. baccata'' is extremely shade-tolerant, with the widest temperature range for [[photosynthesis]] among European trees, able to photosynthesize in winter after deciduous trees have shed their leaves.<ref name="Atlas" /> It can grow under partial canopies of [[beech]] and other [[deciduous]] broad-leafed trees, though it only grows into large trees without such shade.<ref name="iucn_status" />

In centuries past ''T. baccata'' was exterminated from many woodlands as a poisonous hazard to the cattle and horses that often grazed in the woods{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}. Rabbits and deer however have a level of immunity to the poisonous alkaloids, and the seeds are dispersed by birds,<ref name="iucn_status" /> with [[Thrush (bird)|thrushes]] greatly enjoying the fruit.<ref name="PFaF" /> It also regenerates readily from stumps and roots, even when ancient and hollow.<ref name="iucn_status" />

==Longevity==
''Taxus baccata'' can reach 400 to 600 years of age. Some specimens live longer but the age of yews is often overestimated.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mayer |first=Hannes |title=Waldbau auf soziologisch-ökologischer Grundlage |trans-title=Silviculture on socio-ecological basis |edition=4th |year=1992 |publisher=Fischer |language=de |isbn=3-437-30684-7 |page=97}}</ref> Ten yews in Britain are believed to predate the 10th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bevan-Jones |first=Robert |title=The ancient yew: a history of ''Taxus baccata'' |year=2004 |publisher=Windgather Press |location=Bollington |isbn=0-9545575-3-0 |page=28}}</ref> The potential age of yews is impossible to determine accurately and is subject to much dispute. There is rarely any wood as old as the entire tree, while the boughs themselves often become hollow with age, making [[dendrochronology|ring counts]] impossible. Evidence based on growth rates and archaeological work of surrounding structures suggests the oldest yews, such as the [[Fortingall Yew]] in Perthshire, Scotland, may be in the range of 2,000 years,<ref name=harte>Harte, J. (1996). How old is that old yew? ''At the Edge'' 4: 1–9.[http://www.indigogroup.co.uk/edge/oldyews.htm online].</ref><ref name=kinmonth>Kinmonth, F. (2006). Ageing the yew – no core, no curve? ''International Dendrology Society Yearbook'' 2005: 41–46.</ref><ref name=lewington>Lewington, A., & Parker, E. (1999). ''Ancient Trees: Trees that Live for a Thousand Years''. London: Collins & Brown Ltd. {{ISBN|1-85585-704-9}}</ref> placing them among the oldest plants in Europe. One characteristic contributing to yews' longevity is that, unlike most other trees, they are able to split under the weight of advanced growth without succumbing to disease in the fracture. Another is their ability to give rise to new [[Epicormic shoot|epicormic]] and [[basal shoot]]s from cut surfaces and low on their trunks, even in old age.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

==Significant trees==
[[File:The_Llangernyw_yew.jpg|thumb|The [[Llangernyw Yew]]]]

The [[Fortingall Yew]] in Perthshire, Scotland, has one of the largest recorded trunk girths in Britain, reportedly 16-17m in the 18th century, and experts estimate it to be 5,000 years old.<ref name=fls>{{cite web|url=https://forestryandland.gov.scot/learn/trees/yew|title=Yew|publisher=Forestry and Land Scotland|access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref> The [[Llangernyw Yew]] in [[Clwyd]], Wales, can be found at another early saint site and is about 4000–5000 years old according to an investigation led by David Bellamy,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.peoplescollection.wales/items/43941 | title=Llangernyw }}</ref> who also carbon-dated a yew tree in [[Tisbury, Wiltshire|Tisbury]] at around 4000 years old.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tisburyparishchurch.org/just-visiting-4/ | title=The ancient yew tree &#124; St Johns Tisbury }}</ref> A certificate and memorial board by the tree confirm the tree's age estimate. Other well known yews include the [[Ankerwycke Yew]], the [[Balderschwang Yew]], the [[Caesarsboom]], the [[Florence Court Yew]], and the Borrowdale Fraternal Four, of which poet [[William Wordsworth]] wrote. The [[Kingley Vale National Nature Reserve]] in West Sussex has one of Europe's largest yew woodlands.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

[[File:If_Estry.jpg|thumb|[[Estry]] Yew, Normandy, around 1,600 years old]]
The [[Bermiego Yew|oldest specimen in Spain]] is located in [[Bermiego]], [[Asturias]]. It is known as {{lang|ast|Teixu l'Iglesia}} in the [[Asturian language]]. It stands {{convert|15|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} tall with a trunk diameter of {{convert|6.82|m|ftin|frac=2|abbr = on}} and a crown diameter of {{convert|15|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. It was declared a Natural Monument on April 27, 1995, by the Asturian Government and is protected by the Plan of Natural Resources.<ref name=Asturia>{{cite web|title=Monumentos Naturales|url=https://www.asturias.es/portal/site/medioambiente/menuitem.1340904a2df84e62fe47421ca6108a0c/?vgnextoid=fe216c79ae973210VgnVCM10000097030a0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=33d53d6b6311b110VgnVCM1000006a01a8c0RCRD&i18n.http.lang=es|publisher=Gobierno del Principado de Asturias|access-date=14 March 2013|language=es|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324090125/https://www.asturias.es/portal/site/medioambiente/menuitem.1340904a2df84e62fe47421ca6108a0c/?vgnextoid=fe216c79ae973210VgnVCM10000097030a0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=33d53d6b6311b110VgnVCM1000006a01a8c0RCRD&i18n.http.lang=es|archive-date=24 March 2014}} Contains Word document "Monumento Natural Teixu de Bermiego".</ref>

A unique forest formed by ''Taxus baccata'' and European box (''[[Buxus sempervirens]]'') lies within the city of [[Sochi]], in the [[Western Caucasus]].

The oldest Irish Yew (''Taxus baccata'' 'Fastigiata'), the [[Florence Court Yew]], still stands in the grounds of the [[Florence Court]] estate in [[County Fermanagh]], [[Northern Ireland]]. The Irish Yew has become ubiquitous in cemeteries across the world, and it is believed that all known examples are from cuttings from this tree.<ref name=national-trust>{{cite web| publisher=National Trust| title=The original Irish Yew Tree at Florence Court| url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/florence-court/features/the-original-irish-yew-tree-at-florence-court| access-date=2018-07-15}}</ref>

==Toxicity==
[[File:Taxine B.png|alt=The molecular structure of taxine B|thumb|The structure of Taxine B, the cardiotoxic chemical in the yew plant]]{{Further|Taxine alkaloids}}

The entire plant is poisonous, with the exception of the [[aril]] (the red flesh of the “berry” covering the seed). Yews contain numerous toxic compounds, including "at least ten alkaloids, [[nitrile]]s ([[cyanogenic glycoside]] esters), [[ephedrine]]", and their [[essential oil]], but the most important toxins are [[taxine alkaloids]], [[Cardiotoxicity|cardiotoxic]] chemical compounds which act via calcium and sodium channel antagonism.<ref name="Toxic plants">{{Cite book |title=Toxic plants and other natural toxicants|date=1998|publisher=CAB International|last1=Garland|first1=Tam|last2=Barr|first2=A. Catherine |others=International Symposium on Poisonous Plants (5th : 1997 : Texas) |isbn=0851992633|location=Wallingford, England|oclc=39013798}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alloatti|first1=G.|last2=Penna|first2=C.|last3=Levi|first3=R.C.|last4=Gallo|first4=M.P.|last5=Appendino|first5=G.|last6=Fenoglio|first6=I.|date=1996|title=Effects of yew alkaloids and related compounds on guinea-pig isolated perfused heart and papillary muscle|journal=Life Sciences|volume=58|issue=10|pages=845–854|issn=0024-3205 |pmid=8602118 |doi=10.1016/0024-3205(96)00018-5}}</ref> If any leaves or seeds of the plant are ingested, urgent medical attention is recommended as well as observation for at least 6 hours after the point of ingestion.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.npis.org/toxbase.html | title=TOXBASE - National Poisons Information Service | access-date=2019-09-03 | archive-date=2020-11-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120023000/https://www.npis.org/Toxbase.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="PFaF">{{Cite web |title=Plants for a Future Taxus baccata |url=https://pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?LatinName=Taxus+baccata |access-date=2019-07-17}}</ref> The European yew is one of the most toxic species in the genus, along with the [[Taxus cuspidata|Japanese yew]], ''T. cuspidata''.<ref name="Toxic plants" />

Yew poisonings are relatively common in both domestic and wild animals which consume the plant accidentally,<ref name="ProMed1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.promedmail.org/post/4789644|access-date=25 January 2016|date=24 January 2016|title=JAPANESE YEW PLANT POISONING – USA: (IDAHO) PRONGHORN ANTELOPE|publisher=[[ProMED-mail]]}}</ref><ref name="ProMed2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.promedmail.org/post/20110222.0578|access-date=25 January 2016|date=22 February 2011|title=PLANT POISONING, CERVID – USA: (ALASKA) ORNAMENTAL TREE, MOOSE|publisher=[[ProMED-mail]]}}</ref><ref name="JVDI">{{Cite journal|last1=Tiwary|first1=Asheesh K.|last2=Puschner|first2=Birgit|last3=Kinde|first3=Hailu|last4=Tor |first4=Elizabeth R.|date=May 2005|title=Diagnosis of Taxus (yew) poisoning in a horse|journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation|volume=17|issue=3|pages=252–255>|doi=10.1177/104063870501700307|issn=1040-6387 |pmid=15945382|doi-access=free}}</ref> resulting in "countless fatalities in livestock".<ref name="Krenzelok">{{cite journal |last1=Krenzelok |first1=EP |title=Is the yew really poisonous to you? |journal= Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology|date=1998 |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=219–23 |doi=10.3109/15563659809028942 |pmid=9656977 }}</ref> Taxines are also absorbed efficiently via the skin. ''Taxus'' species should thus be handled with care and preferably with gloves.<ref name="afm2" />

"The lethal dose for an adult is reported to be 50 g of yew needles. Patients who ingest a lethal dose frequently die due to [[cardiogenic shock]], in spite of resuscitation efforts."<ref name="Piskač">{{cite journal |last1=Piskač |first1=Ondřej |title=Cardiotoxicity of yew |journal=Cor et Vasa |date=June 2015 |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=234–238 |doi=10.1016/j.crvasa.2014.11.003 |doi-access=free }}</ref> There are currently no known antidotes for yew poisoning, but drugs such as [[atropine]] have been used to treat the symptoms.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Veterinary Toxicology|pages=947–954|date=2018|publisher=Elsevier|last1=Wilson|first1=Christina R.|last2=Hooser |first2=Stephen B.|isbn=9780128114100|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-811410-0.00066-0}}</ref> Taxine remains in the plant all year, with maximal concentrations appearing during the winter. Dried yew plant material retains its toxicity for several months<ref>{{cite web | title=Guide to Poisonous Plants – College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences – Colorado State University | website=Colorado State University | url=https://csuvth.colostate.edu/poisonous_plants/Plants/Details/57 | access-date=2019-09-05}}</ref> and even increases its toxicity as the water is removed.<ref name="Provet">{{cite web|title=Yew|url=http://www.provet.co.uk/lorgue/5a92fa3.htm|publisher=Provet|access-date=23 March 2013|archive-date=2 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202225310/http://www.provet.co.uk/lorgue/5a92fa3.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Fallen leaves should therefore also be considered toxic. Poisoning usually occurs when leaves of yew trees are eaten, but in at least one case a victim inhaled sawdust from a yew tree.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=José Luis |last1=Hernández Hernández|first2=Fernando |last2=Quijano Terán|first3=Jesús |last3=González Macías|year=2010|title=Intoxicación por tejo|journal=Medicina Clínica|volume=135|issue=12|pages=575–576|doi=10.1016/j.medcli.2009.06.036|pmid=19819481 |language=es |trans-title=Taxus poisoning}}</ref>

==Allergenic potential==
[[File:English Yew close 250.jpg|thumb|Foliage of Irish yew, ''Taxus baccata'' 'Fastigiata'; note the leaves spreading all round the erect shoots]]
Male yews are extremely allergenic, blooming and releasing abundant amounts of pollen in the spring, with an [[OPALS (Ogren Plant Allergy Scale)|OPALS]] allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10. Completely female yews have an OPALS rating of 1, the lowest possible, trapping pollen while producing none. The pollen, like most species', easily passes through window screens.<ref name=Ogren>{{cite book|last1=Ogren|first1=Thomas|title=The Allergy-Fighting Garden|date=2015|publisher=Ten Speed Press|location=Berkeley, CA|isbn=9781607744917|page=205}}</ref>

While yew pollen does not contain sufficient taxine alkaloids to cause poisoning, its allergenic potential has been implicated in adverse reactions to [[paclitaxel]] treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vanhaelen|first1=Maurice|last2=Duchateau|first2=Jean|last3=Vanhaelen-Fastré|first3=Renée|last4=Jaziri|first4=Mondher|date=January 2002|title=Taxanes in Taxus baccata Pollen: Cardiotoxicity and/or Allergenicity?|url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-2002-19865|journal=Planta Medica|language=en|volume=68|issue=1|pages=36–40|doi=10.1055/s-2002-19865|pmid=11842324|bibcode=2002PlMed..68...36V |s2cid=260283336 |issn=0032-0943|access-date=2022-03-08|archive-date=2018-06-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180604103457/https://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055%2Fs-2002-19865|url-status=dead|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

== Place names ==
[[File:Bilingual welcome sign Newry.jpg|thumb|Welcome sign in [[Newry]], Northern Ireland, in English and Irish]]

Words and [[Morpheme]]s for "yew tree" have resulted in a number of place names. These include the [[Proto-Celtic]] {{wikt-lang|cel-x-proto|eburos}}; [[Old Irish]] {{lang|sga|ibar}}; [[Irish language|Irish]] {{lang|ga|iobhar}}, {{lang|ga|iubhar}} and {{lang|ga|iúr}}; and the [[Scottish Gaelic]] {{lang|gd|iubhar}},<ref name="Delamarre159">Xavier Delamarre, ''Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise'', éditions errance 2003, p. 159.</ref>

===Newry===
[[Newry]], Northern Ireland is an anglicization of {{lang|ga|An Iúraigh}}, an oblique form of {{lang|ga|An Iúrach}}, which means "the grove of yew trees". The modern Irish name for Newry is {{lang|ga|An tIúr}} (pronounced [ənʲ ˈtʲuːɾˠ]), which means "the yew tree". {{lang|ga|An tIúr}} is a shortening of {{lang|ga|Iúr Cinn Trá}}, "yew tree at the head of the strand", which was formerly the most common Irish name for Newry. This relates to an apocryphal story that Saint Patrick planted a yew tree there in the 5th century. The Irish name ''Cathair an Iúir'' (City of Newry) appears on some bilingual signs around the city.<ref>[[commons:File:Bilingual welcome sign Newry.jpg|Welcome sign in Newry, Northern Ireland, in English and Irish]]</ref>

The area of [[Ydre]] in the [[South Swedish highlands]] is interpreted to mean "place of yews".<ref name=ortnamnlexiko2003-375>{{cite book |editor-last1=Wahlberg |editor-first1=Mats |title=Svensk ortnamnslexikon |date=2003 |publisher=Språk- och folkminnesinstitutet |location=Uppsala |isbn=91-7229-020-X |page=375 |url=https://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.5850f85e15732ead0b325e/1529494467246/Svenskt%20ortnamnslexikon.pdf |access-date=April 30, 2019 |language=sv |archive-date=August 7, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807001456/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.5850f85e15732ead0b325e/1529494467246/Svenskt%20ortnamnslexikon.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Two localities in particular, [[Idhult]] and [[Idebo]], appear to be further associated with yews.<ref name=ortnamnlexiko2003-375/>

===York===
[[York]] ({{langx|non|[[Jórvík]]}}) is derived from the [[Common Brittonic|Brittonic]] name {{lang|cel|Eburākon}} ([[Latin (language)|Latinised]] variously as {{lang|la|[[Eboracum]]}}, {{lang|la|Eburacum}}, or {{lang|la|Eburaci}}), a combination of {{wikt-lang|cel-x-proto|*eburos}} "yew-tree" and a suffix of [[appurtenance]] {{wikt-lang|cel-x-proto|*-ākos|*-āko(n)}} "belonging to-, place of-" (compare Welsh {{lang|cy|-og}})<ref name="Delamarre159"/> meaning "place of the yew trees" ({{lang|cy|efrog}} in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], Old Irish {{lang|sga|iubrach}} "grove of yew trees, place with one or more yew trees", {{lang|ga|iúrach}} in Irish Gaelic and {{lang|gd|iùbhrach}} in Scottish Gaelic); the city itself is called {{lang|ga|Eabhrach}} (Irish) and {{lang|gd|Eabhraig}} (Scottish Gaelic), from the Latin {{lang|la|Eboracum}}); or alternatively, "the settlement of (a man named) {{lang|cel|Eburos}}" (a [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] personal name is mentioned in different documents as {{lang|grc|Eβουρος}}, {{lang|la|Eburus}}, and {{lang|la|Eburius}} and, when combined with the Celtic possessive suffix {{lang|cel|*-āko(n)}}, could be used to denote his property).<ref>Pierre-Yves Lambert, ''La langue gauloise'', éditions errance 1994, p. 39.</ref><ref name="Delamarre159"/> The 12th‑century chronicler [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]], in his account of the prehistoric kings of Britain, {{lang|la|[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]}}, suggests the name derives from that of a pre-Roman city founded by the legendary king [[Ebraucus]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Kings_of_Britain/Book_2#7 |author=Geoffrey of Monmouth |title=Historia Regum Britanniae |year=1136 |via=[[Wikisource]] |access-date=9 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414000917/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Kings_of_Britain/Book_2#7 |archive-date=14 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The name {{lang|la|Eboracum}} became the [[Angles (tribe)|Anglian]] {{lang|ang|Eoforwic}} in the 7th&nbsp;century: a compound of {{lang|ang|Eofor-}}, from the old name, and {{lang|ang|-wic}} "a village", probably by conflation of the element {{lang|ang|Ebor-}} with a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] root {{lang|gem|*eburaz}} ('boar'); by the 7th&nbsp;century the [[Old English]] for 'boar' had become {{lang|ang|eofor}}. When the [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danish]] army conquered the city in 866, its name became {{lang|non|Jórvík}}.<ref name=coyyh>{{cite web|url=http://www.york.gov.uk/leisure/Local_history_and_heritage/yorks_history/ |title=York's history |publisher=City of York Council |date=20 December 2006 |access-date=1 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031235552/http://www.york.gov.uk/leisure/Local_history_and_heritage/yorks_history/ |archive-date=31 October 2007 }}</ref>

The [[Old French]] and [[Norman language|Norman]] name of Yorks following the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]] was recorded as {{lang|xno|Everwic}} (modern Norman {{lang|nrf|Évèroui}}) in works such as Wace's [[Roman de Rou]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wace |first1=Robert |title=Le Roman de Rou et des ducs de Normandie |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k65499509/f362 |website=BnF Gallica |access-date=15 September 2016 |page=362 |quote=Li Barunz de Everwic Schire (the barons of Yorkshire) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109065801/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k65499509/f362 |archive-date=9 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> {{lang|non|Jórvík}}, meanwhile, gradually reduced to ''York'' in the centuries after the Conquest, moving from the [[Middle English]] {{lang|enm|Yerk}} in the 14th&nbsp;century through {{lang|enm|Yourke}} in the 16th&nbsp;century to ''Yarke'' in the 17th&nbsp;century. The form ''York'' was first recorded in the 13th&nbsp;century.<ref name="timeline">{{cite web |url= http://www.visityork.org/information/timeline.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108205146/http://www.visityork.org/information/timeline.asp |archive-date=8 January 2008 |publisher=York Tourism Bureau |title=Timeline |year=2005 |access-date=25 October 2007 }}</ref><ref name=Willis35>{{cite book |last=Willis |first=Ronald |year=1988 |title=The illustrated portrait of York |edition=4th |publisher=Robert Hale Limited |isbn=0-7090-3468-7 |page=35 }}</ref> Many company and place names, such as the Ebor race meeting, refer to the Latinised Brittonic, Roman name.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yorkfestivals.com/metadot/index.pl?iid=2757&isa=Category |title=Ebor Festival |publisher=York City of Festivals |access-date=17 May 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718142734/http://www.yorkfestivals.com/metadot/index.pl?iid=2757&isa=Category |archive-date=18 July 2011 }}</ref>

The [[Archbishop of York]] uses ''Ebor'' as his surname in his signature.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.debretts.com/forms-of-address/professions/religion/church-of-england/archbishops-of-canterbury-and-york.aspx |title=How to address the Archbishops of Canterbury and York – Forms of Address, Church of England, Religion |publisher=Debretts.com |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121101106/http://www.debretts.com/forms-of-address/professions/religion/church-of-england/archbishops-of-canterbury-and-york.aspx |archive-date=21 January 2012  }}</ref>

==Traditions==
=== Historic suicides ===
In the ancient Celtic world, the yew tree (''*eburos'') had extraordinary importance; a passage by [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] narrates that [[Cativolcus]], chief of the [[Eburones]], poisoned himself with yew rather than submit to Rome (''Gallic Wars'' 6: 31). Similarly, [[Florus]] notes that when the Cantabrians were under siege by the legate Gaius Furnius in 22 BC, most of them took their lives either by sword, fire, or a poison extracted ''ex arboribus taxeis'', that is, from the yew tree (2: 33, 50–51). In a similar way, [[Orosius]] notes that when the [[Astures]] were besieged at ''Mons Medullius'', they preferred to die by their own swords or by yew poison rather than surrender (6, 21, 1).

===Religion===
[[File:LaHayeDeRoutotIf1.JPG|right|thumb|Door of a Norman chapel set in a yew tree, Chapelle Saint-Anne, Church of Notre-Dame, [[La Haye-de-Routot]], France.]]

The yew is traditionally and regularly found in [[churchyard]]s in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and Northern France (particularly [[Normandy]]). Some examples can be found in [[La Haye-de-Routot]] or [[La Lande-Patry]]. It is said up to 40 people could stand inside one of the La-Haye-de-Routot yew trees, and the [[Le Ménil-Ciboult]] yew is probably the largest, with a girth of 13 m.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The thickest, tallest, and oldest trees worldwide|url=https://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/records/|access-date=2022-01-27|website=www.monumentaltrees.com}}</ref> Yews may grow to become exceptionally large (over 5 m diameter) and may live to be over 2,000 years old. Sometimes monks planted yews in the middle of their [[cloister]], as at [[Muckross Abbey]] (Ireland) or [[abbaye de Jumièges]] (Normandy). Some ancient yew trees are located at St. Mary the Virgin Church, [[Overton-on-Dee]] in Wales.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

In the [[Septuagint]] rendering of the [[Book of Nahum]], 1:10, [[Nineveh]] and other deemed enemies of the [[God in Abrahamic religions|biblical God]] are foretold to "be laid bare even to its foundation, and…devoured as a twisted yew."<ref>[https://studybible.info/interlinear/Nahum%201:10 Nahum 1:10 - Apostolic Bible Polyglot Greek-English Interlinear]. ''Studybible.info''. Retrieved 2022-11-5.</ref><ref>[https://biblehub.com/sep/nahum/1.htm Nahum 1 Brenton's Septuagint Translation]. ''Bible Hub''. Retrieved 2022-11-5.</ref>

In Asturian tradition and culture, the yew tree was considered to be linked with the land, people, ancestors, and ancient religion. It was tradition on [[All Saints' Day]] to bring a branch of a yew tree to the tombs of those who had died recently so they would be guided in their return to the Land of Shadows. The yew tree has been found near chapels, churches, and cemeteries since ancient times as a symbol of the transcendence of death. They are often found in the main squares of villages where people celebrated the open councils that served as a way of general assembly to rule village affairs.<ref>Abella Mina, I. Árboles De Junta Y Concejo. Las Raíces De La Comunidad. Libros del Jata, First Edition, 2016. {{ISBN|9788416443024}}</ref>

It has been suggested that the [[Sacred tree at Uppsala|sacred tree]] at the [[Temple at Uppsala]] was an ancient yew tree.<ref>Ohlmarks, Å. (1994). ''Fornnordiskt lexikon''. p 372.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://runeberg.org/svetym/0354.html|title=266 (Svensk etymologisk ordbok)|first=Elof|last=Hellquist|date=March 29, 1922|website=runeberg.org}}</ref> The Christian church commonly found it expedient to take over existing pre-Christian sacred sites for churches. It has also been suggested that yews were planted at religious sites as their long life was suggestive of eternity, or because, being toxic when ingested, they were seen as trees of death.<ref>Andrews, W.(ed.)(1897) 'Antiquities and Curiosities of the Church, William Andrews & Co., London 1897; pp. 256-278: 'Amongst the ancients the yew, like the cypress, was regarded as the emblem of death... As, to the early Christian, death was the harbinger of life; he could not agree with his classic forefathers in employing the yew or the cyprus, "as an emblem of their dying for ever." It was the very antithesis of this, and as an emblem of immortality, and to show his belief in the life beyond the grave, that led to his cultivation of the yew in all the burying grounds of those who died in the new faith, and this must be regarded as the primary idea of its presence there... Evelyn's opinion is more decisive: —"that we find it so universally planted in our churchyards, was doubtless, from its being thought a symbol of immortality, the tree being so lasting and always green."'</ref> Another suggested explanation is that yews were planted to discourage farmers and drovers from letting animals wander onto the burial grounds, the poisonous foliage being the disincentive. A further possible reason is that fronds and branches of yew were often used as a substitute for palms on [[Palm Sunday]].<ref>Andrews, W.(ed.)(1897) 'The majority of authorities agree that in England; branches of yew were generally employed; and some express the opinion, that the principal object of the tree being planted in churchyards, was to supply branches of it for this purpose.'</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.churchyear.net/palmsunday.html |title=Palm Sunday: All About Palm Sunday of the Lord's Passion |publisher=Churchyear.net |access-date=2010-07-22}}</ref><ref name="DLP">{{Cite web|title=DID YOU KNOW?|url=https://www.dlrcoco.ie/en/parks/cemeteries/didyouknow.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425024313/http://www.dlrcoco.ie/parks/cemeteries/didyouknow.htm|archive-date=2016-04-25|access-date=|website=Parks|publisher=Dún Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council|language=en}}</ref>

King [[Edward I of England]] ordered yew trees planted in churchyards to protect the buildings. Some yews existed before their churches, as preachers held services beneath them when churches were unavailable. Due to the ability of their branches to root and sprout anew after touching the ground, yews became symbols of death, rebirth, and therefore immortality.<ref name=DLP/>

In interpretations of [[Norse cosmology]], the tree ''[[Yggdrasil]]'' has traditionally been interpreted as a giant [[Fraxinus|ash tree]]. Some scholars now believe errors were made in past interpretations of the ancient writings, and that the tree is most likely a European yew (''Taxus baccata'').<ref>{{citation| title = The Ancient Yew: A History of Taxus baccata | first = Robert | last = Bevan-Jones | year = 2017 | publisher = Windgather Press| edition = 3rd |pages = 150–}}</ref>

In the ''[[Crann Ogham]]''—the variation on the ancient Irish ''[[Ogham]]'' alphabet which consists of a list of trees—yew is the last in the main list of 20 trees, primarily symbolizing death. There are stories of people who have committed suicide by ingesting the foliage. As the ancient Celts also believed in the [[transmigration of the soul]], there is in some cases a secondary meaning of the eternal soul that survives death to be reborn in a new form.<ref>Andrews, W.(ed.)(1897) 'Antiquities and Curiosities of the Church, William Andrews & Co., London 1897; pp. 256-278: 'Amongst the ancients the yew, like the cypress, was regarded as the emblem of death.</ref>

== Uses ==

Yew wood was historically important, finding use in the [[Middle Ages]] in items such as musical instruments, furniture, and [[longbows]]. The species was felled nearly to extinction in much of Europe. In the modern day it is not considered a commercial crop due to its very slow growth, but it is valued for hedging and [[topiary]].<ref name="Atlas" />

===Medical===
Certain compounds found in the bark of yew trees were discovered in 1967 to have efficacy as anti-cancer agents. The precursors of the [[chemotherapy]] drug [[paclitaxel]] (taxol) were later shown to be synthesized easily from extracts of the leaves of European yew,<ref>[[National Non-Food Crops Centre]], [http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/metadot/index.pl?id=2447;isa=DBRow;op=show;dbview_id=2329 "Yew"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326040805/http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/metadot/index.pl?id=2447;isa=DBRow;op=show;dbview_id=2329 |date=2009-03-26 }}. Retrieved on 2009-04-23.</ref> which is a much more renewable source than the bark of the Pacific yew (''[[Taxus brevifolia]]'') from which they were initially isolated. This ended a point of conflict in the early 1990s; many environmentalists, including [[Al Gore]], had opposed the destructive harvesting of Pacific yew for paclitaxel cancer treatments. [[Docetaxel]] can then be obtained by semi-synthetic conversion from the precursors.

===Woodworking===
[[File:If cincentenaire 49.JPG|thumb|Bole of an ancient yew in [[Pont-de-Buis-lès-Quimerch]], Brittany]]

Wood from the yew is classified as a closed-pore [[softwood]], similar to cedar and pine. Easy to work, yew is among the hardest of the softwoods, yet it possesses a remarkable elasticity, making it ideal for products that require springiness, such as bows.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wood-database.com/european-yew/#google_vignette |title=European Yew |publisher=The Wood Database}}</ref> The wood is esteemed for [[cabinetry]] and tool handles.<ref name="PFaF" /> The hard, slow-growing wood also finds use in gates, furniture, [[parquet floors]], and [[Panelling|paneling]]. Its typical [[burl]]s and contorted growth, with intricate multicolored patterns, make it attractive for carving and [[woodturning]], but also make the wood unsuited for construction.<ref name="iucn_status" /> It is good firewood and is sometimes burnt as incense.<ref name="PFaF" /> Due to all parts of the yew and its volatile oils being poisonous and cardiotoxic,<ref name=rushforth/><ref name=afm2/><ref name=PoisonGarden>{{Cite web|last=Robertson|first=John|date=2018|title=Taxus baccata, yew|url=http://www.thepoisongarden.co.uk/atoz/taxus_baccata.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116083824/http://www.thepoisongarden.co.uk/atoz/taxus_baccata.htm|archive-date=2019-11-16|website=THE POISON GARDEN}}</ref> a mask should be worn if one comes in contact with sawdust from the wood.<ref name="ancientyew">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ancient-yew.org/s.php/frequently-asked-questions/2/2#howpoisonous|title=How poisonous is the yew?|publisher=Ancient-yew.org|access-date=2010-07-22|archive-date=2011-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011162304/http://www.ancient-yew.org/s.php/frequently-asked-questions/2/2#howpoisonous|url-status=dead}}</ref>

One of the world's oldest surviving wooden artifacts is a [[Clactonian]] yew<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/organicprtsclactonspearlrg.htm|title=The Clacton spear, a picture and description.|website=www.lithiccastinglab.com}}</ref> spear head, found in 1911 at [[Clacton-on-Sea]], in [[Essex]], UK. Known as the [[Clacton Spear]], it is estimated to be around 400,000 years old.<ref name=White_Clacton>{{cite web|last=White|first=T.S.|title=The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic of Cambridgeshire|url=https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/12317641/the-lower-and-middle-palaeolithic-of-cambridgeshire |publisher=English Heritage Project|access-date=23 March 2013|author2=Boreham, S. |author3=Bridgland, D. R. |author4=Gdaniec, K. |author5= White, M. J. |year=2008}}</ref><ref name=Laing50>{{cite book |last1=Laing |first1=Lloyd |last2=Laing |first2=Jennifer |date=1980 |title=The Origins of Britain |publisher=Book Club Associates |pages=50–51 |isbn=0710004311}}</ref> Another spear made from yew is the [[Lehringen spear]] found in Germany, dating to around 120,000 years ago, thought to have been created by [[Neanderthal|Neanderthals]], which was found near a [[straight-tusked elephant]] skeleton, which it is thought to have been used to kill.<ref name="Yew">Milks, A.  (2020) ''[https://sticks-and-stones.blog/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/milks-2021.pdf Yew wood, would you? An exploration of the selection of wood for Pleistocene spears].'' In: Berihuete-Azorin, M., Martin Seijo, M., Lopez-Bulto, O. and Pique, R. (eds.) The Missing Woodland Resources: Archaeobotanical studies of the use of plant raw materials. Advances in Archaeobotany, 6 (6). Barkhuis Publishing, Groningen, pp. 5-22. {{ISBN|9789493194359}}</ref>

=== Longbows ===
Yew is also associated with Wales and England because of the [[English longbow|longbow]], an early weapon of war developed in northern Europe, and as the [[English longbow]] the basis for a medieval tactical system. The oldest surviving yew longbow was found at Rotten Bottom in [[Dumfries]] and [[Galloway]], Scotland. It has been given a calibrated radiocarbon date of 4040 BC to 3640 BC and is on display in the [[National Museum of Scotland]]. Yew is the wood of choice for longbow making; the [[heartwood]] is always on the inside of the bow with the sapwood on the outside. This makes most efficient use of their properties as heartwood is best in compression whilst sapwood is superior in tension. However, much yew is knotty and twisted, and therefore unsuitable for bowmaking; most trunks do not give good staves and even in a good trunk much wood has to be discarded.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

There was a tradition of planting yew trees in churchyards throughout Britain and Ireland, among other reasons, as a resource for bows, such as at "[[Ardchattan Priory]] whose yew trees, according to other accounts, were inspected by [[Robert the Bruce]] and cut to make at least some of the [[longbow]]s used at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]]."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MacTaggart |first=Kenneth D. |date=2000-02-18 |title=The MacPhedrans of Loch Awe and Loch Fyne |url=https://archive.org/details/tgsi-vol-lxii-2000-2002/page/34 |journal=Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness |volume=62 |pages=35}}</ref>

The trade of yew wood to England for longbows was so robust that it depleted the stocks of good-quality, mature yew over a vast area. The first documented import of yew bowstaves to England was in 1294. In 1423 the Polish king commanded protection of yews in order to cut exports, facing nearly complete destruction of local yew stock.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sztyk |first=Romuald |date=October 2003 |title=Obrót nieruchomościami w świetle prawa o ochronie środowiska |journal=Rejent - Miesięcznik Notariatu Polskiego |language=pl |volume=10 |issue=150 |pages=227 |issn=1230-669X}}</ref> In 1470 compulsory archery practice was renewed, and [[hazel]], [[fraxinus|ash]], and [[laburnum]] were specifically allowed for practice bows. Supplies still proved insufficient, until by the [[Statute of Westminster 1472|Statute of Westminster]] in 1472, every ship coming to an English port had to bring four bowstaves for every [[tun (unit)|tun]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Britain |first=Great |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKU3AAAAMAAJ |title=Statutes at Large ...: (43 v.) ... From Magna charta to 1800 |date=1762 |pages=406 |language=en |quote=...because that our sovereign lord the King, by a petition delivered to him in the said parliament, by the commons of the same, hath perceived That the great scarcity of bowstaves is now in this realm, and the bowstaves that be in this realm be sold as an excessive price...}}</ref> [[Richard III of England]] increased this to ten for every tun. This stimulated a vast network of extraction and supply, which formed part of royal monopolies in southern Germany and Austria. In 1483, the price of bowstaves rose from £2 to £8 per hundred (equivalent to £{{Inflation|UK|2|1483|fmt=c}} to £{{Inflation|UK|8|1483|fmt=c}} in {{Inflation/year|UK}}), and in 1510 the Venetians would only sell a hundred for £16 ({{Inflation|UK|16|1510|fmt=eq|cursign=£}}).{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

In 1507 the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] asked the [[List of rulers of Bavaria|Duke of Bavaria]] to stop cutting yew, but the trade was profitable, and in 1532 the royal [[monopoly]] was granted for the usual quantity "if there are that many." In 1562, the Bavarian government sent a long plea to the Holy Roman Emperor asking him to stop the cutting of yew, and outlining the damage done to the forests by its selective extraction, which broke the canopy and allowed wind to destroy neighbouring trees. In 1568, despite a request from [[Saxony]], no royal monopoly was granted because there was no yew to cut, and the next year [[Bavaria]] and [[Austria]] similarly failed to produce enough yew to justify a royal monopoly. Forestry records in this area in the 17th century do not mention yew, and it seems that no mature trees were to be had. The English tried to obtain supplies from the Baltic, but at this period bows were being replaced by guns in any case.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hageneder |first=Fred |date=2007 |title=Yew: A History |publisher=Sutton Publishing |location=Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire |isbn=978-0-7509-4597-4 |oclc=ocm76851868}}</ref>

===Musical instruments===
The late Robert Lundberg, a noted [[luthier]] who performed extensive research on historical [[lute]]-making methodology, states in his 2002 book ''Historical Lute Construction'' that yew was historically a prized wood for lute construction. European legislation establishing use limits and requirements for yew limited supplies available to luthiers, but it was apparently as prized among medieval, renaissance, and baroque lute builders as [[Dalbergia nigra|Brazilian rosewood]] is among contemporary guitar-makers for its quality of sound and beauty.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

===Horticulture===
[[File:English Yew 600.jpg|thumb|An Irish yew (''Taxus baccata'' 'Fastigiata') planted at [[Kenilworth Castle]]]]

Today European yew is widely used in landscaping and ornamental horticulture. Due to its dense, dark green, mature foliage, and its tolerance of even very severe pruning, it is used especially for formal [[hedge]]s and [[topiary]]. Its relatively slow growth rate means that in such situations it needs to be clipped only once per year (in late summer).

European yew will tolerate a wide range of soils and situations, including shallow chalk soils and shade,<ref>Hillier Nurseries, "The Hillier Manual Of Trees And Shrubs", David & Charles, 1998, p863</ref> although in deep shade its foliage may be less dense. However it cannot tolerate waterlogging, and in poorly-draining situations is liable to succumb to the root-rotting pathogen ''[[Phytophthora cinnamomi]]''.

''T. baccata'' is tolerant of urban pollution, cold, and heat, though soil compaction e.g. by roads can harm it. It is slow-growing, taking about 20 years to grow {{Convert|4.5|m|ft}} tall, and vertical growth effectively stops after 100 years. With its soft bark, the tree can be killed over time by rubbing such as by climbing children.<ref name="PFaF" />

In Europe, ''Taxus baccata'' grows naturally north to [[Molde Municipality|Molde]] in southern Norway, but it is used in gardens further north. It is also popular as a [[bonsai]] in many parts of Europe and makes a handsome small- to large-sized bonsai.<ref name="Ma-Ke_Taxus baccata">{{cite web | first=Mark | last=D'Cruz | title=Ma-Ke Bonsai Care Guide for Taxus baccata | publisher=Ma-Ke Bonsai | url=http://makebonsai.com/guide/bonsailink.asp?quicklink=5065&name=Taxus_baccata | access-date=2011-11-19 | archive-date=2012-03-16 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316203546/http://makebonsai.com/guide/bonsailink.asp?quicklink=5065&name=Taxus_baccata | url-status=dead }}</ref>

Well over 200 [[cultivar]]s of ''T. baccata'' have been named. The most popular of these are the [[Florence Court Yew|Irish yew]] (''T. baccata'' 'Fastigiata'), a fastigiate cultivar of the European yew selected from two trees found growing in Ireland, and the several cultivars with yellow leaves, collectively known as "golden yew".<ref name=afm2/><ref name=DJ/> In some locations, e.g. when hemmed in by buildings or other trees, an Irish yew can reach 20 feet in height without exceeding 2 feet in diameter at its thickest point, although with age many Irish yews assume a fat cigar shape rather than being truly columnar.

====AGM cultivars====
The following cultivars have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]]:-<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf | title = AGM Plants - Ornamental | date = July 2017 | page = 100 
| publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | access-date = 1 December 2018}}</ref> 
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*''T. baccata''<ref name = RHSPF>{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector - ''Taxus baccata''|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/18001/Taxus-baccata/Details | publisher = RHS | access-date = 5 March 2021}}</ref>
*''T. baccata'' 'Fastigiata' (Irish yew)<ref>{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector - ''Taxus baccata'' 'Fastigiata'|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/95998/Taxus-baccata-Fastigiata-(f)/Details | publisher = RHS | access-date = 5 March 2021}}</ref>
*''T. baccata'' 'Fastigiata Aureomarginata' (golden Irish yew)<ref>{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector - ''Taxus baccata'' 'Fastigiata Aureomarginata' | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/57475/Taxus-baccata-Fastigiata-Aureomarginata-(m-v)/Details | publisher = RHS | access-date = 5 March 2021}}</ref>
*''T. baccata'' 'Icicle'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/109716/Taxus-baccata-Icicle/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Taxus baccata'' 'Icicle' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 1 December 2018}}</ref> 
*''T. baccata'' 'Repandens'<ref>{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector - ''Taxus baccata'' 'Repandens'|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/99126/Taxus-baccata-Repandens-(f)/Details | publisher = RHS | access-date = 5 March 2021}}</ref>
*''T. baccata'' 'Repens Aurea'<ref>{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector - ''Taxus baccata'' 'Repens Aurea'|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/91406/Taxus-baccata-Repens-Aurea-(v)/Details | publisher = RHS | access-date = 5 March 2021}}</ref>
*''T. baccata'' 'Semperaurea'<ref>{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector - ''Taxus baccata'' 'Semperaurea'|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/98202/Taxus-baccata-Semperaurea-(m)/Details | publisher = RHS | access-date = 5 March 2021}}</ref>
*''T. baccata'' 'Standishii'<ref>{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector - ''Taxus baccata'' 'Standishii'|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/92969/Taxus-baccata-Standishii-(f)/Details | publisher = RHS | access-date = 5 March 2021}}</ref>
{{div col end}}

=== Privies ===
In England, yew has historically been sometimes associated with [[outhouse|privies]] (outside toilets), possibly because the smell of the plant keeps insects away.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://barnwells.info/Garden/Privy_Yew/PrivyYew.aspx |title=Cerne Privies |website=Barnwells House and Garden |access-date=26 December 2016}}</ref>

=== Culinary ===
The edible arils, often colloquially referred to as "yew berries" (or traditionally as "snotty gogs" in parts of England<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.listenersguide.org.uk/bbc/podcast/episode/?p=b006qtnz&e=m0019m7c |title=Word of Mouth - Lords and Ladies: Folk Names for Plants and Flowers |website=Listener's Guide |access-date=2024-09-15}}</ref>), are eaten by some foragers in western countries, although great care must be taken to remove or spit out the toxic seed.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wildfooduk.com/wild-plants/yew-tree/ |title=Yew Tree |website=wildfooduk |access-date=9 September 2024}}</ref>

==Conservation==
Historically, ''T. baccata'' populations were gravely threatened by felling for longbows and destruction to protect livestock from poisoning. It is now endangered in parts of its range due to intensive land use. The species is also harvested to meet pharmaceutical demand for taxanes. Trees are often damaged by [[Browsing (herbivory)|browsing]] and bark stripping. Yew's thin bark makes it vulnerable to fire. Its toxicity protects against many insects, but the [[yew mite]] causes significant bud mortality, and seedlings can be killed by fungi.<ref name="Atlas" />

Clippings from ancient specimens in the UK, including the Fortingall Yew, were taken to the [[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh|Royal Botanic Gardens]] in Edinburgh to form a mile-long hedge. The purpose of this "Yew Conservation Hedge Project" is to maintain the DNA of ''Taxus baccata''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2008/11/07/Ancient-yew-DNA-preserved-in-hedge-project/UPI-70171226088573/ |title=Ancient yew DNA preserved in hedge project |publisher=United Press International |date=7 November 2008 |access-date=27 September 2013}}</ref>

Another conservation programme was run in [[Catalonia]] in the early 2010s by the [[Forest Sciences Centre of Catalonia]] (CTFC) in order to protect genetically endemic yew populations and preserve them from [[overgrazing]] and forest fires.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Casals|first1=Pere|last2=Camprodon|first2=Jordi|last3=Caritat|first3=Antonia|last4=Rios|first4=Ana|last5=Guixe|first5=David|last6=Garcia-Marti|first6=X|last7=Martin-Alarcon|first7=Santiago|last8=Coll|first8=Lluis|title=Forest structure of Mediterranean yew (Taxus baccata L.) populations and neighbor effects on juvenile yew performance in the NE Iberian Peninsula|journal=Forest Systems|date=2015|volume=24|issue=3|pages=e042|doi=10.5424/fs/2015243-07469|url=http://arxiudigital.ctfc.cat/docs/upload/27_521_PereR2015.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the framework of this programme, the 4th International Yew Conference was organised in the Poblet Monastery in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014|title=IV International Yew Workshop: Management, conservation and culture of the yew forests in the Mediterrenean<!--sic--> forest ecosystems (Proceedings)|url=http://www.taxus.cat/docs/llibre%20ponencies%20jornades%20teix.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906210738/http://www.taxus.cat/docs/llibre%20ponencies%20jornades%20teix.pdf|archive-date=2021-09-06|website=Life TAXUS}}{{sic}}</ref>

There has also been a conservation programme in northern Portugal and [[Cantabria|Northern Spain]] (Cantabrian Range).<ref>{{cite web |title=LIFE Baccata Project |url=http://www.life-baccata.eu/es |website=LIFE Baccata EU project}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of poisonous plants]]
* [[List of plants poisonous to equines]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Chetan, A. and Brueton, D. (1994) ''The Sacred Yew'', London: Arkana, {{ISBN|0-14-019476-2}}
* Hartzell, H. (1991) ''The yew tree: a thousand whispers: biography of a species'', Eugene: Hulogosi, {{ISBN|0-938493-14-0}}
* Simón, F. M. (2005) Religion and Religious Practices of the Ancient Celts of the Iberian Peninsula, ''[http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_6/marco_simon_6_6.html e-Keltoi]'', v. 6, p.&nbsp;287-345, {{ISSN|1540-4889}} online
* {{cite journal|last1=Casals|first1=Pere|last2=Camprodon|first2=Jordi|last3=Caritat|first3=Antonia|last4=Rios|first4=Ana|last5=Guixe|first5=David|last6=Garcia-Marti|first6=X|last7=Martin-Alarcon|first7=Santiago|last8=Coll|first8=Lluis|title=Forest structure of Mediterranean yew (Taxus baccata L.) populations and neighbor effects on juvenile yew performance in the NE Iberian Peninsula|journal=Forest Systems|date=2015|volume=24|issue=3|pages=e042|doi=10.5424/fs/2015243-07469|url=http://arxiudigital.ctfc.cat/docs/upload/27_521_PereR2015.pdf|doi-access=free}}

==External links==
{{Commons and category|Taxus baccata}}
{{Wikiquote|Yew}}
* [http://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/photos-europeanyew/ Monumentaltrees.com: Images and location details of ancient yews]
* [http://www.taxus.cat/?page_id=358 Life+ TAXUS.cat: Taxus conservation programme in Catalonia ]
* [[Forest Sciences Centre of Catalonia]] (CTFC)—[http://www.ctfc.cat/funcionament-decosistemes-i-biodiversitat/?lang=en#title Biology Conservation Department] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112000926/http://www.ctfc.cat/funcionament-decosistemes-i-biodiversitat/?lang=en#title |date=2017-01-12 }}
* [http://www.euforgen.org/species/taxus-baccata/ ''Taxus baccata'']—distribution map, genetic conservation units, and related resources from the [[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]] (EUFORGEN)

{{Woodworking|state=collapsed}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q179729}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Taxus|baccata]]
[[Category:Flora of Europe]]
[[Category:Flora of Iran]]
[[Category:Flora of North Africa]]
[[Category:Flora of the Azores]]
[[Category:Flora of the Caucasus]]
[[Category:Flora of Turkey]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Europe]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Europe]]
[[Category:Ornamental trees]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Plants used in bonsai]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
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