View source for T2 tanker

{{Short description|Ship type}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
[[File:Type T2-SE-A1 tanker Hat Creek underway at sea on 16 August 1943.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|The T2 tanker {{SS|Hat Creek||2}} in August 1943]]
The '''T2 tanker''', or '''T2''', was a class of [[oil tanker]] constructed and produced in large numbers in the United States during [[World War II]]. Only the [[T3 tanker]]s were larger "navy oilers" of the period. Some 533 T2s were built between 1940 and the end of 1945. They were used to transport [[fuel oil]], [[diesel fuel]], [[gasoline]] and sometimes [[Petroleum|black oil-crude oil]]. After the war, many T2s remained in use, and as with other hastily-built World War II ships later converted to peacetime uses, there were safety concerns.  The [[United States Coast Guard]] Marine Board of Investigation in 1952 found that in cold weather the ships were prone to metal [[fatigue (material)|fatigue]] cracking; in response to this finding, surviving ships were "belted" with [[steel]] straps.<!--wasn't this done to Libertys in the war?--> This occurred after two T2s, {{SS|Pendleton||2}} and {{SS|Fort Mercer||2}}, split in two off [[Cape Cod]] within hours of each other. ''Pendleton''{{'}}s sinking is memorialized in the 2016 film ''[[The Finest Hours (2016 film)|The Finest Hours]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.historyvshollywood.com/reelfaces/finest-hours|title = The Finest Hours vs. True Story of Bernie Webber, Pendleton Rescue}}</ref> Engineering inquiries into the problem suggested the cause was poor welding techniques. It was found that steel that had been successfully used in riveted ship design was not well-suited for the new wartime welding construction. The high [[sulfur]] content made the steel brittle and prone to metal fatigue at lower temperatures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://shipbuildinghistory.com/merchantships/2t2tankers.htm|title=T-2 Tankers|work=ShipBuildingHistory.com|access-date=13 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mariners-l.co.uk/T2.html|title=T2|work=Mariners-l.co.uk|access-date=13 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uscg.mil/history/articles/pendleton_webster.asp|title=U.S. Coast Guard History|work=USCG.mil|access-date=13 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnooks.nl/Jubileum/2%20%20Other%20documents/2%20%20History/WW%20I%20&%20WWII/T2%20tankers.pdf|title=T2 Tanker design|work=CNooks.nl|access-date=13 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sname.org/HigherLogic/System/DownloadDocumentFile.ashx?DocumentFileKey=99621881-bf2c-4a7d-832c-cc178270df26|title=The Conversion of T2 Tankers for Great Lakes and Seaway Service By M. Mack Earle|work=sname.org|access-date=13 April 2017}}</ref><ref>From T-2 to Supertanker: Development of the Oil Tanker, 1940–2000, by Spyrou, Andrew</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.steelnavy.com/T2%20700.htm|title=T2 700|work=SteelNavy.com|access-date=13 April 2017}}</ref>

==Designs==

===T2 design===
The T2 design was formalized by the [[United States Maritime Commission]] as its medium-sized "National Defense tanker", a [[ship]] built for merchant service which could be militarized as a fleet auxiliary in time of war. MarCom subsidized the excess cost of naval features beyond normal commercial standards. The T2 was based on two ships built in 1938–1939 by [[Bethlehem Steel]] for [[Mobil|Socony-Vacuum Oil Company]], ''Mobilfuel'' and ''Mobilube'', differing from the Mobil ships principally in the installation of more powerful engines for higher speed. Standard T2s were {{convert|501|ft|6|in|m|1|abbr=on}} in total length, with a beam of {{convert|68|ft|m|1|abbr=on}}. Rated at 9,900 [[Gross register tonnage|tons gross]] (GRT), with {{DWT|15,850|long|disp=long}}, standard T2s [[Displacement (ship)|displaced]] about 21,100 tons. [[Steam turbines]] driving a single [[Propeller (marine)|propeller]] at {{convert|12000|hp|lk=on}} delivered a top speed of {{convert|16|kn|lk=in}}. Six were built for commerce by [[Sparrows Point Shipyard|Bethlehem-Sparrows Point Shipyard]] in [[Maryland]], only to be taken over by the [[United States Navy]] following the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] as the {{sclass|Kennebec|oiler|1}}.

===T2-A design===
Keystone Tankships company ordered five tankers in 1940 from [[Sun Shipbuilding & Drydock]] of Chester, Pennsylvania, based on the T2 but longer and with increased capacity; Marcom would designate this design T2-A. Bigger but faster, they were {{convert|526|ft|m|1|abbr=on}} in total length, displaced about 22,445 tons, and were rated at 10,600 tons gross with {{DWT|16,300}} — yet they attained a top speed approaching {{convert|16+1/2|kn}}. All five were requisitioned by the Navy during the war and converted to fleet oilers as the ''Mattaponi'' class.

===T2-SE-A1===
By far the most common variety of the T2-type tanker was the T2-SE-A1, another commercial design already being built in 1940 by the Sun Shipbuilding Company for [[Standard Oil Company]] of New Jersey. They were {{convert|523|ft|m|1|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|68|ft|m|1|abbr=on}} abeam, with {{GRT|10,448|disp=long}} and {{DWT|16,613}}. Their (steam) [[turbo-electric transmission]] system delivered {{convert|6,000|shp|lk=in}}, with maximum [[thrust]] of {{convert|7240|hp}}, which produced a top-rated speed of about {{convert|15|kn}} with a cruising [[range (vehicle)|range]] of up to {{convert|12600|mi|km}}. After Pearl Harbor, the [[United States Maritime Commission]] ordered this model built ''en masse'' to supply U.S. warships already in accelerated production, and provide for the fuel needs of US forces in Europe and the Pacific, as well as to replace the tanker tonnage being lost at an alarming rate to German U-boats. 481 were built in extremely short production times by the [[Alabama Drydock and Shipbuilding Company]] of [[Mobile, Alabama]], the [[Kaiser Shipyards|Kaiser Company]] at their [[Swan Island Yard]] at [[Portland, Oregon]], the [[Marinship]] Corp. of [[Sausalito, California]], and the [[Sun Shipbuilding & Drydock Co.|Sun Shipbuilding and Drydock Company]] of [[Chester, Pennsylvania]]. During that period, average production time from laying of the [[keel]] to "fitting out" was 70 days. The record, however, was held by Marinship, which had  {{SS|Huntington Hills||2}} ready for [[sea trial]]s in just 33 days.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwencycl.kgbudge.com/T/2/T2-SE-A1_class.htm|title=The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia: T2-SE-A1 Class, U.S. Tankers|first=Kent G.|last=Budge|work=KGBudge.com|access-date=13 April 2017}}</ref>

===T2-SE-A2 and -A3===
The T2-SE-A2 variation, built only by Marinship of Sausalito, was nearly identical to the T2-SE-A1 version, except with {{convert|10000|hp|abbr=on}} rather than 7,240. The A3 variation was essentially an A2 built as a naval oiler from the start, rather than converted later as many A2s were. Two of the A2 ships would be converted to the [[USS Pasig (AW-3)|''Pasig''-class]] of [[distilling ship]]s.

===T3-S-A1===
Despite the confusing T3 designation, the T3-S-A1s built by [[Bethlehem Sparrows Point]] for [[Standard Oil of New Jersey]] were identical to the original T2s except for having less powerful engines of {{convert|7700|hp|abbr=on}}. Twenty-five of this design were ordered by the Maritime Commission, of which five became Navy oilers as the {{sclass|Chiwawa|oiler|4}}.

===T2-A-MC-K===
T2-A-MC-K had a M.C. deadweight tonnage of 16,300 and a full load tonnage of 22,445. The dimensions were: Length: {{convert|526|ft|m|abbr=on}}, Beam: {{convert|68|ft|m|abbr=on}} and max. draft: {{convert|30|ft|10|in|m|abbr=on}}. Powered by turbine engines rated at {{convert|12,000|hp|abbr=on}} with a top speed of {{convert|17.5|kn}}. The first Navy commissioning  was in 1942. could hold 117,400 Bbls of oil and 595,000 gal of gasoline. Crew of 23 officers and 329 enlisted men. Armament: one single 5'/38 cal dual-purpose gun mount, four single 3"/50 cal dual-purpose gun mounts, four twin 40&nbsp;mm AA gun mounts and twelve single 20&nbsp;mm AA gun mounts. Example was {{USS|Patuxent|AO-44|6}}, a ''Kennebec''-class oiler.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/ships/ships-mc.html|title=HyperWar: Maritime Commission Ship Types of World War II|website=www.ibiblio.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.navsource.net/archives/09/19/19044.htm|title=Fleet Oiler (AO) Photo Index|website=NavSource}}</ref>

==Notable deployments==
In 1966, the [[US Army]] reactivated 11 T2 tankers and converted them into floating electrical power generation plants and deployed them to [[Vietnam]]. The ships' propulsion systems' electrical turbines were used to generate electricity for on-shore use, drawing on fuel from the ships' 150,000-barrel holds. This allowed the ships to produce electricity for two years without refueling for the [[Vietnam War]]. {{USNS|French Creek|T-AO-159|6}} was the first to arrive in June 1966, then next was {{USS|Kennebago|AO-81|6}}, both installed in [[Cam Ranh Bay]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Tankers for the Army|journal=[[Proceedings (magazine)|Proceedings]]|date=September 1966|volume=92|issue=9|page=160}}</ref><ref>Engineers at War, By Adrian G Traas, page 115</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.navsource.net/archives/09/19/19081.htm|title=Fleet Oiler (AO) Photo Index|website=NavSource|access-date=13 April 2017}}</ref><ref>''The Logistics of War'', Page 341, By Beth F. Scott</ref>

== Notable incidents ==

=== Navy service ===
[[File:TankerSchenectady.jpg|thumb|The new T2 tanker {{SS|Schenectady||2}} broke in two at its dock due to brittle metal and bad welding]]
[[File:AO-86 fractured.jpg|thumb|The fractured USS Ponaganset (AO-86), at the General Ship and Iron Works, Boston, MA., 9 December 1947]]
[[File:Pendleton Sinking Ship.jpg|thumb|The T2 tanker "Pendleton" bow in 1952]]
[[File:SS Fort Mercer, bow prior to sinking.jpg|thumb|Crew from {{USCGC|Yakutat}} pull in a life-raft carrying survivors from the bow section of SS Fort Mercer, the photo was taken 20 minutes prior to its sinking 1952]]
* {{SS|Schenectady||2}} broke in two in 1943. At 11 pm on 16 January 1943, a few days after completing her sea trials, the 501-foot-long T2 tanker ''Schenectady'' broke in two amidships while lying at the outfitting dock in the constructors yard in Portland, Oregon. The temperature of the harbor water was about {{convert|39|F}} and water conditions were still. The air temperature was approximately {{convert|26|F}} and winds were light. The hull failure was sudden and accompanied by a report that was heard a mile away. ''Schenectady'', built by a [[Kaiser Shipyards|Kaiser Shipyard]], was the first catastrophic T2 hull failure, made all the more impressive by the still conditions under which it occurred. The failure of ''Schenectady'' initiated on the deck between two bulkheads and ran down to the keel (see photo). A defective weld was present in a region of stress concentration arising at a design detail point. Poor welding procedures were cited by the committee investigating the failure as contributory; however, at that time the [[Metallurgy|metallurgical]] problems were not fully understood.<ref name="Thompson">{{cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Peter|year=2001|title=How Much Did the Liberty Shipbuilders Learn? New Evidence for an Old Case Study|journal=The Journal of Political Economy|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|volume=109|issue=1|pages=103–137|jstor=3078527|doi=10.1086/318605|citeseerx=10.1.1.197.1438|s2cid=17584664}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://pmars.marad.dot.gov/detail.asp?Ship=4445|title=Database entry at PMARS.|work=DOT.gov|access-date=13 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721043747/https://pmars.marad.dot.gov/detail.asp?Ship=4445|archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref>
* SS ''Caddo'' (1942) sank on 23 November 1942 after being hit by a [[torpedo]] from the [[U-boat]] {{GS|U-518||2}} in the North Atlantic while en route to Iceland. She had 8 survivors of the 59 men aboard. Also known as SS ''Dorchester Heights''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://navylog.navymemorial.org/caddo|title=Caddo – The United States Navy Memorial|work=NavyMemorial.org|access-date=13 April 2017}}</ref>
* SS ''Esso Gettysburg'' sank on 10 June 1943 after being hit by a torpedo from {{GS|U-66|1940|2}} while {{convert|90|mi}} off the [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] coast. She was bound for Philadelphia with crude oil. She lost 57 of her 72 crew.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://navylog.navymemorial.org/esso-gettysburg|title=Esso Gettysburg &#124; The United States Navy Memorial|website=navylog.navymemorial.org}}</ref>
* SS ''Bloody Marsh'' sank on 2 July 1943 after being hit by a torpedo from ''U-66''. ''Bloody Marsh'' was on her maiden voyage and sank {{convert|75|mi}} east of [[Savannah, Georgia]]. She lost three of her 77 crew.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uboat.net/allies/merchants/2972.html|title=Bloody Marsh (American Turbine tanker) - Ships hit by German U-boats during WWII - uboat.net|website=uboat.net}}</ref>
* US ''Touchet'' sank on 3 December 1943 after being hit by a torpedo from {{GS|U-193||2}}. She sank in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] while en route to New York from [[Houston]], Texas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://navylog.navymemorial.org/touchet|title=Touchet &#124; The United States Navy Memorial|website=navylog.navymemorial.org}}</ref>
* SS ''McDowell'' sank on 16 December 1943 after being hit by a torpedo from {{GS|U-516||2}} off [[Cuba]].<ref>[http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?13970 wrecksite.eu, SS ''McDowell'']</ref>
* {{SS|Fort Lee}} sank on 2 November 1944 after being hit by a torpedo from {{GS|U-181||2}} in the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref>"Report Tanker Fort Lee Sunk in Indian Ocean". ''Chicago Daily Tribune''. 6 February 1945. p. 9.</ref>
* SS ''Jacksonville'' sank on 30 August 1944 after being hit by a torpedo off [[Ireland]] by {{GS|U-482||2}}. She was in convoy CU 36, en route to [[Loch Ewe]], Scotland.<ref>[http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?17372 wrecksite.eu, SS ''Jacksonville'']</ref>
* {{USS|Ponaganset|AO-86|6}} broke in two, sank at pier in [[Boston]], and was raised and scrapped in 1947.
* SS ''Nickajack Trail'' sank on 30 March 1946 in Eniwetok Harbor at [[Enewetak Atoll]] on trip from Port Arthur to Yokohama.<ref>[http://www.wrecksite.eu/imgBrowser.aspx?56281 wrecksite.eu, SS ''Nickajack Trail'']</ref>
* SS ''Glenn's Ferry'' sank on 6 October 1945 at [[Batag Island Lighthouse|Batag Island, Philippines]] on a trip from [[Los Angeles]] to [[Manila]] after an explosion.

=== Commercial service ===
* SS ''Bemis Heights'' sank on 5 November 1948 off Quoin Point, South Africa on trip from Santos to Abadan.
* {{SS|Pendleton}}, broke in two on 18 February 1952
* {{SS|Fort Mercer}}, broke in two on 18 February 1952
* SS ''Salem Maritime'' exploded on 17 January 1956 while taking on a load of fuel in Lake Charles, Louisiana. 18 crew members on board were killed, including the oncoming and the retiring Master; as well as 3 personnel ashore when the No. 8 port fuel tank exploded in flames. The ''Salem Maritime'' and three tank barges in close proximity and shore installations were severely damaged.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ncsp.tamu.edu/reports/USCG/salemmaritime.pdf|access-date=18 April 2023|website=tamu.edu|title=Marine board on investigation}}</ref>
* SS ''Midway Hills'' sank 2 October 1961 after she broke in two from an engine room explosion. She sank 110 miles east from [[Jacksonville, Florida]], on a trip from Houston to [[Perth Amboy, New Jersey]].
[[File:Sulphurqueen.gif|right|thumbnail|SS ''Marine Sulphur Queen'']]
[[File:SS Marine Sulphur Queen remains.jpg|right|thumbnail|The remains of ''Marine Sulphur Queen'', recovered by the US coast guard]]

* {{SS|Marine Sulphur Queen}} and its crew of 39 disappeared near the southern coast of Florida after 4 February 1963.
* SS ''Bunker Hill'' sank 6 March 1964 after an explosion, she broke in two near [[Anacortes, Washington]] on a trip from [[Tacoma, Washington]] to Anacortes.
* SS ''White Bird Canyon'' sank on 17 December 1964 with loss of all the crew in bad weather off [[Ulak Island]], [[Aleutians]] on trip from [[Vancouver]] to Yokohama.
* SS ''Rainier'' (T2-SE-A1) built by Swan Island. After World War II was sold to private company in 1948. Was converted to bulk cargo ship on 1962, was wrecked and sank on 22 December 1965 off Faja Grande Lighthouse, [[Flores Island (Azores)|Flores, Azores]] as SS ''Papadiamandis''.
* SS ''Fort Schuyler'' (T2-SE-A1) fire started in engine room, then was damaged by explosions and sank on 24 October 1966 off the coast of [[Morgan City, Louisiana]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aukevisser.nl/t2tanker/id738.htm|title=Fort Schuyler|website=www.aukevisser.nl}}</ref>
* SS ''Ninety-Six'' sank on 3 March 1971 after starting to leak in storm in the Indian Ocean, on trip from [[Bunbury, Western Australia]], to Savannah.
* SS ''Texaco Oklahoma'' sank on March 27, 1971 after breaking up off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. (US Coast Guard incident report July 26, 1972)
* {{SS|V. A. Fogg}}, a T2 tanker, lost 1 February 1972 mistakenly believed to have been lost in the Bermuda Triangle
* SS ''Belridge Hills'' Sank 24 December 1972 in gale storm 800 miles south of Kodiak on trip from Vancouver to Yokohama.
* {{SS|Marine Floridian}}, a T2 Tanker that in 1977 collided with a drawbridge in Virginia in a spectacular and costly accident.
* {{SS|Marine Electric}}, a T2 tanker that sank in a 1983 storm, the investigation of which led to major reforms in ship inspections and safety standards.
* ''Delta Conveyor'' sank in the [[Mississippi River]] adjacent to Delta Bulk Terminal in [[Convent, Louisiana]]. Raised in two sections: the bow in early 2003 and the aft section in late 2003.<!-- In 2003, the [[Marmac 300]] was used to raise one-half—the forward section of the sunken Delta Conveyor, "a converted T2 tanker that [had sunk] in the Mississippi River adjacent to Delta Bulk Terminal in [[Convent, Louisiana]]." It was a {{convert|4000|ST}} lift, reportedly the largest lift ever accomplished on the [[Mississippi River]]. The task was accomplished by sinking the bow of the Marmac 300 into a {{convert|140|x|70|x|20|ft}} trench that was dredged into the bottom of the river before pulling the wreck onto the inclined barge using [[chain pullers]]. --><ref name=idr200304>
{{cite news |title=Titan Lifts 4000-ton Wreck |url=http://www.dredgemag.com/March-April-2003/Titan-Lifts-4000-ton-Wreck/ |access-date=3 March 2015 |work=International Dredging Review |date=April 2003 }}</ref>

==See also==
* {{sclass|Escambia|replenishment oiler}}
* [[List of Type T2 Tanker names]]
* [[Liberty ship]]
* [[Type C1 ship]]
* [[Type C2 ship]]
* [[Type C3 ship]]
* [[Type C4 ship]]
* [[Type R ship]]
* [[United States Merchant Marine Academy]]
* [[United States Navy oiler]]
* [[Victory ship]]

==References==

=== Notes ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book | title = Ships for Victory: A History of Shipbuilding under the U.S. Maritime Commission in World War II | first = Frederic Chapin | last = Lane | author-link = Frederic Chapin Lane | location = Baltimore | publisher = Johns Hopkins Press | year = 2001 | orig-year = 1951 | isbn = 978-0-8018-6752-1 | oclc = 45799004 }}
* [https://www.nytimes.com/1943/03/18/archives/ship-failure-laid-to-steel-welding-investigators-report-that.html Ship Failure Laid to Steel, Welding] New York Times, March 18, 1943

==External links==
{{Commons category|T2 tanker (ship type)|T2 tanker}}
* [http://www.t2tanker.org/ The T2 Tanker page]
* [http://www.aukevisser.nl/t2tanker/id94.htm T-tanker list]

{{Type T2-SE-A1 tankers|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Type T2-SE-A2 tankers|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Type T2-SE-A3 tankers|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Kennebec class fleet replenishment oiler|state=uncollapsed}}
{{WWII US ships}}
{{MARCOMships}}

{{Subject bar
| portal1=Transport}}

[[Category:T2 tankers| ]]
[[Category:Ship types]]
[[Category:World War II tankers of the United States]]