View source for Taiko

{{Short description|Japanese percussion instrument}}
{{Title language|ja-Latn}}
{{redirect2|太鼓|Taiko drum|other uses|Taiko (disambiguation)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Infobox instrument
| name                  = {{transliteration|ja|Taiko}}
| names                 = {{transliteration|ja|wadaiko}}, {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} drum
| image                 = Miya Daiko drum - Taiko drums.jpg
| image_capt            = A {{transliteration|ja|chū-daiko}}, one of many types of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}
| alt                   = Photo of a barrel-shaped {{transliteration|ja|chū-daiko}}, with a fastened cloth hanging down from the drum head.
| background            = percussion
| classification        = [[unpitched percussion]]
| developed             = Unknown; archaeological evidence shows usage on the [[Japanese archipelago]] as early as 6th century CE.
}}
[[File:Taiko Tsukiji Honganji Festival.webm|thumb|right|This {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}} performance at the [[Tsukiji Hongan-ji]] Festival involves several performers switching between {{transliteration|ja|chū-daiko}}. Performers lean toward and away from the drum by adjusting the degree of bend in their left knee.|alt=Video of {{transliteration|ja|taiko performers at the Tsukiji Hongan-ji Festival}}]]

{{Nihongo||[[wikt:太鼓|太鼓]]|'''Taiko'''}} are a broad range of Japanese [[percussion]] instruments. In [[Japanese language|Japanese]], the term {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} refers to any kind of drum, but outside Japan, it is used specifically to refer to any of the various Japanese drums called {{nihongo3|{{lit|Japanese drums}}|和太鼓|wadaiko}} and to the form of ensemble {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} drumming more specifically called {{nihongo3|{{lit|set of drums}}|組太鼓|kumi-daiko}}. The process of constructing {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} varies between manufacturers, and the preparation of both the drum body and skin can take several years depending on the method.

{{transliteration|ja|Taiko}} have a [[mythological]] origin in [[Japanese folklore]], but historical records suggest that {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} were introduced to [[Japan]] through [[China|Chinese]] and [[Korea]]n cultural influence as early as the 6th century CE; pottery from [[Haniwa]] figures depicting {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} drums has also been found. Some {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} are similar to instruments originating from India. Archaeological evidence also supports the view that {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} were present in Japan during the 6th century in the [[Kofun period]]. Their function has varied throughout history, ranging from communication, military action, theatrical accompaniment, religious ceremony and concert performances. In modern times, {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} have also played a central role in social movements for minorities both within and outside Japan.

{{transliteration|ja|Kumi-daiko}} performance, characterized by an ensemble playing on different drums, was developed in 1951 through the work of [[Daihachi Oguchi]] and later in 1961 by the [[Ondekoza]], and {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} was made later popular with many other groups copying the format of Ondekoza such as [[Kodo (taiko group)|Kodo]], Yamato, Tao, Taikoza,  Fuun No Kai, [[Oedo Sukeroku Taiko|Sukeroku Taiko]], etc. Other performance styles, such as {{transliteration|ja|hachijō-daiko}}, have also emerged from specific communities in Japan. {{transliteration|ja|Kumi-daiko}} performance groups are active not only in Japan, but also in the United States, Australia, Canada, Europe, Taiwan, and Brazil. Taiko performance consists of many components in technical rhythm, [[kata|form]], [[drum stick|stick]] grip, clothing, and the [[instrumentation (music)|particular instrumentation]]. Ensembles typically use different types of barrel-shaped {{transliteration|ja|nagadō-daiko}} as well as smaller {{transliteration|ja|[[shime-daiko]]}}. Many groups accompany the drums with vocals, strings, and woodwind instruments.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==History==

===Origin===
[[File:ThreeHaniwa.jpg|thumb|right|[[Haniwa]] figures, dated to the 6th century CE. The left and right depict two drum performers. The statue on the left, depicted using a stick on a barrel-shaped drum, represents the earliest evidence of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} usage in Japan.|alt=Three plain clay figures, featuring long, skirt-like columnar bases. The outer two figures are depicted playing drums. Only one figure, in the middle, has a head.]]
The origin of the {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} and its variants is unclear, though there have been many suggestions. Historical accounts, of which the earliest date from 588&nbsp;CE, note that young Japanese men traveled to Korea to study the {{transliteration|ja|[[Kakko (instrument)|kakko]]}}, a drum that originated in [[South China]]. This study and appropriation of Chinese instruments may have influenced the emergence of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}.{{sfn|Blades|1992|pp=122–123}} Certain court music styles, especially {{transliteration|ja|[[gigaku]]}} and {{transliteration|ja|[[gagaku]]}}, arrived in Japan through both China and Korea.{{sfn|Nelson|2007|pp=36, 39}}{{sfn|Schuller|1989|p=202}} In both traditions, dancers were accompanied by several instruments that included drums similar to {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}.{{sfn|Schuller|1989|p=202}}{{sfn|Cossío|2001|p=179}} Certain percussive patterns and terminology in {{transliteration|ja|[[togaku]]}}, an early dance and music style in Japan, in addition to physical features of the {{transliteration|ja|kakko}}, also reflect influence from both China and India on drum use in {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}} performance.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=26}}{{sfn|Harich-Schneider|1973|pp=108, 110}}

Archaeological evidence shows that {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} were used in Japan as early as the 6th century CE,<ref name=TNM>{{cite web|title=Music Festival at the Museum|url=http://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_free_page/index.php?id=684|publisher=Tokyo National Museum|access-date=24 August 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054639/http://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_free_page/index.php?id=684|archive-date=21 September 2013}}</ref> during the latter part of the [[Kofun period]], and were likely used for communication, in festivals, and in other rituals.{{sfn|Dean|2012|p=122}} This evidence was substantiated by the discovery of [[haniwa]] statues in the [[Sawa District, Gunma|Sawa District]] of [[Gunma Prefecture]]. Two of these figures are depicted playing drums;{{sfn|Dean|2012|p=122}} one of them, wearing skins, is equipped with a barrel-shaped drum hung from his shoulder and uses a stick to play the drum at hip height.{{sfnm|Dean|2012|1p=122|Varian|2013|2p=21}}<ref name=Ochi>{{cite web|last1=Ochi|first1=Megumi|title=What The Haniwa Have to Say About Taiko's Roots: The History of Taiko|url=http://www.taiko.com/taiko_resource/history/haniwa_ochi.html|publisher=Rolling Thunder|access-date=27 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202185535/http://www.taiko.com/taiko_resource/history/haniwa_ochi.html|archive-date=2 February 2015}}</ref> This statue is titled "Man Beating the {{transliteration|ja|Taiko}}" and is considered the oldest evidence of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} performance in Japan.<ref name=Ochi />{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=21}} Similarities between the playing style demonstrated by this {{transliteration|ja|haniwa}} and known music traditions in China and Korea further suggest influences from these regions.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=21}}

The {{transliteration|ja|[[Nihon Shoki]]}}, the second-oldest book of Japanese classical history, contains a mythological story describing the origin of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}. The myth tells how [[Amaterasu]], who had sealed herself inside a cave in anger, was beckoned out by an elder goddess [[Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto|Ame-no-Uzume]] when others had failed. Ame-no-Uzume accomplished this by emptying out a barrel of [[sake]] and dancing furiously on top of it. Historians regard her performance as the mythological creation of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} music.{{sfnm|Minor|2003|1pp=37–39|Izumi|2001|2pp=37–39|Raz|1983|3p=19}}

===Use in warfare===
[[File:Girl-Plays-Shime-Daiko-Drum-c1885.png|thumb|right|Hand-colored print of a woman playing a {{transliteration|ja|[[shime-daiko]]}}, circa 1885|alt=A woman wearing a kimono and traditional hairstyle kneels on a tatami mat, playing a drum in front of her with two sticks.]]
In feudal Japan, {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} were often used to motivate troops, call out orders or announcements, and set a marching pace; marches were usually set to six paces per beat of the drum.{{sfn|Turnbull|2008|p=37}}{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|pp=27–28}} During the 16th-century [[Sengoku period|Warring States period]], specific drum calls were used to communicate orders for retreating and advancing.{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|p=27}} Other rhythms and techniques were detailed in period texts. According to the war chronicle {{transliteration|ja|Gunji Yoshū}}, nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle, while nine sets of three beats, sped up three or four times, was the call to advance and pursue an enemy.{{sfn|Turnbull|2008|p=49}} Folklore from the 16th century on the legendary 6th-century [[Emperor Keitai]] offers a story that he obtained a large drum from China, which he named {{nihongo3|"front drum"|線陣太鼓|Senjin-daiko}}.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}} The Emperor was thought to have used it to both encourage his own army and intimidate his enemies.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}}

===In traditional settings===
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{{transliteration|ja|Taiko}} have been incorporated in Japanese theatre for rhythmic needs, general atmosphere, and in certain settings decoration. In the [[kabuki]] play ''The Tale of Shiroishi and the Taihei Chronicles'', scenes in the [[Yūkaku|pleasure quarters]] are accompanied by {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} to create dramatic tension.{{sfn|Brandon|Leiter|2002|p=86}} [[Noh]] theatre also features {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} music,{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=176}}{{sfn|Malm|2000|pp=286–288}} where performance consists of highly specific rhythmic patterns. The {{nihongo||金春流|Konparu}} school of drumming, for example, contains 65 basic patterns in addition to 25 special patterns; these patterns are categorized in several classes.{{sfn|Malm|1960|pp=75–78}} Differences between these patterns include changes in [[tempo]], [[accent (music)|accent]], [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]], [[pitch (music)|pitch]], and function in the theatrical performance. Patterns are also often connected together in progressions.{{sfn|Malm|1960|pp=75–78}}

{{transliteration|ja|Taiko}} continue to be used in {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}}, a classical music tradition typically performed at the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]] in addition to local temples and shrines.{{sfn|Malm|2000|pp=101–102}} In {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}}, one component of the art form is traditional dance, which is guided in part by the rhythm set by the {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}.{{sfn|Malm|2000|pp=103}}

{{transliteration|ja|Taiko}} have played an important role in many local festivals across Japan.<ref name=JANM>{{cite web|title=Kenny Endo: Connecting to Heritage through Music|url=http://www.janm.org/exhibits/bigdrum/interviews/endo.php|work=Big Drum|publisher=[[Japanese American National Museum]]|access-date=7 November 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109222631/http://www.janm.org/exhibits/bigdrum/interviews/endo.php|archive-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> They are also used to accompany religious ritual music. In {{transliteration|ja|[[kagura]]}}, a category of music and dances stemming from [[Shinto]] practices, {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} frequently appear alongside other performers during local festivals. In Buddhist traditions, {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} are used for ritual dances as part of the [[Bon Festival]].{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=180}}{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=110}} {{transliteration|ja|Taiko}}, along with other instruments, are featured atop towers that are adorned with red-and-white cloth and serve to provide rhythms for the dancers who are encircled around the performers.{{sfn|Malm|2000|p=77}}

==={{transliteration|ja|Kumi-daiko}}===
{{See also|Daihachi Oguchi|Ondekoza|Kodo (taiko group)}}
[[File:TaikoDrummersAichiJapan.jpg|thumb|left|A {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}} group performing in [[Aichi, Japan]] wearing {{transliteration|ja|[[hachimaki]]}}|alt=refer to caption]]
In addition to the instruments, the term {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} also refers to the performance itself,{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=134}}{{sfn|Ingram|2004|p=71}} and commonly to one style called {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}}, or ensemble-style playing (as opposed to festival performances, rituals, or theatrical use of the drums).{{sfn|Miller|Shahriari|2014|p=146}}{{sfn|Powell 2012a}} {{transliteration|ja|Kumi-daiko}} was developed by [[Daihachi Oguchi]] in 1951.{{sfn|Miller|Shahriari|2014|p=146}}{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=33}} He is considered a master performer and helped transform {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} performance from its roots in traditional settings in festivals and shrines.<ref name=NYT>{{cite news|title=Daihachi Oguchi, 84, Japanese Drummer, Dies|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/28/arts/music/28oguchi.html?_r=0|access-date=21 August 2013|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=28 June 2008|agency=[[Associated Press]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403195338/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/28/arts/music/28oguchi.html?_r=0|archive-date=3 April 2017}}</ref> Oguchi was trained as a jazz musician in [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]], and at one point, a relative gave him an old piece of written {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} music.{{sfn|Alves|2012|p=312}} Unable to read the traditional and esoteric notation,{{sfn|Alves|2012|p=312}} Oguchi found help to transcribe the piece, and on his own added rhythms and transformed the work to accommodate multiple taiko players on different-sized instruments.{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=28}} Each instrument served a specific purpose that established present-day conventions in {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}} performance.{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=29}}{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=51}}

Oguchi's ensemble, [[Osuwa Daiko]], incorporated these alterations and other drums into their performances. They also devised novel pieces that were intended for non-religious performances.{{sfn|Alves|2012|p=312}} Several other groups emerged in Japan through the 1950s and 1960s. [[Oedo Sukeroku Daiko]] was formed in [[Tokyo]] in 1959 under [[Seidō Kobayashi]],{{sfn|Powell 2012b|p=125}} and has been referred to as the first {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} group who toured professionally.{{sfn|Wong|2004|p=204}} Globally, {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}} performance became more visible during the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] in Tokyo, when it was featured during the Festival of Arts event.{{sfn|Varian|2005|pp=28–29}}

{{transliteration|ja|Kumi-daiko}} was also developed through the leadership of {{nihongo|[[Den Tagayasu]]|田耕}}, who gathered young men who were willing to devote their entire lifestyle to {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} playing and took them to [[Sado Island]] for training{{sfn|Varian|2005|p = 29}}{{sfn|Wald|Vartoogian|2007|p=251}} where Den and his family had settled in 1968.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=65}} Den chose the island based on a desire to reinvigorate the folk arts in Japan, particularly {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}; he became inspired by a drumming tradition unique to Sado called {{nihongo3|"demon drumming" in the Sado dialect|鬼太鼓|ondeko}} that required considerable strength to play well.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|pp=64–65}} Den called the group "Za Ondekoza" or [[Ondekoza]] for short, and implemented a rigorous set of exercises for its members including long-distance running.{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=28}}{{sfn|Wald|Vartoogian|2007|p=251}} In 1975, Ondekoza was the first {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} group to tour in the United States. Their first performance occurred just after the group finished running the [[Boston Marathon]] while wearing their traditional uniforms.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=149}}{{sfn|McLeod|2013|p=171}} In 1981, some members of Ondekoza split from Den and formed another group called [[Kodo (taiko group)|Kodo]] under the leadership of [[Eitetsu Hayashi]].{{sfn|Hoover|2011|p=98}} Kodo continued to use Sado Island for rigorous training and communal living, and went on to popularize {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} through frequent touring and collaborations with other musical performers.{{sfn|Lancashire|2011|p=14}} Kodo is one of the most recognized {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} groups both in Japan<ref name=Arita>{{cite news|last1=Arita|first1=Eriko|title=Kodo drum troupe marks 25 years of Earth Celebration|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2012/08/17/events/events-outside-tokyo/kodo-drum-troupe-marks-25-years-of-earth-celebration/#.VIjBF3sZfCs|access-date=10 December 2014|work=[[The Japan Times]]|date=17 August 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730003142/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2012/08/17/events/events-outside-tokyo/kodo-drum-troupe-marks-25-years-of-earth-celebration/#.VIjBF3sZfCs|archive-date=30 July 2016}}</ref><ref name=Matsumoto>{{cite news|last1=Matsumoto|first1=John|title=Gospel and Drums According to Kodo : Music: Southland choir members will blend their talents with rhythms of Japanese ensemble in non-traditional concert on Sado Island in Japan.|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-08-17-ca-670-story.html|access-date=10 December 2014|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=17 August 1990|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20141211010343/http://articles.latimes.com/1990-08-17/entertainment/ca-670_1_gospel-music|archive-date=11 December 2014}}</ref> and worldwide.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=72}}<ref>{{bulleted list|{{cite news|last1=Barr|first1=Gordon|title=Japanese taiko drumming troupe Kodo head to Sage Gateshead|url=http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/japanese-taiko-drumming-troupe-kodo-6725157|access-date=10 December 2014|work=Chronicle Live|publisher=Trinity Mirror North East|date=19 February 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210235027/http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/japanese-taiko-drumming-troupe-kodo-6725157|archive-date=10 December 2014}}|
{{cite news|last1=Keogh|first1=Tom|title=Top taiko drum group, Kodo, rolls into town|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/musicnightlife/2008686763_zmus30kodo.html|access-date=10 December 2014|work=[[The Seattle Times]]|date=30 January 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220161503/http://seattletimes.com/html/musicnightlife/2008686763_zmus30kodo.html|archive-date=20 December 2014}}|
{{cite news|title=Soh Daiko, the Fine Art of Japanese Drumming|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/05/02/arts/soh-daiko-the-fine-art-of-japanese-drumming.html|access-date=11 November 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=2 May 1986|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111212228/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/05/02/arts/soh-daiko-the-fine-art-of-japanese-drumming.html|archive-date=11 November 2014}}}}</ref>

Estimates of the number of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} groups in Japan vary to up to 5,000 active groups in Japan,{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=17}} but more conservative assessments place the number closer to 800 based on membership in the Nippon Taiko Foundation, the largest national organization of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} groups.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=3}} Some pieces that have emerged from early {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}} groups that continue to be performed include [[Yatai-bayashi]] from Ondekoza,{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=74}} {{nihongo|Isami-goma|勇み駒||lit. "galloping horse"}} from Osuwa Daiko,{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=87}} and {{nihongo|Zoku|族||lit. "tribe"}} from Kodo.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=102}}

==Categorization==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:0.80em;"
|+ Taiko by construction method
|-
! scope="col" |{{Nihongo|Byō-uchi-daiko|鋲打ち太鼓}}
! scope="col" |{{Nihongo|Shime-daiko|締め太鼓}}
! scope="col" |{{Nihongo|Tsuzumi|鼓}}{{refn|group=note|name=first|There is disagreement about whether these drums are considered taiko or not.{{sfn|Blades|1992|p=124}}}}
! scope="col" | Others
|- valign="top"
|{{Nihongo|nagadō-daiko|長胴太鼓}}<small>{{unbulleted list|&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Nihongo|ko-daiko|小太鼓}}|&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Nihongo|chū-daiko|中太鼓}}|&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Nihongo|ō-daiko|大太鼓}}}}</small>
|{{Nihongo|tsukeshime-daiko|附け締め太鼓}}<small>{{unbulleted list|&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Nihongo|namitsuke|並附}}|&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Nihongo|nichō-gake|二丁掛}}|&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Nihongo|sanchō-gake|三丁掛}}|&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Nihongo|yonchō-gake|四丁掛}}|&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Nihongo|gochō-gake|五丁掛}}}}</small>
|{{Nihongo|ko-tsuzumi|小鼓}}
|{{Nihongo|uchiwa-daiko|団扇太鼓}}<ref name=":0">{{Citation|title=【身延山開闢会・入山行列2009】by＜ＳＡＬ＞ その1| date=14 June 2009 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tBXvhsGLM7w| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211114/tBXvhsGLM7w| archive-date=2021-11-14 | url-status=live|language=ja|access-date=2019-12-14}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Citation|title=だんだん近づく法華の太鼓 身延 七面山 日蓮宗の信仰登山風景| date=13 March 2009 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l3csB5mBtS0| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211114/l3csB5mBtS0| archive-date=2021-11-14 | url-status=live|language=ja|access-date=2019-12-14}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
|-
|{{Nihongo|hira-daiko|平太鼓}}
|{{Nihongo|naguta shime-daiko|長唄締め太鼓}}
|{{Nihongo|san-no-tsuzumi|三の鼓}}
|{{Nihongo|den-den-daiko|でんでん太鼓}}
|-
|{{Nihongo|tsuri-daiko|釣太鼓}}
|{{Nihongo|okedō-daiko|桶胴太鼓}}
|{{Nihongo|ō-tsuzumi|大鼓}}
|
|-
| 
|{{Nihongo|kakko|羯鼓}}
|
|
|-
|
|{{Nihongo|dadaiko|鼉太鼓}}{{refn|group=note|name=second|Dadaiko uses a rope tensioning system<ref name=":2">{{Citation|title=30秒の心象風景8350・大きな彫刻装飾～鼉太鼓～| date=11 November 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wROCumL5fVU| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211114/wROCumL5fVU| archive-date=2021-11-14 | url-status=live|language=ja|access-date=2019-12-14}}{{cbignore}}</ref>}}
|
|
|-
|}

Taiko have been developed into a broad range of [[percussion instrument]]s that are used in both [[Music of Japan|Japanese folk and classical]] musical traditions. An early classification system based on shape and tension was advanced by [[Francis Taylor Piggott]] in 1909.{{sfn|Piggott|1971|pp=191–203}} Taiko are generally classified based on the construction process, or the specific context in which the drum is used,{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}} but some are not classified, such as the toy [[den-den daiko]].{{sfn|Kakehi|Tamori|Schourup|1996|p=251}}

With few exceptions, taiko have a drum shell with heads on both sides of the body, and a sealed resonating cavity.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}} The head may be fastened to the shell using a number of different systems, such as using ropes.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}} Taiko may be either tunable or non-tunable depending on the system used.{{sfn|Tusler|2003|p=60}}

Taiko are categorized into three types based on construction process. ''Byō-uchi-daiko'' are constructed with the [[drumhead]] nailed to the body.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}} ''[[Shime-daiko]]'' are classically constructed with the skin placed over iron or steel rings, which are then tightened with ropes.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=57}} Contemporary ''shime-daiko'' are tensioned using  [[Screw|bolts]] or [[turnbuckle]]s systems attached to the drum body.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}}{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=177}}  ''Tsuzumi'' are also rope-tensioned drums, but have a distinct hourglass shape and their skins are made using deerskin.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=57}}

''Byō-uchi-daiko'' were historically made only using a single piece of wood;{{sfn|Carlsen|2009|pp=130–131}} they continue to be made in this manner, but are also constructed from staves of wood.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}}  Larger drums can be made using a single piece of wood, but at a much greater cost due to the difficulty in finding appropriate trees.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}} The preferred wood is the [[Zelkova serrata|Japanese zelkova]] or ''keyaki'',{{sfn|Ammer|2004|p=420}} but a number of other woods, and even [[wine barrel]]s, have been used to create taiko.{{sfn|Ammer|2004|p=420}}<ref name=Liu /> ''Byō-uchi-daiko'' cannot be tuned.{{sfn|Tusler|2003|p=60}}

The typical ''byō-uchi-daiko'' is the ''nagadō-daiko'',<ref name=Shumei2>{{cite web|title=Drums and Other Instruments|url=http://www.shumeitaiko.org/drums.html|publisher=The Shumei Taiko Ensemble|access-date=26 February 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610001210/http://www.shumeitaiko.org/drums.html|archive-date=10 June 2015}}</ref> an elongated drum that is roughly shaped like a wine barrel.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=55}} ''Nagadō-daiko'' are available in a variety of sizes, and their head diameter is traditionally measured in [[shaku (unit)|shaku]] (units of roughly 30&nbsp;cm). Head diameters range from {{convert|1|to|6|shaku|cm in}}.  {{nihongo4|''Ko-daiko''|小太鼓}} are the smallest of these drums and are usually about {{convert|1|shaku|cm in}} in diameter.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=55}}  The {{nihongo4|''chū-daiko''|中太鼓}} is a medium-sized ''nagadō-daiko'' ranging from {{convert|1.6|to|2.8|shaku|cm in}},<ref name=Shumei2 /> and weighing about {{convert|27|kg|lbs}}.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=55}}  {{nihongo4|''Ō-daiko''|大太鼓}}  vary in size, and are often as large as {{convert|6|shaku|cm in}} in diameter.{{sfn|Titon|Fujie|2005|p=184}} Some ''ō-daiko'' are difficult to move due to their size, and therefore permanently remain inside the performance space, such as temple or shrine.<ref name=Heartbeat>{{cite web|title=Heartbeat of Drums|url=https://www.classicaltv.com/the-informer/heartbeat-of-drums|website=Classical TV|access-date=15 February 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215105833/https://www.classicaltv.com/the-informer/heartbeat-of-drums|archive-date=15 February 2015}}</ref>  ''Ō-daiko'' means "large drum" and for a given ensemble, the term refers to their largest drum.{{sfn|Titon|Fujie|2005|p = 184}}<ref name=Heartbeat /> The other type of ''byō-uchi-daiko'' is called a {{nihongo4|''hira-daiko''|平太鼓|"flat drum"}} and can be any drum constructed such that the head diameter is greater than the length of the body.{{sfn|Varian|2013|pp=121–122}}

''Shime-daiko'' are a set of smaller, roughly [[snare drum]]-sized instrument that are tunable.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=57}} The tensioning system usually consists of hemp cords or rope, but bolt or turnbuckle systems have been used as well.{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=177}}{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=130}}  {{nihongo4|''Nagauta shime-daiko''|長唄締め太鼓}}, sometimes referred to as "taiko" in the context of theater, have thinner heads than other kinds of shime-daiko.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=130}}  The head includes a patch of deerskin placed in the center, and in performance, drum strokes are generally restricted to this area.{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=177}}  The {{nihongo4|''tsukeshime-daiko''|付け締め太鼓}} is a heavier type of ''shime-daiko''.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=57}} They are available in sizes 1–5, and are named according to their number: ''namitsuke''&nbsp;(1), ''nichō-gakke''&nbsp;(2), ''sanchō-gakke''&nbsp;(3), ''yonchō-gakke''&nbsp;(4), and ''gochō-gakke''&nbsp;(5).{{sfn|Varian|2013|pp=119, 126}} The ''namitsuke'' has the thinnest skins and the shortest body in terms of height; thickness and tension of skins, as well as body height, increase toward the ''gochō-gakke''.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=119}} The head diameters of all ''shime-daiko'' sizes are around {{convert|27|cm|in|1|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=177}}

{{Nihongo|''Uchiwa-daiko''|団扇太鼓|4=literally, fan drum}} is a type of racket-shaped Japanese drum. It is the only Japanese traditional drum without a sound box and only one skin. It is played with a drumstick while hanging it with the other hand.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150" alt="Set of images depicting six types of drums: a chū-daiko, an ō-daiko, a shime-daiko, an okedō, a tsuri-daiko and a ko-tsuzumi.">
File:Kodo Taiko Drum.JPG|This ''ō-daiko'' from a [[Kodo (taiko group)|Kodo]] performance features a [[tomoe]] design on its [[drumskin|skin]].
File:Shime Daiko drum - Shime Taiko Trommel.jpg|Example of a ''shime-daiko'', tensioned using rope
File:Okedo Daiko drum - Okedo Taiko Trommel.jpg|Example of an ''okedō'', tensioned using rope
File:162 Museu de la Música, tsuridaiko, tambor japonès.jpg|A ''tsuri-daiko'' on display at the [[Museu de la Música de Barcelona]]
File:Kotsuzumi (Small Hourglass Drum) with Peonies LACMA M.89.134.1.jpg|A 17th-century ''ko-tsuzumi''
File:Gifujyou5851.JPG|An ''uchiwa-daiko.''
</gallery>
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:0.80em;"
|+ Taiko by theatrical usage
|-
! scope="col" | Gagakki
! scope="col" | Noh
! scope="col" | Kabuki
|- valign="top"
| dadaiko || ō-tsuzumi || ko-tsuzumi
|-
|tsuri-daiko || ko-tsuzumi || ō-tsuzumi 
|-
|san-no-tsuzumi|| nagauta shime-daiko || nagauta shime-daiko 
|-
|kakko  || || ō-daiko
|-
|}
''Okedō-daiko'' or simply ''okedō'', are a type of ''shime-daiko'' that are stave-constructed using narrower strips of wood,{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}}<ref name=JANM2>{{cite web|title=Taiko in the United States|url=http://janmstore.com/taikointheus.html|publisher=Japanese American National Museum|access-date=20 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030005957/http://janmstore.com/taikointheus.html|archive-date=30 October 2014}}</ref> have a tube-shaped frame.  Like other ''shime-daiko'', drum heads are attached by metal hoops and fastened by rope or cords.<ref name=Shumei2 />{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=181}} ''Okedō'' can be played using the same drumsticks (called ''bachi'') as ''shime-daiko'', but can also be hand-played.{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=181}} ''Okedō'' come in short- and long-bodied types.<ref name=Shumei2 />

''Tsuzumi'' are a class of hourglass-shaped drums.  The drum body is shaped on a spool and the inner body carved by hand.{{sfn|Blades|1992|p=126}}  Their skins can be made from cowhide, horsehide, or deerskin.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=28}}  While the ''ō-tsuzumi'' skins are made from cowhide, ''ko-tsuzumi'' are made from horsehide.  While some classify ''tsuzumi'' as a type of taiko,{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=28}}{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=57}} others have described them as a drum entirely separate from taiko.{{sfn|Blades|1992|p=124}}{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=156}}

Taiko can also be categorized by the context in which they are used. The ''miya-daiko'', for instance, is constructed in the same manner as other ''byō-uchi-daiko'', but is distinguished by an ornamental stand and is used for ceremonial purposes at [[Buddhist temples in Japan|Buddhist temples]].{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=13}}{{sfn|Yoon|2001|p=420}} The {{nihongo4|''Sumō-daiko''|相撲太鼓}} (a ''ko-daiko'') and {{nihongo4|''sairei-nagadō''|祭礼長胴}} (a ''nagadō-daiko'' with a cigar-shaped body) are used in [[sumo]] and festivals respectively.{{sfn|Varian|2013|pp=129, 131}}

[[File:Yashima Gakutei - A woman playing a large suspended drum (tsuridaiko) A set of five prints for the Hisakataya poetry c... - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Block printing in Japan|woodprint block]] by [[Yashima Gakutei]] illustrating a woman playing a ''[[tsuri-daiko]]''|alt=refer to caption]]
Several drums, categorized as ''gagakki'', are used in the Japanese theatrical form, [[gagaku]].{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=169}} The lead instrument of the ensemble is the [[kakko (instrument)|kakko]],{{sfn|Malm|2000|p=104}} which is a smaller ''shime-daiko'' with heads made of deerskin, and is placed horizontally on a stand during performance.{{sfn|Malm|2000|p=104}}  A ''tsuzumi'', called the ''san-no-tsuzumi'' is another small drum in gagaku that is placed horizontally and struck with a thin stick.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=27}} {{nihongo4|''Dadaiko''|鼉太鼓}} are the largest drums of the ensemble,{{sfn|Malm|2000|p=335}} and have heads that are about {{convert|127|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in diameter. During performance, the drum is placed on a tall pedestals and surrounded by a rim decoratively painted with flames and adorned with mystical figures such as [[wyverns]].{{sfn|Blades|1992|pp=124–125}} ''Dadaiko'' are played while standing,{{sfn|Blades|1992|pp=123}} and are usually only played on the [[Beat (music)#Downbeat|downbeat]] of the music.{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=169}} The {{nihongo4|''[[tsuri-daiko]]''|釣太鼓|"suspended drum"}} is a smaller drum that produces a lower sound, its head measuring about {{convert|55|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in diameter.{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=171}} It is used in ensembles that accompany [[bugaku]], a traditional dance performed at the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]] and in religious contexts.{{sfn|Blades|1992|pp=122–123}} ''Tsuri-daiko'' are suspended on a small stand, and are played sitting down.{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=171}}  ''Tsuri-daiko'' performers typically use shorter mallets covered in leather knobs instead of [[bachi]].{{sfn|Blades|1992|pp=122–123}} They can be played simultaneously by two performers; while one performer plays on the head, another performer uses bachi on the body of the drum.{{sfn|Blades|1992|pp=122–123}}

The larger ''ō-tsuzumi'' and smaller ''ko-tsuzumi'' are used in the opening and dances of [[Noh theater]].{{sfn|Malm|2000|pp=137, 142}}  Both drums are struck using the fingers; players can also adjust pitch by manually applying pressure to the ropes on the drum.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=58}} The color of the cords of these drums also indicates the skill of the musician:  Orange and red for amateur players, light blue for performers with expertise, and [[lilac (color)|lilac]] for masters of the instrument.{{sfn|Blades|1992|p=127}}  ''Nagauta-shime daiko'' or ''uta daiko'' are also featured in Noh performance.{{sfn|Blades|1992|p=125}}{{sfn|Roth|2002|p=161}}

Many taiko in Noh are also featured in [[kabuki]] performance and are used in a similar manner.{{sfn|Malm|1963|pp=74–77}}  In addition to the ''ō-tsuzumi'', ''ko-tsuzumi'', and ''nagauta-shime daiko'',{{sfn|Malm|1963|pp=75}} Kabuki performances make use of the larger ''ō-daiko'' offstage to help set the atmosphere for different scenes.{{sfn|Brandon|Leiter|2002|pp=153, 363}}

==Construction==

===Process===

Taiko construction has several stages, including making and shaping of the drum body (or shell), preparing the drum skin, and tuning the skin to the drumhead. Variations in the construction process often occur in the latter two parts of this process.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=53}} Historically, ''byō-uchi-daiko'' were crafted from [[trunk (botany)|trunks]] of the Japanese zelkova tree that were dried out over years, using techniques to prevent [[wood splitting|splitting]]. A master carpenter then carved out the rough shape of the drum body with a chisel; the texture of the wood after carving softened the tone of the drum.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=53}}{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=35}} In contemporary times, taiko are carved out on a large [[lathe]] using wood staves{{sfn|Carlsen|2009|pp=130–131}} or logs that can be shaped to fit drum bodies of various sizes.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=54}} Drumheads can be left to air-dry over a period of years,{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=17}} but some companies use large, smoke-filled warehouses to hasten the drying process.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=35}} After drying is complete, the inside of the drum is worked with a deep-grooved chisel and sanded.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=17}} Lastly, handles are placed onto the drum. These are used to carry smaller drums and they serve an ornamental purpose for larger drums.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=18}}

[[File:Taiko drum manufacturing.jpg|thumb|left|Taiko drum manufacturing display in the [[Osaka Human Rights Museum]]|alt=A display at the Osaka Human Rights Museum depicting two workers, wielding large mallets, in the process of applying appropriate tension to a taiko.]]
The [[drum skin|skins]] or heads of taiko are generally made from [[cowhide]] from [[Holstein cattle|Holstein cows]] aged about three or four years. Skins also come from [[horse]]s, and [[bull]] skin is preferred for larger drums.{{sfn|Malm|1960|pp=75–78}}{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=53}} Thinner skins are preferred for smaller taiko, and thicker skins are used for larger ones.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=36}} On some drumheads, a patch of deer skin placed in the center serves as the target for many strokes during performance.{{sfn|Malm|1960|pp=75–78}} Before fitting it to the drum body the hair is removed from the hide by soaking it in a river or stream for about a month; winter months are preferred as colder temperatures better facilitate hair removal.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=18}} To stretch the skin over the drum properly, one process requires the body to be held on a platform with several [[hydraulic jack]]s underneath it. The edges of the cowhide are secured to an apparatus below the jacks, and the jacks stretch the skin incrementally to precisely apply tension across the drumhead.{{sfn|Carlsen|2009|p=131}} Other forms of stretching use rope or cords with wooden [[dowel]]s or an iron wheel to create appropriate tension.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=18}}{{sfn|Cangia|2013|p=36}} Small tension adjustments can be made during this process using small pieces of bamboo that twist around the ropes.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=18}} Particularly large drumheads are sometimes stretched by having several workers, clad in stockings, hop rhythmically atop it, forming a circle along the edge. After the skin has dried, tacks, called ''byō'', are added to the appropriate drums to secure it; ''chū-daiko'' require about 300 of them for each side.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=19}} After the body and skin have been finished, excess hide is cut off and the drum can be stained as needed.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=19}}

===Drum makers===
Several companies specialize in the production of taiko.  One such company that created drums exclusively for the [[Emperor of Japan]], [[Miyamoto Unosuke Shoten]] in Tokyo, has been making taiko since 1861.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=53}} The [[Asano Taiko Corporation]] is another major taiko-producing organization, and has been producing taiko for over 400 years.{{sfn|Bender|2012|pp=34–35}}<ref name=Dretzka>{{cite news|last1=Dretzka|first1=Gary|last2=Caro|first2=Mark|title=How 'An Alan Smithee Film' Became An Alan Smithee Film|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1998/03/01/how-an-alan-smithee-film-became-an-alan-smithee-film/|access-date=29 November 2014|work=[[Chicago Tribune]]|date=1 March 1998|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20141129220911/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1998-03-01/news/9803010298_1_cinergi-pictures-arthur-hiller-ben-myron/2|archive-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> The family-owned business started in [[Mattō, Ishikawa]], and, aside from military equipment, made taiko for Noh theater and later expanded to creating instruments for festivals during the [[Meiji period]]. Asano currently maintains an entire complex of large buildings referred to as Asano Taiko Village,{{sfn|Bender|2012|pp=34–35}} and the company reports producing up to 8000 drums each year.<ref name=AsanoCorp>{{cite web|script-title=ja:株式会社浅野太鼓楽器店|url=http://www.asano.jp/village/profile/asanotaiko/|website=Asano.jp|publisher=Asano Taiko Corporation|access-date=23 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109033131/http://www.asano.jp/village/profile/asanotaiko/|archive-date=9 November 2013|language=ja}}</ref> As of 2012, there is approximately one major taiko production company in [[Prefectures of Japan|each prefecture of Japan]], with some regions having several companies.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=38}} Of the manufacturers in Naniwa, Taikoya Matabē is one of the most successful and is thought to have brought considerable recognition to the community and attracted many drum makers there.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=44}} Umetsu Daiko, a company that operates in [[Hakata-ku, Fukuoka|Hakata]], has been producing taiko since 1821.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=17}}

==Performance==
Taiko performance styles vary widely across groups in terms of the number of performers, repertoire, instrument choices, and stage techniques.{{sfn|Bender|2012|pp=19, 70}} Nevertheless, a number of early groups have had broad influence on the tradition. For instance, many pieces developed by Ondekoza and Kodo are considered standard in many taiko groups.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=60}}

===Form===
[[Kata]] is the posture and movement associated with taiko performance.{{sfn|Powell 2012a}}{{sfn|Tusler|2003|pp=73–74}} The notion is similar to that of kata in martial arts: for example, both traditions include the idea that the [[hara (tanden)|hara]] is the center of being.{{sfn|Powell 2012a}}{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=89}} Author Shawn Bender argues that kata is the primary feature that distinguishes different taiko groups from one another and is a key factor in judging the quality of performance.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=10}} For this reason, many practice rooms intended for taiko contain mirrors to provide visual feedback to players.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=122}} An important part of kata in taiko is keeping the body stabilized while performing and can be accomplished by keeping a wide, low stance with the legs, with the left knee bent over the toes and keeping the right leg straight.{{sfn|Powell 2012a}}{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=94}} It is important that the hips face the drum and the shoulders are relaxed.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=94}} Some teachers note a tendency to rely on the upper body while playing and emphasize the importance of the holistic use of the body during performance.{{sfn|Bender|2005|p=201}}

Some groups in Japan, particularly those active in Tokyo, also emphasize the importance of the lively and spirited ''[[Iki (aesthetics)|iki]]'' aesthetic.{{sfn|Bender|2005|p=58}} In taiko, it refers to very specific kinds of movement while performing that evoke the sophistication stemming from the mercantile and artisan classes active during the [[Edo period]] (1603–1868).{{sfn|Bender|2005|p=58}}

[[File:Taikos bachi.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Bachi]]'' are sticks used specifically for taiko performance, and can be slightly thicker than typical [[drum sticks]].|alt=Different types of drum sticks for taiko, called bachi, are displayed flat on a surface.]]
The sticks for playing taiko are called ''[[bachi]]'', and are made in various sizes and from different kinds of wood such as [[Quercus alba|white oak]], [[bamboo]], and [[Japanese magnolia]].{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=59}} ''Bachi'' are also held in a number of different styles.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=92}} In ''kumi-daiko'', it is common for a player to hold their sticks in a relaxed manner between the V-shape of the index finger and thumb, which points to the player.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=92}} There are other grips that allow performers to play much more technically difficult rhythms, such as the ''shime'' grip, which is similar to a [[matched grip]]:  the ''bachi'' are gripped at the back end, and the [[fulcrum (drumming)|fulcrum]] rests between the performer's index finger and thumb, while the other fingers remain relaxed and slightly curled around the stick.<ref name=ModernP>{{cite journal|journal=Modern Percussionist|title=N/A|volume=3|year=1986|publisher=Modern Drummer Publications, Inc.|page=28|oclc=11672313}}</ref>

Performance in some groups is also guided by principles based on [[Zen Buddhism]].  For instance, among other concepts, the [[San Francisco Taiko Dojo]] is guided by {{nihongo4|''rei''|礼}} emphasizing communication, respect, and harmony.{{sfn|Wong|2004|p=84}} The way the ''bachi'' are held can also be significant; for some groups, ''bachi'' represent a spiritual link between the body and the sky.{{sfn|Powell 2012b|loc=''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gGlX7c66X1sC&q=%22Buddhism%22v Ki]''}} Some physical parts of taiko, like the drum body, its skin, and the tacks also hold symbolic significance in Buddhism.{{sfn|Powell 2012b|loc=''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gGlX7c66X1sC&q=%22Buddhism%22v Ki]''}}

===Instrumentation===
[[File:Traditional-taikodrum-may2011.ogv|thumb|Several drummers perform a traditional pattern on a taiko drum at a summer festival in Japan.|alt=Video; refer to caption]]

''Kumi-daiko'' groups consist primarily of percussive instruments where each of the drums plays a specific role. Of the different kinds of taiko, the most common in groups is the ''nagadō-daiko''.{{sfn|Dean|2012|p=125}} ''Chū-daiko'' are common in taiko groups{{sfn|Powell 2012a}} and represent the main rhythm of the group, whereas ''shime-daiko'' set and change tempo.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=55}} A ''shime-daiko'' often plays the [[Jiuchi]], a base rhythm holding together the ensemble. ''Ō-daiko'' provide a steady, underlying pulse{{sfn|Alves|2012|p=312}} and serve as a counter-rhythm to the other parts.{{sfn|Tusler|2003|pp=70, 72}} It is common for performances to begin with a [[single stroke roll]] called an ''{{Nihongo4|oroshi|颪|"wind blowing down from mountains"}}''.{{sfn|Powell 2012a|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xlZh8b-YXMgC&q=oroshi chpt. 7]}} The player starts slowly, leaving considerable space between strikes, gradually shortening the interval between hits, until the drummer is playing a rapid roll of hits.{{sfn|Powell 2012a|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xlZh8b-YXMgC&q=oroshi chpt. 7]}} Oroshi are also played as a part of theatrical performance, such as in Noh theater.{{sfn|Malm|1960|pp=75–78}}

Drums are not the only instruments played in the ensemble; other Japanese instruments are also used. Other kinds of percussion instruments include the {{nihongo4|''atarigane''|当り鉦}}, a hand-sized gong played with a small mallet.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=32}} In kabuki, the [[shamisen]], a [[plucked string instrument]], often accompanies taiko during the theatrical performance.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=29}} ''Kumi-daiko'' performances can also feature woodwinds such as the [[shakuhachi]]{{sfn|Nelson|2007|p=287}} and the [[shinobue]].{{sfn|Nelson|2007|p=288}}{{sfn|Forss|2010|p=597}}

Voiced calls or shouts called [[kakegoe]] and [[kiai]] are also common in taiko performance.{{sfn|Nelson|2007|p=139}}{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=62}} They are used as encouragement to other players or cues for transition or change in dynamics such as an increase in tempo.{{sfn|Bender|2012|pp=29, 51}} In contrast, the philosophical concept of [[Ma (negative space)|ma]], or the space between drum strikes, is also important in shaping rhythmic phrases and creating appropriate contrast.{{sfn|Varian|2013|pp=89–90, 125}}

===Clothing===
There is a wide variety of traditional clothing that players wear during taiko performance. Common in many ''kumi-daiko'' groups is the use of the [[happi]], a decorative, thin-fabric coat, and traditional headbands called [[hachimaki]].{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=150}} [[Tabi]], {{nihongo4|''momohiki''|もも引き|"loose-fitting pants"}}, and {{nihongo4|''haragake''|腹掛け|"working aprons"}} are also typical.{{sfn|Konagaya|2010|p=645}} During his time with the group Ondekoza, Eitetsu Hayashi suggested that a loincloth called a [[fundoshi]] be worn when performing for French fashion designer [[Pierre Cardin]], who saw Ondekoza perform for him in 1975.<ref name=UofC>{{cite journal|title=N/A|journal=Asian Music|volume=40|year=2009|publisher=Society for Asian Music|page=108|oclc=53164383}}</ref> The Japanese group Kodo has sometimes worn fundoshi for its performances.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=151}}

==Education==
Taiko performance is generally taught orally and through demonstration.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=115}}{{sfn|Malm|1986|p=24}} Historically, general patterns for taiko were written down, such as in the 1512 encyclopedia called the ''[[Taigensho]]'',{{sfn|Harich-Schneider|1973|p=394}} but written scores for taiko pieces are generally unavailable. One reason for the adherence to an oral tradition is that, from group to group, the rhythmic patterns in a given piece are often performed differently.{{sfn|Malm|1986|p=202}} Furthermore, ethnomusicologist William&nbsp;P. Malm observed that Japanese players within a group could not usefully predict one another using written notation, and instead did so through listening.{{sfn|Malm|1986|pp=24–25}} In Japan, printed parts are not used during lessons.{{sfn|Harich-Schneider|1973|p=394}}

Orally, patterns of [[onomatopoeia]] called [[kuchi shōga]] are taught from teacher to student that convey the rhythm and [[timbre]] of drum strikes for a particular piece.{{sfn|Tusler|2003|pp=90, 271}}{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=90}} For example, {{nihongo4|''don''|どん}} represents a single strike to the center of the drum,{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=90}} where as {{nihongo4|''do-ko''|どこ}} represents two successive strikes, first by the right and then the left, and lasts the same amount of time as one ''don'' strike.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=139}} Some taiko pieces, such as ''[[Yatai-bayashi]]'', include patterns that are difficult to represent in [[List of musical symbols|Western musical notation]].{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=139}} The exact words used can also differ from region to region.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=139}}

More recently, Japanese publications have emerged in an attempt to standardize taiko performance. The [[Nippon Taiko Foundation]] was formed in 1979; its primary goals were to foster good relations among taiko groups in Japan and to both publicize and teach how to perform taiko.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=182}}{{sfn|Cangia|2013|p=129}} Daihachi Oguchi, the leader of the Foundation, wrote ''Japan Taiko'' with other teachers in 1994 out of concern that correct form in performance would degrade over time.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=183}} The instructional publication described the different drums used in ''kumi-daiko'' performance, methods of gripping, correct form, and suggestions on instrumentation. The book also contains practice exercises and transcribed pieces from Oguchi's group, Osuwa Daiko. While there were similar textbooks published before 1994, this publication had much more visibility due to the Foundation's scope.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=184}}

The system of fundamentals ''Japan Taiko'' put forward was not widely adopted because taiko performance varied substantially across Japan. An updated 2001 publication from the Foundation, called the {{nihongo4|''Nihon Taiko Kyōhon''|日本太鼓教本|"Japan Taiko Textbook"}}, describes regional variations that depart from the main techniques taught in the textbook. The creators of the text maintained that mastering a set of prescribed basics should be compatible with learning local traditions.{{sfn|Bender|2012|pp=185–187}}

==Regional styles==
Aside from ''kumi-daiko'' performance, a number of folk traditions that use taiko have been recognized in different regions in Japan.  Some of these include {{nihongo4|''ondeko''|鬼太鼓|"demon drumming"}} from [[Sado, Niigata|Sado Island]], ''{{Interlanguage link multi|gion-daiko|ja|3=小倉祇園太鼓}}'' from the town of [[Kokura]], and ''{{Interlanguage link multi|sansa-odori|ja|3=盛岡さんさ踊り}}'' from [[Iwate Prefecture]].{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=225}}

===Eisa===
[[File:An eisa folk dancing troupe performs at the 2010 Okinawa International Carnival Nov 101127-F-HZ730-008.jpg|thumb|Eisa are folk dances from Okinawa that involve the use of taiko while dancing.|alt=An eisa folk dancing troupe performs at night at the 2010 Okinawa International Carnival.]]
{{main|Eisa (dance)}}
A variety of folk dances originating from [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]], known collectively as [[Eisa (dance)|eisa]], often make use of the taiko.{{sfn|Terada|2013|p=234}} Some performers use drums while dancing, and generally speaking, perform in one of two styles:{{sfn|Kumada|2011|pp=193–244}} groups on the [[Uruma, Okinawa#Yokatsu Islands|Yokatsu Peninsula]] and on Hamahiga Island use small, single-sided drums called {{nihongo4|''pāranku''|パーランク}} whereas groups near [[Okinawa, Okinawa|the city of Okinawa]] generally use ''shime-daiko''.{{sfn|Terada|2013|p=234}}{{sfn|Kobayashi|1998|pp=36–40}} Use of ''shime-daiko'' over ''pāranku'' has spread throughout the island, and is considered the dominant style.{{sfn|Kobayashi|1998|pp=36–40}} Small ''nagadō-daiko'', referred to as ''ō-daiko'' within the tradition, are also used{{sfn|Cangia|2013|p=149}} and are worn in front of the performer.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=210}} These drum dances are not limited to Okinawa and have appeared in places containing Okinawan communities such as in [[São Paulo]], [[Hawaii]], and large cities on the [[Honshu|Japanese mainland]].{{sfn|Terada|2013|p=235}}

===Hachijō-daiko===
[[File:Hachijo taiko 2007-03-21-alt.jpg|thumb|left|Hachijō-daiko is a music tradition involving two players on a single drum.|alt=Two women wearing kimonos perform traditional Hachijō-daiko.]]
{{nihongo4|''Hachijō-daiko''|八丈太鼓||trans. "Hachijō-style taiko"}} is a taiko tradition originating on the island of [[Hachijō-jima]].{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=171}} Two styles of ''Hachijō-daiko'' emerged and have been popularized among residents: an older tradition based on a historical account, and a newer tradition influenced by mainland groups and practiced by the majority of the islanders.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=171}}

The ''Hachijō-daiko'' tradition was documented as early as 1849 based on a journal kept by an exile named [[Kakuso Kizan]]. He mentioned some of its unique features, such as "a taiko is suspended from a tree while women and children gathered around", and observed that a player used either side of the drum while performing.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=2}} Illustrations from Kizan's journal show features of ''Hachijō-daiko''. These illustrations also featured women performing, which is unusual as taiko performance elsewhere during this period was typically reserved for men. Teachers of the tradition have noted that the majority of its performers were women; one estimate asserts that female performers outnumbered males by three to one.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=3}}

[[File:Hachijo-style taiko performance.webm|thumb|right|A performance in Hachijō-daiko style. On the upright drum, the ''uwa-byōshi'' (left) plays more complex rhythms while the ''shita-byōshi'' (right) plays a consistent underlying rhythm.|alt=refer to caption]]
The first style of Hachijō-daiko is thought to descend directly from the style reported by Kizan. This style is called ''Kumaoji-daiko'', named after its creator Okuyama Kumaoji, a central performer of the style.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=5}} ''Kumaoji-daiko'' has two players on a single drum, one of whom, called the {{nihongo4|''shita-byōshi''|下拍子|"lower beat"}}, provides the underlying beat.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=8}} The other player, called the {{nihongo4|''uwa-byōshi''|上拍子|"upper beat"}}, builds on this rhythmical foundation with unique and typically improvised rhythms.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=8}}{{sfn|Honda|1984|p=931}} While there are specific types of underlying rhythms, the accompanying player is free to express an original musical beat.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=8}} ''Kumaoji-daiko'' also features an unusual positioning for taiko: the drums are sometimes suspended from ropes,{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=7}} and historically, sometimes drums were suspended from trees.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=2}}

The contemporary style of ''Hachijō-daiko'' is called {{nihongo4|''shin-daiko''|新太鼓|"new taiko"}}, which differs from ''Kumaoji-daiko'' in multiple ways.  For instance, while the lead and accompanying roles are still present, ''shin-daiko'' performances use larger drums exclusively on stands.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|pp=14, 18–19}} ''Shin-daiko'' emphasizes a more powerful sound, and consequently, performers use larger bachi made out of stronger wood.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=19}} Looser clothing is worn by ''shin-daiko'' performers compared to [[kimono]] worn by ''Kumaoji-daiko'' performers; the looser clothing in ''shin-daiko'' allow performers to adopt more open stances and larger movements with the legs and arms.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|pp=14, 19}} Rhythms used for the accompanying ''shita-byōshi'' role can also differ.  One type of rhythm, called ''yūkichi'', consists of the following: 
{{clear}}
[[File:Yukichi.png|alt=Music notation indicating a drum rhythm|center]]

This rhythm is found in both styles, but is always played faster in ''shin-daiko''.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=14}} Another type of rhythm, called ''honbadaki'', is unique to ''shin-daiko'' and also contains a song which is performed in standard Japanese.{{sfn|Alaszewska|2008|p=14}}

===Miyake-daiko===
{{nihongo4|''Miyake-daiko''|三宅太鼓||trans. "Miyake-style taiko"}} is a style that has spread amongst groups through Kodo, and is formally known as {{nihongo4|''Miyake-jima Kamitsuki mikoshi-daiko''|三宅島神着神輿太鼓}}.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=98}} The word ''miyake'' comes from [[Miyake-jima]], part of the [[Izu Islands]], and the word ''Kamitsuki'' refers to the village where the tradition came from. Miyake-style taiko came out of performances for {{nihongo4|''Gozu Tennō Sai''|牛頭天王祭|"Gozu Tennō Festival"}}— a traditional festival held annually in July on Miyake Island since 1820 honoring the deity [[Gozu Tennō]].{{sfn|Ikeda|1983|p=275}} In this festival, players perform on taiko while [[portable shrine]]s are carried around town.<ref name=Miyake>{{cite web|title=Overview|url=http://www.miyaketaiko.com/en/overview/index.html|publisher=Miyake Taiko|access-date=20 August 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055243/http://www.miyaketaiko.com/en/overview/index.html|archive-date=21 September 2013}}</ref> The style itself is characterized in a number of ways. A ''nagadō-daiko'' is typically set low to the ground and played by two performers, one on each side; instead of sitting, performers stand and hold a stance that is also very low to the ground, almost to the point of kneeling.<ref name=Miyake />{{sfn|Bender|2012|pp=98–99}}

==Outside Japan==

===Australia===
Taiko groups in Australia began forming in the 1990s.{{sfn|Bloustein|1999|p=131}} The first group, called Ataru Taru Taiko, was formed in 1995 by Paulene Thomas, Harold Gent, and Kaomori Kamei.{{sfn|Bloustein|1999|p=166}} [[TaikOz]] was later formed by percussionist Ian Cleworth and [[Riley Lee]], a former Ondekoza member, and has been performing in Australia since 1997.{{sfn|de Ferranti|2007|p=80}} They are known for their work in generating interest in performing taiko among Australian audiences, such as by developing a complete education program with both formal and informal classes,{{sfn|Webb|Seddon|2012|p=762}} and have a strong fan base.{{sfn|de Ferranti|2007|p=91}} Cleworth and other members of the group have developed several original pieces.{{sfn|de Ferranti|2007|p=84}}

===Brazil===
[[File:Taiko on stage 2.jpg|thumb|right|Performance of the composition "Zero" by Brazilian group Seiryu Daiko in Fukuoka, Japan|alt=Members of Brazilian group Seiryu Daiko performing on stage with a variety of taiko.]]

The introduction of ''kumi-daiko'' performance in Brazil can be traced back to the 1970s and 1980s in São Paulo.{{sfn|Lorenz|2007|p=102}} [[Tangue Setsuko]] founded an eponymous taiko dojo and was Brazil's first taiko group;{{sfn|Lorenz|2007|p=102}} [[Setsuo Kinoshita]] later formed the group Wadaiko Sho.{{sfn|Lorenz|2007|p=26}} Brazilian groups have combined native and [[Rhythm in Sub-Saharan Africa|African drumming techniques]] with taiko performance. One such piece developed by Kinoshita is called ''Taiko de Samba'', which emphasizes both Brazilian and Japanese aesthetics in percussion traditions.{{sfn|Lorenz|2007|pp=115, 130–139}} Taiko was also popularized in Brazil from 2002 through the work of Yukihisa Oda, a Japanese native who visited Brazil several times through the [[Japan International Cooperation Agency]].<ref name=Horikawa>{{cite web|last=Horikawa|first=Helder|url=http://www.nippobrasil.com.br/especial/537.shtml|title=Matérias Especiais – Jornal NippoBrasil|publisher=Nippobrasil|access-date=22 August 2013|language=pt|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414144121/http://www.nippobrasil.com.br/especial/537.shtml|archive-date=14 April 2011}}</ref>

The Brazilian Association of Taiko (ABT) suggests that there are about 150 taiko groups in Brazil and that about 10–15% of players are non-Japanese; Izumo Honda, coordinator of a large annual festival in São Paulo, estimated that about 60% of all taiko performers in Brazil are women.<ref name=Horikawa />

===North America===
[[File:SohDaiko08.jpg|thumb|left|New York-based group [[Soh Daiko]] was one of the earlier ''kumi-daiko'' groups to form in the eastern United States.|alt=Performers from the group Soh Daiko perform outdoors on various drums in front of an audience.]]
Taiko emerged in the United States in the late 1960s. The first group, [[San Francisco Taiko Dojo]], was formed in 1968 by [[Seiichi Tanaka]], a postwar immigrant who studied taiko in Japan and brought the styles and teachings to the US.<ref name="NEA-Tanaka">{{cite web|title=Seiichi Tanaka|url=http://arts.gov/honors/heritage/fellows/seiichi-tanaka|work=2001 NEA [[National Heritage Fellowship]]s|publisher=[[National Endowment for the Arts]]|access-date=7 November 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020200846/http://arts.gov/honors/heritage/fellows/seiichi-tanaka|archive-date=20 October 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|pp=136–138}} A year later, a few members of [[Senshin Buddhist Temple]] in Los Angeles led by its minister Masao Kodani initiated another group called [[Kinnara Taiko]].{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|pp=136, 144}} [[San Jose Taiko]] later formed in 1973 in [[Japantown, San Jose]], under [[Roy Hirabayashi|Roy]] and [[PJ Hirabayashi]].<ref name=SanJose>{{cite web|title=Roy and PJ Hirabayashi|url=http://arts.gov/honors/heritage/fellows/roy-and-pj-hirabayashi|work=2011 NEA National Heritage Fellowships|publisher=[[National Endowment for the Arts]]|access-date=20 October 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020200833/http://arts.gov/honors/heritage/fellows/roy-and-pj-hirabayashi|archive-date=20 October 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Izumi|2006|p=159}} Taiko started to branch out to the eastern US in the late 1970s.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=145}} This included formation of [[Denver Taiko]] in 1976,{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=145}} and  [[Soh Daiko]] in [[New York City]] in 1979.<ref name=Douglas>{{cite news|last1=Douglas|first1=Martin|title=New Yorkers & Co.; Banging the Drum Not So Slowly|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE3D61230F931A15753C1A963958260&module=Search&mabReward=relbias%3Ar|access-date=11 November 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=22 October 1995|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111215130/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE3D61230F931A15753C1A963958260&module=Search&mabReward=relbias%3Ar|archive-date=11 November 2014}}</ref><ref name=Tam>{{cite web|last1=Gottfried|first1=Erika|title=Guide to the Soh Daiko Archive Records and Videotapes|url=http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/tam_634/|publisher=The Taminant Library & Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives|access-date=11 November 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112011642/http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/tam_634/|archive-date=12 November 2014}}</ref> Many of these early groups lacked the resources to equip each member with a drum and resorted to makeshift percussion materials such as rubber tires or creating taiko out of wine barrels.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=145}}

Japanese-Canadian taiko began in 1979 with Katari Taiko, and was inspired by the San Jose Taiko group.<ref name="VTS">{{cite web|title=History|date=5 October 2010 |url=http://www.vancouvertaiko.ca/history/|publisher=Vancouver Taiko Society|access-date=21 August 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020140024/http://www.vancouvertaiko.ca/history/|archive-date=20 October 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Nomura|2005|p=333}} Its early membership was predominantly female.{{sfn|Li|2011|p=55}} Katari Taiko and future groups were thought to represent an opportunity for younger, third-generation [[Japanese Canadians]] to explore their roots, redevelop a sense of ethnic community, and expand taiko into other musical traditions.{{sfn|Izumi|2001|pp=37–39}}
[[File:Taiko Tides Stony Brook.jpg|thumb|right|Taiko Tides, a student group at [[Stony Brook University]], New York]]
There are no official counts or estimates of the number of active taiko groups in the United States or Canada, as there is no governing body for taiko groups in either country. Unofficial estimates have been made. In 1989, there were as many as 30 groups in the US and Canada, seven of which were in [[California]].<ref name=Tagashira>{{cite news|last=Tagashira|first=Gail|title=Local Groups Share Taiko Drum Heritage|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-02-03-ca-2126-story.html|access-date=12 April 2014|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=3 February 1989|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20140413111337/http://articles.latimes.com/1989-02-03/entertainment/ca-2126_1_taiko-group|archive-date=13 April 2014}}</ref> One estimate suggested that around 120 groups were active in the US and Canada as of 2001, many of which could be traced to the San Francisco Taiko Dojo;<ref name=Liu>{{cite web|last=Liu|first=Terry|title=Go For Broke|year=2001|url=http://arts.gov/honors/heritage/fellows/seiichi-tanaka|work=2001 NEA National Heritage Scholarships|publisher=National Endowment for the Arts|access-date=24 August 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020200846/http://arts.gov/honors/heritage/fellows/seiichi-tanaka|archive-date=20 October 2013}}</ref> later estimates in 2005 and 2006 suggested there were about 200 groups in the United States alone.{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=17}}{{sfn|Izumi|2006|p=159}}

The [[Cirque du Soleil]] shows ''[[Mystère (Cirque du Soleil)|Mystère]]'' in Las Vegas<ref name=Przybys>{{cite news|last1=Przybys|first1=John|title=Ex-acrobat tells of soaring with Cirque du Soleil, helping others reach dreams|url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/life/ex-acrobat-tells-soaring-cirque-du-soleil-helping-others-reach-dreams|access-date=9 January 2015|work=Las Vegas Review-Journal|publisher=Stephens Media|date=31 March 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110082737/http://www.reviewjournal.com/life/ex-acrobat-tells-soaring-cirque-du-soleil-helping-others-reach-dreams|archive-date=10 January 2015}}</ref> and ''[[Dralion]]'' have featured taiko performance.<ref name=Rainey>{{cite news|last1=Rainey|first1=Sarah|title=Cirque du Soleil: a day learning tricks at the circus|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/features/10858577/Cirque-du-Soleil-a-day-learning-tricks-at-the-circus.html|access-date=9 January 2015|work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|date=27 May 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110082318/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/features/10858577/Cirque-du-Soleil-a-day-learning-tricks-at-the-circus.html|archive-date=10 January 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Keene|2011|pp=18–19}} Taiko performance has also been featured in commercial productions such as the 2005 [[Mitsubishi Eclipse]] ad campaign,<ref name=TProject>{{cite web|title=Full Company History|url=http://www.taikoproject.com/01/|publisher=TAIKOPROJECT|access-date=18 August 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109050307/http://www.taikoproject.com/01/|archive-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> and in events such as the 2009 [[Academy Awards]] and 2011 [[Grammy Award]]s.<ref name=Skidmore>{{cite web|title=Taiko Project to Showcase Fresh Interpretation of Drumming|url=http://www.skidmore.edu/news/2012/3373.php|publisher=Skidmore College|access-date=18 August 2013|date=8 March 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109050532/http://www.skidmore.edu/news/2012/3373.php|archive-date=9 November 2013}}</ref>

From 2005 to 2006, the [[Japanese American National Museum]] held an exhibition called ''Big Drum: Taiko in the United States''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Big Drum: Taiko in the United States|url=http://www.janm.org/exhibits/bigdrum/|publisher=[[Japanese American National Museum]]|access-date=7 November 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029031247/http://www.janm.org/exhibits/bigdrum/|archive-date=29 October 2014}}</ref> The exhibition covered several topics related to taiko in the United States, such as the formation of performance groups, their construction using available materials, and social movements. Visitors were able to play smaller drums.{{sfn|Izumi|2006|pp=158–159}}

North America hosts the North American Taiko Conference (NATC) which has been ongoing since its inaugural conference in Los Angeles in 1997.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=13}}
In 2013, the [[Taiko Community Alliance]] (TCA) formed as virtual nonprofit 501(c)3 organization with a mission to empower the people and advance the art of taiko.<ref>{{cite web|title=Taiko Community Alliance|url=https://www.taikocommunityalliance.org|access-date=8 July 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614205932/https://www.taikocommunityalliance.org/|archive-date=14 June 2023}}</ref> The Taiko Community Alliance has been responsible for helping organize the NATC conferences to help further its mission of educating and raising awareness of taiko through the taiko community.<ref>{{cite web|title=Taiko Community Alliance Programs|url=https://www.taikocommunityalliance.org/our-programs|access-date=8 July 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708143334/https://www.taikocommunityalliance.org/our-programs|archive-date=8 July 2023}}</ref>

Collegiate taiko in the United States is a student-led tradition of Japanese drumming that combines performance, community, and cultural expression. Beginning with UCLA’s [[UCLA Kyodo Taiko|Kyodo Taiko]] in 1990, the movement has expanded to many campuses nationwide, with each group developing its own style and approach to performances and campus engagement. These ensembles also participate in intercollegiate festivals and workshops, such as the Intercollegiate Taiko Invitational (ITI), fostering connection and skill-sharing among students.

=== United Kingdom ===
Kagemusha Taiko based in the south-west were formed in 1999 by Jonathan Kirby and perform original pieces of their own creation. They are known for their work in [[School|schools]] and have performed in several UK venues as well as the [[United States|USA]] and [[Japan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kagemusha Taiko|url=https://kagemusha.com/kagemusha-taiko-company/ |access-date=7 December 2024 |website=Kagemusha Taiko}}</ref>

==Related cultural and social movements==
Certain peoples have used taiko to advance social or cultural movements, both within Japan and elsewhere in the world.

===Gender conventions===
Taiko performance has frequently been viewed as an art form dominated by men.<ref>{{bulleted list|{{cite magazine|title=Hono Taiko|magazine=The New Yorker|date=11 October 1999|page=17|publisher=F-R Publishing Corporation}}|{{cite news|last=Lin|first=Angel|title=Taiko Drummers Celebrate Heritage|url=http://www.oberlin.edu/stupub/ocreview/2007/04/20/arts/Taiko_Drummers_Celebrate_H.html|access-date=5 January 2014|newspaper=The Oberlin Review|date=20 April 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513151253/http://www.oberlin.edu/stupub/ocreview/2007/04/20/arts/Taiko_Drummers_Celebrate_H.html|archive-date=13 May 2013}}}}</ref>{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=144}} Historians of taiko argue that its performance comes from masculine traditions. Those who developed ensemble-style taiko in Japan were men,{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=144}} and through the influence of Ondekoza, the ideal taiko player was epitomized in images of the masculine peasant class,{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=144}} particularly through the character Muhōmatsu in the 1958 film ''[[Rickshaw Man]]''.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=150}}{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=144}} Masculine roots have also been attributed to perceived capacity for "spectacular bodily performance"{{sfn|Konagaya|2007|p=2}} where women's bodies are sometimes judged as unable to meet the physical demands of playing.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=145}}
[[File:Taiko drummers near the Basilique du Sacré-Cœur, Paris, France.jpg|thumb|Starting in the 1990s, there have been a greater or equal number of female performers in ''kumi-daiko'' compared to male performers.|alt=A photograph of four women in a kumi-daiko group performing in Paris, France.]]
Before the 1980s, it was uncommon for Japanese women to perform on traditional instruments, including taiko, as their participation had been systematically restricted; an exception was the San Francisco Taiko Dojo under the guidance of Grandmaster Seiichi Tanaka, who was the first to admit women to the art form.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=144}} In Ondekoza and in the early performances of Kodo, women performed only dance routines either during or between taiko performances.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=155}} Thereafter, female participation in ''kumi-daiko'' started to rise dramatically, and by the 1990s, women equaled and possibly exceeded representation by men.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=144}} While the proportion of women in taiko has become substantial, some have expressed concern that women still do not perform in the same roles as their male counterparts and that taiko performance continues to be a male-dominated profession.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=145}} For instance, a member of Kodo was informed by the director of the group's apprentice program that women were permitted to play, but could only play "as women".{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=153}} Other women in the apprentice program recognized a gender disparity in performance roles, such as what pieces they were allowed to perform, or in physical terms based on a male standard.{{sfn|Bender|2012|pp=154–155}}

Female taiko performance has also served as a response to gendered stereotypes of Japanese women as being quiet,{{sfn|Izumi|2001|pp=37–39}} subservient, or a [[femme fatale]].<ref name=Chan>{{cite news|last=Chan|first=Erin|title=They're Beating the Drum for Female Empowerment|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-jul-15-me-taiko15-story.html|access-date=5 January 2014|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=15 July 2002|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20140105193428/http://articles.latimes.com/2002/jul/15/local/me-taiko15|archive-date=5 January 2014}}</ref> Through performance, some groups believe they are helping to redefine not only the role of women in taiko, but how women are perceived more generally.<ref name="Chan" />{{sfn|Wong|2000|p=74}}

===Burakumin===
{{see also|Burakumin}}
Those involved in the construction of taiko are usually considered part of the [[burakumin]], a marginalized minority class in Japanese society, particularly those working with leather or animal skins.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=36}} Prejudice against this class dates back to the [[Tokugawa period]] in terms of legal discrimination and treatment as social outcasts.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=37}} Although official discrimination ended with the Tokugawa era, the [[Burakumin#Social discrimination|burakumin have continued to face social discrimination]], such as scrutiny by employers or in marriage arrangements.<ref name=Priestly>{{cite news|last=Priestly|first=Ian|title=Breaking the silence on burakumin|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2009/01/20/issues/breaking-the-silence-on-burakumin-2/#.UnRAhhD3OwQ|access-date=2 November 2013|newspaper=[[The Japan Times]]|date=20 January 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103101606/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2009/01/20/issues/breaking-the-silence-on-burakumin-2/#.UnRAhhD3OwQ|archive-date=3 November 2013}}</ref> Drum makers have used their trade and success as a means to advocate for an end to discriminatory practices against their class.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=37}}

The {{nihongo4|Taiko Road|人権太鼓ロード|"Taiko Road of Human Rights"}}, representing the contributions of burakumin, is found in [[Naniwa-ku, Osaka|Naniwa Ward]] in [[Osaka]], home to a large proportion of burakumin.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=38}} Among other features, the road contains taiko-shaped benches representing their traditions in taiko manufacturing and leatherworking, and their influence on national culture.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=44}}<ref name="Priestly" /> The road ends at the [[Osaka Human Rights Museum]], which exhibits the history of systematic discrimination against the burakumin.<ref name=Priestly /> The road and museum were developed in part due an advocacy campaign led by the [[Buraku Liberation League]] and a taiko group of younger performers called {{nihongo4|Taiko Ikari|太鼓怒り|"taiko rage"}}.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=38}}

===North American ''sansei''===
Taiko performance was an important part of cultural development by third-generation Japanese residents in North America, who are called ''[[sansei]]''.{{sfn|Izumi|2006|p=159}}{{sfn|Yoon|2001|p=422}} During [[World War II]], second-generation Japanese residents, called ''[[nisei]]'' faced [[Internment of Japanese Americans|internment in the United States]] and [[Japanese Canadian internment|in Canada]] on the basis of their race.{{sfn|Terada|2001|pp=40–41}}{{sfn|Izumi|2001|p=41}} During and after the war, Japanese residents were discouraged from activities such as speaking Japanese or forming ethnic communities.{{sfn|Izumi|2001|p=41}} Subsequently, sansei could not engage in Japanese culture and instead were raised to assimilate into more normative activities.{{sfn|Terada|2001|p=41}} There were also prevailing stereotypes of Japanese people, which sansei sought to escape or subvert.{{sfn|Terada|2001|p=41}} During the 1960s in the United States, the [[civil rights movement]] influenced sansei to reexamine their heritage by engaging in Japanese culture in their communities; one such approach was through taiko performance.{{sfn|Izumi|2001|p=41}}{{sfn|Terada|2001|p=41}} Groups such as [[San Jose Taiko]] were organized to fulfill a need for solidarity and to have a medium to express their experiences as Japanese-Americans.{{sfn|Yoon|2001|p=424}} Later generations have adopted taiko in programs or workshops established by sansei; social scientist Hideyo Konagaya remarks that this attraction to taiko among other Japanese art forms may be due to its accessibility and energetic nature.{{sfn|Konagaya|2001|p=117}} Konagaya has also argued that the resurgence of taiko in the United States and Japan are differently motivated: in Japan, performance was meant to represent the need to recapture sacred traditions, while in the United States it was meant to be an explicit representation of masculinity and power in Japanese-American men.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=140}}

==Notable performers and groups==
[[File:EitetsuHayashi2001-01.jpg|thumb|right|[[Eitetsu Hayashi]] in a 2001 concert in Tokyo|alt=Black & white photograph of a solo performance by Eitetsu Hayashi.]]
A number of performers and groups, including several early leaders, have been recognized for their contributions to taiko performance. [[Daihachi Oguchi]] was best known for developing ''kumi-daiko'' performance. Oguchi founded the first ''kumi-daiko'' group called [[Osuwa Daiko]] in 1951, and facilitated the popularization of taiko performance groups in Japan.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=52}}

[[Seidō Kobayashi]] is the leader of the Tokyo-based taiko group [[Oedo Sukeroku Taiko]] as of December 2014.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=59}}<ref name=OST>{{cite web|title=Performing Members|url=http://www.oedosukerokutaiko.com/htm/memberprofile_top_e.html|publisher=Oedo Sukeroku Taiko|access-date=11 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226125533/http://www.oedosukerokutaiko.com/htm/memberprofile_top_e.html|archive-date=26 December 2014}}</ref> Kobayashi founded the group in 1959 and was the first group to tour professionally.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=59}} Kobayashi is considered a master performer of taiko.<ref name=Electronic>{{cite journal|journal=Electronic Musician|volume=11|issue=7–12|year=1995|publisher=Polyphony Publishing Company|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DJwJAQAAMAAJ 52]|oclc=181819338}}</ref> He is also known for asserting intellectual control of the group's performance style, which has influenced performance for many groups, particularly in North America.{{sfn|Wong|2004|p=85}}

In 1968, [[Seiichi Tanaka]] founded the [[San Francisco Taiko Dojo]] and is regarded as the Grandfather of Taiko and primary developer of taiko performance in the United States.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=31}}{{sfn|Tusler|2003|p=127}} He was a recipient of a 2001 [[National Heritage Fellowship]] awarded by the [[National Endowment for the Arts]]<ref name=NEA-Tanaka /> and since 2013 is the only taiko professional presented with the Order of the Rising Sun 5th Order: Gold and Silver Rays by Emperor Akihito of Japan, in recognition of Grandmaster Seiichi Tanaka's contributions to the fostering of US-Japan relations as well as the promotion of Japanese cultural understanding in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sftaiko.com/awards/|title=Awards and Accolades|website=San Francisco Taiko Dojo|access-date=29 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208231526/http://www.sftaiko.com/awards/|archive-date=8 December 2017}}</ref>

In 1969, {{nihongo4|[[Den Tagayasu]]|田耕|Den Tagayasu}} founded [[Ondekoza]], a group well known for making taiko performance internationally visible and for its artistic contributions to the tradition.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=60}} Den was also known for developing a communal living and training facility for Ondekoza on Sado Island in Japan, which had a reputation for its intensity and broad education programs in folklore and music.{{sfn|Bender|2012|pp=68–70}}

==Glossary==
{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" | Romanized Japanese
! scope="col" | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA Pronunciation]]
! scope="col" | Kanji
! scope="col" | Definition{{sfn|Varian|2013|pp=118–134}}
|-
! scope="row" |''Bachi''
| {{IPAc-ja|ba|chi}} ||撥|| Various drumsticks used for taiko performance
|-
! scope="row" |''Byō-uchi-daiko''
| {{IPAc-ja|byō|u|chi|da|i|ko}} ||{{nowrap|鋲打ち太鼓}}|| Taiko where the skin is tacked onto the head
|-
! scope="row" |''Gagakki''
| {{IPAc-ja|ga|ga|k|ki}} ||雅楽器||Instruments used in the theatrical tradition called [[gagaku]]
|-
! scope="row" |''Kumi-daiko''
| {{IPAc-ja|ku|mi|da|i|ko}} ||組太鼓|| Type of performance involving multiple players and different types of taiko
|-
! scope="row" |''Nagadō-daiko''
| {{IPAc-ja|na|ga|dō|da|i|ko}} ||長胴太鼓|| Subcategory of ''byō-uchi-daiko'' that have a longer, barrel-shaped body
|-
! scope="row" |''Miya-daiko''
|{{IPAc-ja|mi|ya|da|i|ko}}
|宮太鼓
|Same as Nagado but only for sacred use at temples
|-
! scope="row" |''Okedō-daiko''
| {{IPAc-ja|o|ke|dō|da|i|ko}} ||桶胴太鼓|| Taiko with bucket-like frames, and tensioned using ropes or bolts
|-
! scope="row" |''Shime-daiko''
| {{IPAc-ja|shi|me|da|i|ko}} ||締め太鼓|| Small, high-pitched taiko where the skin is pulled across the head using rope or through bolts
|-
! scope="row" |''Tsuzumi''
| {{IPAc-ja|tsu|zu|mi}} ||鼓|| Hourglass-shaped drums that are rope-tensioned and played with fingers
|}

==See also==
* [[Kuchi shōga]], a spoken rhythmic system for taiko and other Japanese instruments.
* [[Music of Japan#Taiko|Music of Japan]]
* ''[[Taiko: Drum Master]]'' and ''[[Taiko no Tatsujin]]'', rhythm video games involving taiko performance.

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=note}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

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  }}
* {{cite book
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  | title=Musings: The Musical Worlds of Gunther Schuller
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* {{cite journal
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  | title=Transcending boundaries: Asian Musics in North America
  | volume=22
  | year=2001
  | journal=Shifting Identities of Taiko Music in North America.
  | pages=37–60
  | issn=1340-6787
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* {{cite book
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  | title=Ethnomusicological Encounters with Music and Musicians: Essays in Honor of Robert Garfias
  | date=2013
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  | edition=revised
  | chapter=Rooted as Banyan Trees: Eisā and the Okinawan Diaspora
 }}
* {{cite book
  | last=Thornbury
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 }}
* {{cite book
  | editor1-last=Titon
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  | title=Worlds of Music: An Introduction to the Music of the World's Peoples
  | year=2005
  | publisher=Cengage Learning
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* {{cite book
  | last=Turnbull
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* {{cite thesis
  | last=Tusler
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* {{cite book
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* {{cite book
  | author1-last=Wald
  | author1-first=Elijah
  | author2-last=Vartoogian
  | author2-first=Linda
  | title=Global Minstrels: Voices of World Music
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* {{cite book
  | last1=Webb
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  | editor2-last=Welch
  | editor2-first=Graham F.
  | title=The Oxford handbook of music education
  | chapter=Musical Instrument Learning, Music Ensembles, and Musicianship in a Global and Digital Age
  | date=2012
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  }}
* {{cite journal
  | last=Wong
  | first=Deborah
  | title=Taiko and the Asian/American Body: Drums, Rising Sun, and the Question of Gender
  | journal=The World of Music
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  | jstor=41692766
 }}
* {{cite book
  | last=Wong
  | first=Deborah
  | title=Speak It Louder: Asian Americans Making Music
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* {{cite journal
  | last1=Yoon
  | first1=Paul Jong-Chul
  | title='She's Really Become Japanese Now!': Taiko Drumming and Asian American Identifications
  | journal=American Music
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  | volume=19
  | issue=4
  | pages=417–438
  | doi=10.2307/3052419
  | jstor=3052419
  }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{wiktionary|太鼓}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.nippon-taiko.or.jp/english/ The Nippon Taiko Foundation], part of the [[Agency for Cultural Affairs]]

{{Traditional Japanese musical instruments}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Directly struck membranophones]]
[[Category:Drums]]
[[Category:Battle drums]]
[[Category:Japanese musical instruments]]
[[Category:Asian percussion instruments]]
[[Category:Musical instruments played with drum sticks]]
[[Category:Unpitched percussion instruments]]
[[Category:Japanese traditional music]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Sacred musical instruments]]
[[Category:Japanese words and phrases]]