View source for Syria–Lebanon campaign

{{Short description|1941 British offensive in World War II}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Syria–Lebanon campaign
| partof            = the [[Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II|Mediterranean and Middle East theatre]] of the [[World War II|Second World War]]
| image             = File:AUSTRALIAN FORCES IN LEBANON, 1941 AUS533.jpg
| image_size        = 300px
| caption           = Australian troops among the ruins of the [[Sidon Sea Castle]], Lebanon, July 1941
| date              = 8 June – 14 July 1941<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=6|day1=8|year1=1941|month2=7|day2=14|year2=1941}})
| place             = Syria and Lebanon
| result            = Allied victory
| territory         = Syria and Lebanon taken over by Free France
| combatant1        = {{flag|United Kingdom}}
* {{flag|British Raj|name=India}}
* {{flagicon|Assyria|old}} [[Iraq Levies|Assyrian levies]]
* {{flag|British Mandate for Palestine|name=Mandatory Palestine}}
**{{flagicon image|Palmach.svg|border=no}} [[Palmach]]
* {{flagdeco|Jordan}} [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]]
{{flag|Australia}}<br>{{flag|Free French|name=Free France}}<br>{{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[Czechoslovak government-in-exile|Czechoslovakia]]
| combatant2        = {{flag|Vichy France|name=Vichy France}}
* {{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} [[Mandatory Syrian Republic|Syria]]
* {{flag|Greater Lebanon|name=Lebanon}}
'''Supported by''':<br>{{flag|Nazi Germany|name=Germany}}
| commander1        = {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Archibald Wavell]]<br>{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Henry Maitland Wilson|Henry Wilson]]<br>{{flagicon|Australia}} [[John Lavarack]]<br>{{flagicon|Free French}} [[Paul Legentilhomme]]
| commander2        = {{flagicon|Vichy France}} [[Henri Dentz]]
| strength1         = {{collapsible list|bullets=yes|title={{nobold|~36,000 troops}}
|{{flagdeco|Australia}} 18,000
|{{flagdeco|United Kingdom}} 8,400
|{{flagdeco|Free French Forces}} 5,000
|{{flagdeco|British Raj}} 2,000
|{{flagdeco|Jordan}} 1,600
|{{flagdeco|Czechoslovakia}} 280+
}}
50+ aircraft<br />1 [[HMS Glengyle|landing ship]]<br />5 [[cruiser]]s<br />8 destroyers
| strength2         = '''Vichy France:'''<br>{{collapsible list|bullets=yes|title={{nobold|~35,000 troops}}
|{{flagdeco|Vichy France}} 8,000
|{{flagdeco|Syria|1932}} {{flagdeco|Lebanon|1920}} 25,000
}}
90 tanks<br />289 aircraft<br />2 [[Guépard class destroyer|destroyers]]<br />3 submarines<br> '''German Luftwaffe:'''<br> At least 10 bomber aircraft<ref name=Sutherland53>Sutherland & Canwell (2011), pp. 53–67.</ref>
| casualties1       = {{circa|4,652}} <br /> Australian: 1,552 <br />Free French: {{circa|1,300}} <br/>Jordanian: {{circa|250}} <br />British and Indian: 1,800, 1,200 POW, 3,150 sick<br />41 aircraft<ref>Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 91.</ref>
| casualties2       = '''Vichy France:'''<br> 6,352 (Vichy figures) <br />8,912 (British figures)<br />179 aircraft<br />1 submarine sunk<br />5,668 [[defection|defectors]]<br> '''Germany:'''<br> 4 aircraft<ref name=Sutherland53/>
| campaignbox       = {{WWIITheatre}}
{{Campaignbox Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre}}
{{Campaignbox Syria-Lebanon}}
{{Campaignbox Free French}}
{{Campaignbox Vichy France Military in World War II}}
}}

The '''Syria–Lebanon campaign''', also known as '''Operation Exporter''', was the invasion of [[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|Syria and Lebanon]] (then controlled by [[Vichy France]], a vassal state of [[Nazi Germany]]) in June and July 1941 by [[British Empire]] forces, during the [[World War II|Second World War]].

On 1 April 1941, after the [[1941 Iraqi coup d'état|Iraqi coup d'état]], [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]] was controlled by Iraqi nationalists led by [[Rashid Ali al-Gaylani]], who appealed for Italian and German support. The [[Anglo-Iraqi War]] (2–31 May 1941) led to the overthrow of the Ali regime and the installation of a pro-British government. During this conflict,  Admiral [[François Darlan]]  allowed German aircraft to use Vichy airfields in Syria for attacks against the British in Iraq.<ref>Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 34.</ref> The British invaded Syria and Lebanon in June to prevent the [[Axis powers]] from using the [[Mandatory Syrian Republic|Syrian Republic]] and [[Greater Lebanon|French Lebanon]] as bases for attacks on [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]], during an invasion scare in the aftermath of the Axis victories in the [[Battle of Greece]] (6–30 April 1941) and the [[Battle of Crete]] (20 May – 1 June). In the [[Western Desert Campaign]] (1940–1943) in North Africa, the British fought [[Operation Battleaxe]] to end the [[siege of Tobruk]] and  the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]] (10 June 1940 – 27 November 1941) in Ethiopia and Eritrea.

The French conducted a vigorous defence of Syria but, on 10 July, as the [[21st Brigade (Australia)|21st Australian Brigade]] was on the verge of entering [[Beirut]], the French sought an armistice. At one minute past midnight on 12 July, a ceasefire came into effect and ended the campaign.<ref name="Playfair 2004, pp. 221, 335–337">Playfair (2004), pp. 221, 335–337.</ref> The [[Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre]] (Convention of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]]) was signed on 14 July at the Sidney Smith Barracks on the outskirts of the city. While the surrender was being held, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine referred to the Syria–Lebanon campaign as a "mixed show", and the campaign to this day remains relatively unknown, even in the countries that participated in it.

==Background==
On 28 May 1941, Admiral [[François Darlan]], on behalf of [[Vichy France]], signed the [[Paris Protocols]], an agreement with the Germans which granted Germany access to military facilities in Vichy-controlled Syria.<ref>Keegan p. 676</ref> The protocols remained unratified, but [[Charles Huntziger]], the [[Minister of Defence (France)|Vichy Minister of War]], sent orders to [[Henri Dentz]], the [[High Commissioners of French-mandated Syria and Lebanon|High Commissioner for the Levant]], to allow aircraft of the German ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' and the Italian ''[[Regia Aeronautica]]'' to refuel in Syria. Marked as Iraqi aircraft, Axis aircraft under ''[[Fliegerführer Irak]]'' landed in Syria ''en route'' to the [[Kingdom of Iraq]] during the Anglo-Iraqi War. Darlan, a confirmed Anglophobe, allowed the German and Italian aircraft to use Syrian airfields partly because of attacks on Vichy French ships by the British. He calculated that, since July 1940, 167 French ships had been seized by British forces.<ref name=Sutherland35>Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 35.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-28 |title=Today in World War II History—May 28, 1941 |url=https://www.sarahsundin.com/today-in-world-war-ii-history-may-28-1941/ |access-date=2023-07-30 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Under the Paris Protocols, an agreement was also made for the French to launch an offensive against the British-held Iraqi oilfields, a proposal put forward by Darlan.<ref name=Sutherland35/> As well as the use of Syrian airfields, the Germans also requested permission from the Vichy authorities to use Syrian railways to send armaments to Iraqi nationalists in [[Mosul]]. In return for Darlan's enthusiastic pro-Axis gestures, the Germans released 7,000 French prisoners of war, many of whom were professional officers and non-commissioned officers.<ref name=Sutherland35/> Despite government prodding, General [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Percival Wavell]], the [[Commander-in-chief|Commander-in-Chief]] of [[Middle East Command]], was reluctant to intervene in Syria, because of the situation in the Western Desert, the imminent German attack on Crete and doubts about the [[Free French]] intentions.{{sfn|Raugh|1993|pp=216–218}}

==Prelude==
===Vichy Syria===
{{see also|French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon}}
[[File:Captured French Martin 167F at Aleppo 1941.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Captured French [[Martin Maryland|Martin 167F]] at Aleppo 1941}}]]

Dentz was Commander in Chief of the ''Armée du Levant'' ([[Army of the Levant]]), which had regular metropolitan colonial troops and ''troupes spéciales'' (special troops, indigenous Syrian and Lebanese soldiers).<ref name=Mollo144>Mollo (1981), p. 144.</ref> There were seven infantry battalions of regular French troops at his disposal, which included the [[6th Foreign Infantry Regiment]] of the [[French Foreign Legion]], the [[24th Colonial Infantry Regiment]] and eleven infantry battalions of "special troops", including at least 5,000 cavalry in horsed and motorized units, two artillery groups and supporting units.<ref name=Mollo144/> The Army had {{nowrap|35,000 troops}} with {{nowrap|35,000 regulars}} including {{nowrap|8,000 French}} and {{nowrap|25,000 Syrian}} and Lebanese infantry. The French had {{nowrap|90 tanks}} (according to British estimates), the [[Vichy French Air Force|''Armée de l'air'']] had {{nowrap|90 aircraft}} (increasing to {{nowrap|289 aircraft}} after reinforcement) and the ''Marine nationale'' ([[French Navy]]) had two [[Guépard class destroyer|destroyers]], [[French destroyer Guépard|''Guépard'']] and [[French destroyer Valmy|''Valmy'']] as well as one sloop, [[French sloop Élan|''Élan'']], and three submarines.<ref>Playfair (2004), pp. 200, 206.</ref><ref>Long (1953), pp. 333–334, 363.</ref>

On 14 May 1941, a [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) [[Bristol Blenheim]] bomber crew flying a reconnaissance mission over [[Palmyra (modern)|Palmyra]], in central Syria, spotted a [[Junkers Ju 90]] transport taking off, with more German and Italian aircraft seen later that day. An attack on the airfield was authorised later that evening.<ref>Richards (1974), p. 338.</ref> Attacks against German and Italian aircraft staging through Syria continued, and the British claimed six [[Axis powers|Axis]] aircraft destroyed by 8 June. Vichy French forces shot down a Blenheim on 28 May, killing the crew, and forced down another on 2 June.<ref name=Sutherland43>Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 43.</ref> French [[Morane-Saulnier M.S.406]] fighters also escorted German [[Junkers Ju 52]] aircraft into Iraq on 28 May.<ref name=Sutherland43/> The RAF shot down a Vichy [[Martin Maryland|Martin 167F]] bomber over the British [[Mandatory Palestine|Mandate of Palestine]] on 6 June.<ref>Shores & Ehrengardt (July 1970).</ref> While German interest in the French mandates of Syria and Lebanon was limited, [[Adolf Hitler]] permitted reinforcement of the French troops by allowing French aircraft ''en route'' from [[Algeria]] to Syria to fly over Axis-controlled territory and refuel at the German-controlled [[Eleusina]] air base in [[Greece]].<ref>Shores & Ehrengardt (1987), p. 30.</ref> The activity of German aircraft based in Greece and the [[Dodecanese Islands|Dodecanese]] [[Italian Islands of the Aegean]] was interpreted by the British as support for Vichy troops, but although Dentz briefly considered accepting German assistance, he rejected the offer on 13 June.<ref>de Wailly (2016), p. 246.</ref> By the end of the Anglo-Iraqi War, all 14 of the original German [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]] aircraft sent to Syria and five [[Heinkel He 111]] and a large number of transport aircraft had been destroyed by the British.<ref>Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 44.</ref>

===Palestine and Iraq===
{{see also|Mandatory Palestine|Kingdom of Iraq}}

The British-led invasion of Syria and Lebanon aimed at preventing Germany from using the [[Mandatory Syrian Republic]] and [[Greater Lebanon]], controlled by Vichy France, for attacks on [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]] as the British fought the [[Western Desert Campaign]] (1940–1943) against Axis forces in [[North Africa]]. In September 1936, the French had ceded autonomy to Syria but it retained rights to maintain some armed forces and two airfields in the territory. The British were concerned about potential attacks by Nazi Germany from Syria and Lebanon, or that the Germans might gain access to airfields there. An additional concern related to the possibility of German troops on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] linking up with Vichy forces if Germany defeated the Soviet Union, by advancing south through the Caucasus. Both contingencies were unlikely, but would have exposed Allied forces in Egypt to a northern front at a time when all available resources were needed to halt Axis advances from the west.{{sfn|James|2017|p=99}} On 1 April 1941, after a ''[[1941 Iraqi coup d'état|coup d'état]]'', Iraq, on the eastern border of Syria, came under the control of nationalists led by [[Rashid Ali al-Gaylani|Rashid Ali]], who was willing to appeal for German support. The [[Anglo-Iraqi War]] (2–31 May 1941) led to the installation of a pro-British government.{{sfn|Raugh|1993|pp=211–216}}

British forces to the south of Syria in Mandate Palestine were under the command of General Sir [[Henry Maitland Wilson]] and consisted of the [[Australian 7th Division|7th Australian Division]] (minus the 18th Brigade, which was in North Africa, besieged at the [[siege of Tobruk]]), ''Gentforce'' with two Free French brigades of the [[1st Free French Division]] (including two battalions of the [[13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade]] attached to the 1st Free French Brigade) and the [[5th Indian Infantry Brigade]] ([[4th Indian Infantry Division]]) with artillery, engineers and other support services attached to form the 5th Indian Brigade Group. In northern and central Syria, ''[[Iraqforce|Iraq Command]]'' (Lieutenant-General Sir [[Edward Quinan]]) was used in the campaign to attack from the east, consisting of the [[10th Indian Infantry Division]], elements of the [[17th Indian Infantry Brigade]] ([[8th Indian Infantry Division]]) and [[Habforce]], the [[4th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)|4th Cavalry Brigade]] and the [[Arab Legion]], under [[John Glubb]] (Glubb Pasha).<ref>Playfair (2004), pp. 204, 206–209, 216.</ref> [[Commando]] and raiding operations were undertaken by [[No. 11 (Scottish) Commando]] from [[Cyprus]],<ref>Smith (2010), p. 191.</ref> as well as [[Palmach]] paramilitary and [[Mista'arvim]] squads from Mandatory Palestine.<ref>Ben-Eliezer, Uri (1998). ''The Making of Israeli Militarism'', pp. 83–84.</ref>

Air support was provided by squadrons from the RAF and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF). Ground forces on the coast were supported by bombardments from [[Royal Navy]] (RN) and [[Royal Australian Navy]] (RAN) units of the [[Mediterranean Fleet (United Kingdom)|Mediterranean Fleet]]. At the beginning, Air Commodore L. O. Brown, the [[Air officer commanding]] (AOC) [[AHQ Levant|HQ RAF Palestine and Transjordan]] had the understrength [[No. 11 Squadron RAF|11 Squadron]] (Blenheim Mk IV), [[No. 80 Squadron RAF|80 Squadron]], re-equipping with [[Hawker Hurricane]]s, [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF|3 Squadron]] RAAF, converting to [[Curtiss P-40 Warhawk|Curtiss Tomahawks]], [[No. 208 Squadron RAF|208 (Army Co-operation) Squadron]] with a flight of Hurricanes and X Flight ([[Gloster Gladiator]]s). A detachment of [[Fleet Air Arm]] (FAA) [[815 Naval Air Squadron]] ([[Fairey Swordfish]] torpedo bombers) in Cyprus and [[No. 84 Squadron RAF|84 Squadron]] (Blenheims) in Iraq were to co-operate.<ref>Playfair (2004), pp. 205–206.</ref>

British forces in reserve included the [[6th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|6th Infantry Division]] (with the [[Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion|Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion–East]] attached to the [[23rd Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)|23rd Infantry Brigade]]) and the [[17th Brigade (Australia)|17th Australian Brigade]].{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=209}} In mid-June, the division with its two infantry brigades came into the line as reinforcements, mainly on the [[Damascus]] front, and the southern force was placed under the command of the [[Australian I Corps|1st Australian Corps]] on 19 June.{{sfn|Joslen|2003|p=50}}{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=211}}{{sfn|Chappell|1987|p=19}} At the beginning of Operation Exporter, the British and Commonwealth force consisted of about {{nowrap|34,000 men}} {{nowrap|(18,000 Australians,}} {{nowrap|9,000 British,}} {{nowrap|2,000 Indian}} and {{nowrap|5,000 Free French troops)}}.<ref name="Long 1953, p. 526">Long (1953), p. 526.</ref> The RAF and RAAF had about 50 aircraft, and the navy contributed the landing ship {{HMS|Glengyle||6}}, five [[cruiser]]s and eight destroyers.<ref>Playfair (2004), p. 214.</ref>

===British plan of attack===
[[File:The British Army in the Middle East 1941 E3839.jpg|left|thumb|201x201px|Indian troops outside Damascus]]

The British plan of attack devised by Wilson called for four lines of invasion, in Damascus and Beirut, in Palestine, in northern Syria and [[Palmyra]], in central Syria, from Iraq, and in [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] (in northern Lebanon) also from Iraq.<ref>Playfair (2004), pp. 203, 206.</ref>{{sfn|James|2017|p=119}} The 5th Indian Brigade Group ([[Brigadier]] [[Wilfrid Lewis Lloyd]]) was ordered to cross the Syrian border from Palestine and take [[Quneitra]] and [[Deraa]]. This was anticipated to open the way for the 1st Free French Division to advance to Damascus. Four days after the commencement of the operation, the force was brought under unified command and was named ''Gentforce'' after its French commander, [[Major-General]] [[Paul Legentilhomme|Paul Louis Le Gentilhomme]].<ref>Playfair (2004), pp. 210–212.</ref> The 7th Australian Division (Major-General [[John Lavarack]], succeeded by Major-General [[Arthur Samuel Allen|Arthur "Tubby" Allen]] on 18 June when Lavarack took over [[I Corps (Australia)|Australian I Corps]]) advanced from Palestine along the coastal road from [[Haifa]] towards Beirut.<ref>Long (1953), pp. 338, 413</ref> The [[21st Brigade (Australia)|Australian 21st Brigade]] was to take Beirut, advancing along the coast from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], over the [[Litani River]] towards [[Sidon]].<ref>Johnston (2005), pp. 48–55.</ref> The Australian [[25th Brigade (Australia)|25th Brigade]] was to attack the large Vichy French airbase at [[Rayak (Riyaq)|Rayak]] by advancing along a route further inland from the 21st Brigade.<ref>Playfair (2004), pp. 208, 211, 219.</ref> The operation was also to include a supporting commando landing from Cyprus at the south of the Litani River.<ref>Long (1953), pp. 360–361.</ref>

Once the two southern prongs were well engaged, a third force of formations drawn from ''Iraq Command'', was planned to invade Syria. The bulk of the 10th Indian Infantry Division (Major-General [[William Slim|William "Bill" Slim]]) was to advance north-west, up the [[Euphrates River]] from [[Haditha]] in Iraq (upstream from Baghdad), toward [[Deir ez Zor]] and thence to [[Raqqa]] and [[Aleppo]]. The manoeuvre was intended to threaten the communication and supply lines of Vichy forces defending Beirut from the Australians advancing from the south, particularly the railway line running northwards through Aleppo to [[Turkey]], which was thought by some British strategists to be sympathetic to Vichy and Germany.{{sfn|Raugh|1993|pp=221–222}} A group of two infantry battalions from the [[20th Indian Infantry Brigade]] (10th Indian Division) and two from the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade (8th Indian Infantry Division) would operate independently to capture all the territory in north-eastern Syria. The 20th Indian Infantry Brigade were to make a feint from Mosul, and the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade would advance into the ''Bec du Canard'' (Duck's Bill) region, through which a railway from Aleppo ran eastward to Mosul and [[Baghdad]].<ref>Playfair (2004), p. 217.</ref><ref>Mackenzie (1951), p. 121.</ref> Habforce was in Iraq attached to ''Iraq Command'' because it had struck across the desert from the [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]] border as part of the relief of [[RAF Habbaniya]] during the Anglo-Iraqi War.{{sfn|Raugh|1993|p=222}} Habforce consisted of the 4th Cavalry Brigade, the 1st Battalion, [[The Essex Regiment|Essex Regiment]] and the Arab Legion Mechanized Regiment supported by field, anti-tank and anti-aircraft artillery units, to gather in western Iraq between [[Rutbah]] and the Transjordan border.<ref>Playfair (2004), p. 213.</ref> As the thrust up the Euphrates took place, Habforce would meanwhile advance north-westerly to take Palmyra, Syria, and secure [[Kirkuk-Haifa oil pipeline|the oil pipeline]] from Haditha to Tripoli.{{sfn|Raugh|1993|p=222}}

==Campaign==
===War on land===
[[File:IraqforceInSyria1941.svg|thumb|{{centre|Main axis of invasion from Iraq}}]]

Hostilities commenced on 8 June 1941. The battles of the campaign were:
* [[Battle of the Litani River]] (9 June): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
* [[Battle of Jezzine (1941)|Battle of Jezzine]] (13 June): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
* [[Battle of Sidon (1941)|Battle of Sidon]] (13–15 June): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
* [[Battle of Kissoué]] (15–17 June): part of the advance on Damascus from Palestine
* [[Battle of Damascus (1941)|Battle of Damascus]] (18–21 June): part of the advance on Damascus from Palestine
* [[Battle of Merdjayoun]] (19–24 June): part of the advance on Beirut and Damascus from Palestine
* [[Battle of Palmyra (1941)|Battle of Palmyra]] (1 July): part of the advance on Palmyra and Tripoli from Iraq
* [[Battle of Deir ez-Zor (1941)|Battle of Deir ez-Zor]] (3 July): part of the advance on central and northern Syria from Iraq
* [[Battle of Damour]] (5–9 July): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
* [[Battle of Beirut (1941)|Battle of Beirut]] (12 July): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine

===War in the air===
[[File:11 Squadron RAF Blenheims bombing Beirut 1941 IWM HU 93073.jpg|thumb|{{centre|11 Squadron RAF [[Bristol Blenheim]] bombing Beirut, 1941}}]]

The initial advantage that the Vichy French Air Force (''Armée de l'Air de Vichy'') enjoyed did not last long. The Vichy French lost most of their aircraft destroyed on the ground where the flat terrain, the absence of infrastructure and the absence of modern [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft (AA) artillery]] made them vulnerable to air attacks.<ref name=Mollo146>Mollo (1981), p. 146.</ref> On 26 June, a [[strafe|strafing]] run by Tomahawks of 3 Squadron RAAF, on [[Homs]] airfield, destroyed five [[Dewoitine D.520]]s of Fighter Squadron II/3 (''Groupe de Chasse II/3'') and damaged six more.<ref>Shores & Ehrengardt (1987), p. 94.</ref>

On 10 July, five D.520s attacked Bristol Blenheim bombers of [[No. 45 Squadron RAF|45 Squadron]] RAF, which were being escorted by seven Tomahawks from 3 Squadron RAAF.<ref name=Herington94>Herington (1954), p. 94.</ref> The French pilots claimed three Blenheims but at least four D.520s were destroyed by the Australians.<ref name=Herington94/><ref>Brown (1983), p. 17.</ref> The following day, a Dewoitine pilot shot down a Tomahawk from 3 Squadron, the only one lost during the campaign.<ref name=Herington94/> By the end of the campaign, the Vichy forces had lost 179 aircraft from about 289 committed to the Levant, with remaining aircraft with the range to do so evacuating to [[Rhodes]].<ref>Shores & Ehrengardt (August 1970), pp. 283–284.</ref>

===War at sea===
The war at sea was not a major part of Operation Exporter, although some significant actions were fought. During the [[Battle of the Litani River]], rough seas kept commandos from landing along the coast on the first day of battle. On 9 June 1941, the French destroyers ''Valmy'' and ''Guépard'' fired on the advancing Australians at the Litani River before being driven off by shore-based artillery-fire. The French destroyers then exchanged fire with the British destroyer {{HMS|Janus|F53|6}}. The [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] light cruiser {{HMNZS|Leander||6}} came to the aid of ''Janus'' along with six British destroyers and the French retired.<ref name= Piekałkiewicz144>Piekałkiewicz (1987), p. 144.</ref> The ''Luftwaffe'' attempted to come to the aid of the French naval forces on 15 June. [[Junkers Ju 88]]s of ''II./LG'' 1 (2nd Group, [[Lehrgeschwader 1|''Lehrgeschwader'' 1]]), attacked British warships forces off the Syrian coast and hit the destroyers {{HMS|Ilex|D61|6}} and {{HMS|Isis|D87|2}}. That evening, French aircraft of the 4th Naval Air Group bombed British naval units off the Syrian coast.<ref name= Piekałkiewicz144/>

[[File:AWM 010546 allen lebanon.jpg|thumb|{{centre|[[Hammana]], September 1941. With terrain typical of the region in the background, Maj. Gen. [[Arthur Samuel Allen|A. S. Allen]] (centre), commander of the [[7th Division (Australia)|Australian 7th Division]], inspects some of his men. [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] units [[garrison]]ed [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]] for several months, following the end of the campaign.}}]]

On 16 June, British torpedo aircraft sank the French destroyer [[French destroyer Chevalier Paul (1932)|''Chevalier Paul'']], which had been en route from [[Toulon]] to Syria, carrying ammunition from [[Metropolitan France]]. The following day, British bombers attacked another French destroyer in the port of Beirut which was also carrying ammunition.<ref name= Piekałkiewicz144/> On the night of 22/23 June, ''Guépard'' fought a brief engagement with two British cruisers and six destroyers off the Syrian coast, before the French destroyer retired under the cover of darkness.<ref>Piekałkiewicz, p. 146</ref> The French suffered further losses on 25 June, when the British submarine {{HMS|Parthian|N75|6}} torpedoed and sank the French submarine [[French submarine Souffleur (1924)|''Souffleur'']] off the Lebanese coast; shortly afterwards, the French tanker ''Adour'', which was carrying the entire fuel supply for the French forces in the Middle East, was attacked by British torpedo aircraft and badly damaged.<ref>Piekałkiewicz, p. 147</ref><!--During a ceasefire which started on 12 July, Dentz ordered all ships and aircraft under his command to move to neutral Turkey where they were interned. Can't find a citation yet.-->

===Armistice===
On 10 July, as the Australian 21st Brigade was on the verge of entering Beirut, Dentz sought an armistice. At one minute past midnight on 12 July, a ceasefire came into effect and ended the campaign. The [[Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre]] (also known as the "Convention of Acre") was signed on 14 July at the [[William Sidney Smith|Sidney Smith]] Barracks on the outskirts of the city of [[Akko|Acre]].<ref name="Playfair 2004, pp. 221, 335–337"/>

==Aftermath==
===Analysis===
Wavell had not wanted the Syrian distraction, given that British forces in the Mediterranean were already overstretched. However, political factors, including pressure from Churchill and CIGS in addition to guarantees by the Free French that any operation into Syria and Lebanon would meet with little resistance, forced his hand. In the event, the Vichy government ordered its soldiers to resist the invasion and its troops offered stiff resistance to the advancing British Empire forces. The Vichy government also conducted an effective propaganda campaign within France, encouraging the people to fight the "hereditary enemy" (Britain) and equating the defence of Syria as a matter of national honour.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barr |first=James |title=A Line in the Sand: Britain and France and the Struggle that Shaped the Middle East |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2011 |edition=1st |location=London |pages=218}}</ref> As a result of the unexpected resistance British forces quickly required reinforcements, which could only be provided piecemeal. Many of the British and Commonwealth troops were novices and the hot, dry, mountainous terrain was a severe test, in which Indian Army units excelled. The Australian contingent had to cope with the worst country but conducted the most effective attack, "with a good plan carried through with great determination". The achievement of air superiority was delayed by the lack of aircraft but the urgency of the situation made it impossible for the naval and ground forces to wait. Vichy French airmen concentrated their attacks on ships and ground targets, which were highly effective until they were forced to move north. The scare caused by the German success in Crete had been exaggerated because the German parachute and glider invasions of The Netherlands and Crete had been very costly and there was little chance of the Germans gaining a bridgehead in Syria. The Germans withdrew from Syria to preserve their forces and to deprive the British of a pretext for invasion. The British invaded Syria anyway and gained naval and air bases far north of Suez, thus increasing the security of the oil route from [[Basra]] to Baghdad in Iraq to Haifa in Palestine.<ref>Playfair (2004), pp. 221–222.</ref>

===Casualties===
In August, the Vichy authorities announced {{nowrap|6,352 casualties}} of whom {{nowrap|521 men}} had been killed, {{nowrap|1,037 were}} missing, {{nowrap|1,790 wounded}} and {{nowrap|3,004 men}} had been taken prisoner. After the war, Dentz stated that {{nowrap|1,092 men}} had been killed, which would mean {{nowrap|1,790 wounded,}} {{nowrap|466 missing}} and {{nowrap|3,004 prisoners}} against a British claim of {{nowrap|8,912 casualties}} of all natures.<ref name="Long 1953, p. 526"/> The Vichy Air Force lost {{nowrap|179 aircraft,}} most destroyed on the ground, the navy lost one submarine and {{nowrap|5,668 men}} [[defected]] to the Free French.<ref name=Mollo146/><ref>Playfair (2004), pp. 214, 221.</ref> The armistice agreement led to the repatriation to France of {{nowrap|37,563 military}} and civilian personnel in eight convoys, consisting of three [[hospital ship]]s and a "gleaner" ship, from 7 August to 27 September.<ref>Auchinleck (1946), p. 4216.</ref> Prisoners taken by the Vichy French forces were returned but several British prisoners of war had been sent out of Syria, some after the armistice. The delay in obtaining the return of these prisoners led to the detention of Dentz and {{nowrap|29 senior}} officers in Palestine who were released when the British prisoners were returned to Syria.<ref>Auchinleck (1946), p. 4217.</ref> British and Commonwealth casualties were {{nowrap|about 4,652;}} the Australians suffered {{nowrap|1,552 casualties,}} {{nowrap|(416 men}} killed and {{nowrap|1,136 wounded.)}} The Free French incurred about {{circa|1,300 losses}} and {{nowrap|1,100 men}} taken prisoner; British and Indian casualties were {{nowrap|1,800 wounded,}} {{nowrap|1,200 men}} captured and {{nowrap|3,150 sick,}} including {{nowrap|350 malaria}} cases.<ref name="Long 1953, p. 526"/> The RAF and RAAF lost {{nowrap|27 aircraft.}}<ref>Playfair (2004), p. 222.</ref>

===Subsequent events===
[[File:Allied leaders meet in the Middle East.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Allied leaders meet in Syria. Left to right: [[Arthur Longmore|Air Chief Marshal Longmore]], [[Archibald Wavell|General Wavell]], [[Charles de Gaulle|General de Gaulle]], [[Georges Catroux|General Catroux]]}}]]

Operations against the Vichy regime in Syria could only be conducted with troops withdrawn from the Western Desert, a dispersal that contributed to the defeat of [[Operation Battleaxe]] and made the Syrian campaign take longer than necessary. Churchill had decided to sack Wavell in early May over his reluctance to divert forces to Iraq. Wavell was relieved on 22 June and relinquished command on 5 July, leaving for India two days afterwards.{{sfn|Raugh|1993|pp=222, 238–239}} In late July 1941, De Gaulle flew from [[Brazzaville]] to congratulate the victors.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title= Foreign News: Reconquering An Empire |date= August 4, 1941 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url= https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,884370,00.html}}</ref> Free French General [[Georges Catroux]] was placed in control of Syria and Lebanon and on 26 November, shortly after assuming this post, Catroux recognized the independence of Syria and Lebanon in the name of the Free French movement.<ref>Playfair (2004), p. 221.</ref> After elections on 8 November 1943, Lebanon became an independent state on 22 November 1943 and on 27 February 1945, declared war on Germany and the [[Empire of Japan]].<ref>Martin (2011), p. 11.</ref>

By 1945, however, continued French presence in the Levant saw nationalist demonstrations which the French attempted to quell. With heavy Syrian casualties, notably in Damascus, Churchill opposed French action but after being rebuffed by Charles De Gaulle, he ordered British forces into Syria from Jordan with orders to fire on the French. Known as the [[Levant Crisis]], British armored cars and troops reached Damascus, following which the French were escorted and confined to their barracks. With political pressure added, De Gaulle ordered a ceasefire and France withdrew from Syria the following year.<ref name=Luce>{{cite book|last1=Luce|first1=Henry Robinson|title=Time, Volume 45|date=1945|publisher=Time Incorporated|pages=25–26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-ELAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>

===Victoria Cross===
* Lieutenant [[Arthur Roden Cutler]]<ref>Playfair (2004), p. 211.</ref>{{sfn|James|2017|pp=203–205}}
* Private [[James Heather Gordon|Jim Gordon]]<ref>Playfair (2004), p. 220.</ref>{{sfn|James|2017|pp=225–227}}

==See also==
{{Div col}}
* [[Syria-Lebanon Campaign order of battle]]
* [[Asmahan]]
* [[Attack on Mers-el-Kébir]]
* [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]]
* [[Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)]]
* [[Italian bombings on Palestine in World War II]]
* [[French Colonial Empire]]
* [[List of French possessions and colonies]]
* [[Moshe Dayan#Eye patch]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

==Sources==
===Books===
* {{cite book |last=Auchinleck |first=Claud |year=1946 |author-link=Claude Auchinleck |title=Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 5th July, 1941 to 31st October 1941 |publisher=War Office |location=London}} in {{London Gazette |issue=37695 |date=20 August 1946 |supp=y |pages=4215–4230}}
* {{cite book |last=Brune |first=Peter |title=A Bastard of a Place: The Australians in Papua |publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]] |year=2003 |location=Crows Nest, NSW |isbn=978-1-74114-011-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Chappell |first=Mike |year=1987 |series=Men-At-Arms |title=British Battle Insignia: 1939–1940 |volume=II |publisher=Osprey |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-85045-739-1}}
* {{cite book |last=de Wailly |first=H. |title=Invasion Syria, 1941: Churchill and De Gaulle's Forgotten War |trans-title=Syrie 1941: la guerre occultée: Vichystes contre gaullistes |others=trans. W. Land |year=2016 |orig-year=2006 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=London |edition=2nd English trans. |isbn=978-1-78453-449-3}}
* Gaunson, A.B. ''The Anglo–French Clash in Lebanon and Syria, 1940–45'' (St. Martin's Press, 1987).
* {{cite book |last= Herington |first= John |title= Air War Against Germany and Italy |year= 1954 |publisher=[[Australian War Memorial]] |location=[[Canberra]] |series= Australia in the War of 1939-1945 |volume= 3}}
* {{Cite book |last=James|first=Richard|title=Australia's War with France: The Campaign in Syria and Lebanon, 1941|year=2017|publisher=Big Sky Publishing|location=Newport, New South Wales|isbn=978-1-925520-92-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Johnston |first=Mark |title=The Silent 7th: An Illustrated History of the 7th Australian Division 1940–46 |year=2005 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |location=Crows Nest, New South Wales |isbn=978-1-74114-191-7}}
* {{Joslen-OOB}}
* {{cite book |last=Keegan |first=John |author-link=John Keegan |editor-last1=Dear |editor-first1=I. C. B. |editor-last2=Foot |editor-first2=M. R. D. |title=Oxford Companion to World War II |year=2005 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-280670-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Long |first=Gavin |title=Greece, Crete and Syria |volume=II |series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945, Series 1, Army |chapter-url=https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/RCDIG1070201/ |chapter=Chapters 16 to 26 |publisher=[[Australian War Memorial]] |location=Canberra |edition=1st online |year=1953 |oclc=3134080}}
* {{cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=Compton |author-link=Compton Mackenzie |title=Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943, Defence |volume=I |location=London |year=1951 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |oclc=1412578}}
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Chris |title=World War II The Book of Lists |year=2011 |publisher=The History Press |location=Stroud |isbn=978-0-7524-6163-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Mollo |first=Andrew |title=The Armed Forces of World War II |publisher=Crown |year=1981 |location=London |isbn=978-0-517-54478-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Owen|first=James|title=Commando|year=2012|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=978-0-349-12362-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Piekałkiewicz |first=Janusz |author-link=Janusz Piekałkiewicz |title=Sea War: 1939–1945 |publisher=Blandford Press |year=1987 |location=London/New York |isbn=978-0-7137-1665-8}}
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Playfair|2004}}
|last1=Playfair |first1=Major-General I. S. O. |first2=Captain F. C. |last2=Flynn |first3=Brigadier C. J. C. |last3=Molony |first4=Air Vice-Marshal S. E. |last4=Toomer |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=J. R. M. |series=History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series |title=The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Germans Come to the Help of their Ally (1941) |volume=II |publisher=Naval & Military Press |year=2004 |orig-year=1st. pub. HMSO 1956 |isbn=978-1-84574-066-5 |display-authors=1}}
* {{cite book |last=Raugh |first=H. E. |title=Wavell in the Middle East, 1939–1941: A Study in Generalship |year=1993 |publisher=Brassey's |location=London |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-08-040983-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Richards |first=Denis |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RAF-I/UK-RAF-I-5.html |access-date=3 February 2017 |title=Royal Air Force 1939–1945: The Fight At Odds |volume=I |location=London |publisher=[[HMSO]] |year=1974 |orig-year=1953 |edition=pbk. |isbn=978-0-11-771592-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Shores |first=Christopher F. |author2=Ehrengardt, Christian-Jacques |title=L' aviation de Vichy au combat 2 La campagne de Syrie, 8 juin – 14 juillet 1941 |language=fr |trans-title=Vichy Air Combat: Syria Campaign, 8 June – 14 July 1941 |volume=2 |location=Paris |publisher=Lavauzelle |year=1987 |isbn=978-2-7025-0171-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=C. |title=England's Last War Against France: Fighting Vichy 1940–1942 |year=2010 |orig-year=2009 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |edition=Phoenix |isbn=978-0-7538-2705-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sutherland |first1=Jon |last2=Canwell |first2=Diane |title=Vichy Air Force at War: The French Air Force that Fought the Allies in World War II |date=2011 |publisher=Pen & Sword Aviation |location=Barnsley |isbn=978-1-84884-336-3 |pages=53–67}}
* Sutton, David. ''Syria and Lebanon 1941: The Allied Fight Against the Vichy French'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2022).
* {{cite book |last=Wavell |first=Archibald |author-link=Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell |title=Despatch on Operations in Iraq, East Syria and Iran from 10th April, 1941 to 12th January, 1942 |year=1946 |publisher=War Office |location=London}} in {{London Gazette |issue=37685 |date=13 August 1946 |supp=y|pages=4093–4102}}

====Journals====
* Anderson, Betty S., and Götz Nordbruch. "Nazism in Syria and Lebanon: The Ambivalence of the German Option, 1933–1945." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' 44.1 (2012).
*{{cite journal |last1=Baudru|first1=Remi|title=Quand l'Armée de l'air partit en Syrie, combattre la RAF: ce que recontent les photos|journal=Le Fana de l'Aviation |date=October 1993 |issue=287 |pages=16–25 |issn=0757-4169 |language=fr|trans-title=When the French Air Force Fought the RAF in Syria: What the Photos Say}}
* {{cite journal |last=Bou-Nacklie |first=N. E. |title=The 1941 Invasion of Syria and Lebanon: The Role of the Local Paramilitary |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=30 |issue=3 |year=1994 |pages=512–529 |issn=1743-7881 |doi=10.1080/00263209408701009}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Shores |first1=Christopher F. |last2= Ehrengardt |first2=Christian-Jacques |date=July 1970 |title=Syrian Campaign, 1941: Forestalling the Germans: Air Battles Over S. Lebanon |others=Part I |journal=Air Pictorial |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=242–247 |oclc=29897622}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Shores |first1= Christopher F. |last2= Ehrengardt |first2=Christian-Jacques |date=August 1970 |title=Syrian Campaign, 1941: Breaking the Back of Vichy Air Strength Conclusion |others=Part II |journal=Air Pictorial |volume=32 |issue=8 |pages=280–284 |oclc=29897622}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite thesis |last=Gaunson |first=Alexander Bruce |title=To End a Mandate: Sir E. L. Spears and the Anglo-French Collision in the Levant, 1941–1945 |type=PhD |url=https://hydra.hull.ac.uk/resources/hull:4656|website=hydra.hull.ac.uk |year=1981 |publisher=University of Hull |access-date=7 October 2016 |id={{EThOS|uk.bl.ethos.348610}} |oclc=53527058}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Syria-Lebanon Campaign 1941}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/37685.pdf |title=Despatch on Operations in Iraq, East Syria, and Iran From 10th April, 1941 to 12th January 1942.|work= Supplement to the [[London Gazette]], Number 37685|date=August 13, 1946|access-date=September 26, 2009}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/37695/pages/4215|title=Claude Auchinleck's Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 5th July, 1941 to 31st October 1941.|work=Supplement to the London Gazette, Number 37695|date=August 20, 1946|access-date=November 6, 2009}}
* [http://www.awm.gov.au/units/event_295.asp Australian War Memorial, 2005, "Syrian Campaign"]
* {{Cite magazine|url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,765709-1,00.html|title=World War: MIDDLE EASTERN THEATER: The Syrian Show Begins|date=June 16, 1941|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930115501/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,795404,00.html "Exit With A Flourish"] – ''Time'' magazine article, July 28, 1941
* [http://homepages.force9.net/rothwell/palestine.htm The Palmach]

{{British Commando raids of the Second World War}}
{{French Mandate of Syria}}
{{Liberation of France}}
{{World War II}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Syria-Lebanon Campaign}}
[[Category:Middle East theatre of World War II]]
[[Category:World War II campaigns of the Mediterranean Theatre]]
[[Category:Military history of Lebanon]]
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[[Category:Military history of India during World War II]]
[[Category:Military battles of Vichy France]]
[[Category:World War II occupied territories]]
[[Category:1941 in France]]
[[Category:1941 in Mandatory Syria]]
[[Category:Lebanon under French rule]]
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[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]]
[[Category:Syria–Lebanon campaign| ]]
[[Category:1941 in Lebanon]]
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