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{{short description|Medieval genre of handbook, summing up a field of knowledge}}
{{other uses}}
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'''Summa''' and its diminutive '''summula''' (plural ''summae'' and ''summulae'', respectively) was a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Didactic method|didactics]] [[literature|literary]] [[genre]] written in [[Latin language|Latin]], born during the 12th century, and popularized in 13th century Europe. In its simplest sense, they might be considered texts that 'sum up' knowledge in a field, such as the [[compendium]]s of [[theology]], [[philosophy]] and [[canon law]]. Their function during the Middle Ages was largely as manuals or handbooks of necessary knowledge used by individuals who would not advance their studies any further.<ref>{{cite book | last = Franklin-Brown | first = Mary | title = Reading the world : encyclopedic writing in the scholastic age | publisher = The University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago London | year = 2012 | isbn = 9780226260709|page=61}}</ref>

==Features==
It was a kind of [[encyclopedia]] that developed a matter about [[Law]], [[Theology]] or [[Philosophy]] most of all. Matters were divided in a more detailed way as it was in the ''tractatus'' ([[treatise]]), since they were divided into ''quaestiones'' (questions) and these ones were also divided into ''articles''. The articles had the following structure:
#Title of the article as a question and showing two different positions (''disputatio'').
#Objections or arguments against one of the alternatives, specially the one that defended the author.
#Arguments in favor of such an alternative, based on the [[Bible]], the [[Holy Fathers]] and so on.
#Solution, that includes arguments that combine faith and reason and that express the author's thought.
#The ''sententia'' or answer to the question, that consists in the refutation of the initial objections against the author's solution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ibars |first=Josefina Mateu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HsPEsH9MMX4C&q=suma+%22g%C3%A9nero+literario%22 |title=Braquigrafía de sumas: estudio analítico en la traditio de algunos textos manuscritos, incunables e impresos arcaicos, s. XIII-XVI |date=1984 |publisher=Edicions Universitat Barcelona |isbn=978-84-7528-141-4 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Blanco |first=Carlos Nieto |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kyley4JXgNEC&q=suma+%22g%C3%A9nero+literario%22 |title=Lecturas de historia de la filosofía |last2=Cobo |first2=Manuel Abascal |date=1996 |publisher=Ed. Universidad de Cantabria |isbn=978-84-8102-134-9 |language=es}}</ref>

==History==
Some historians of theology cite [[Origen]]'s ''peri archon'' as the first summary of Catholic theology. Others consider that the first in point of time is "De Trinitate" by [[St. Hilary of Poitiers]]. The distinction has also been accorded to [[Radulfus Ardens]], an eleventh-century theologian and preacher, a native of [[Beaulieu-sous-Parthenay|Beaulieu]], author of a comprehensive "Speculum Universale", still in Manuscript. In this wide sense of the word, however, the encyclopedic treatises of [[St. Isidore of Seville]], [[Rabanus Maurus]] etc., entitled "De Etymologiis" or "De Universo" might also be considered to be summaries of theology and philosophy.
 
In the stricter sense of the word, "Summa" is applied to the more technical systematic compendiums which began to appear in the twelfth century. According to the ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', the form was invented by the grammarian [[Peter Helias]].<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-literary/ Literary Forms of Medieval Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> An alternative title is "Sentences" (Latin ''Libri Sententiarum''), the diminutive, "Summulæ", being of later origin. What is peculiar to "summists" or "sententiaries", as the authors of these works are called, is the adoption of the method first suggested by [[Pope Sylvester II|Gerbert]] in his "De Rationali et Ratione Uti", and used by [[Abelard]] in his "Sic et Non", consisting in an exposition of contradictory views, the affirmative and negative. Progress towards the final form of the thirteenth-century "Summæ" is marked by the greater care which was taken, as time went on, to explain in a systematic manner the apparent contradiction among the conflicting opinions presented. Besides this method of exposition, the twelfth-century summists adopted [[dialectic]] definitely as a means of elucidating, not only philosophical, but also theological truth. Finally the summists adopted more or less unanimously a fixed division of the field of theology and philosophy, and adhered more or less closely to a definite order of topics, although varying in their arrangement.

The first great summist was [[Peter Lombard]] (died 1160), author of the ''[[Books of Sentences]]'' and surnamed "Master of Sentences". The order of topics in the ''Books of Sentences'' is as follows: In the first place, the topics are divided into res and signa, or things and signs. "Things" are subdivided into: the object of our happiness, God — to this topic Peter devotes the first book; means of attaining this object, viz., creatures — the topic treated in the second book; virtues, men and angels, that is, special means of happiness and subjects of happiness — the topic of the third book; the fourth book is devoted to signs: the sacraments.
 
How far Peter Lombard was influenced by earlier summists, such as [[Robert Pullen]], [[Hugh of St. Victor]] and the author of the "[[Summa sententiarum|Summa Sententiarum]]" which was immediately inspired by Abelard's work, historians have not determined. It is generally admitted that the Lombard was not entirely original. He deserves his renown as the first great summist chiefly because, in spite of the opposition which his work met during his lifetime, its influence grew greater in time, until in the thirteenth century it was universally adopted as a text. Notwithstanding all that hostile critics of [[Scholasticism]] have said about the dryness and unattractiveness of the medieval "Summæ", these works have many merits from the point of view of pedagogy, and a philosophical school which supplements, as Scholasticism did, the compendious treatment of the "Summæ", with the looser form of treatment of the "Quæstiones Disputatæ" and the "Opuscula", unites in its method of writing the advantages which modern philosophy derives from the combination of textbook and doctor's dissertation. The ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' of [[St. Thomas Aquinas]], begun when Aquinas was [[Regent master|Regent Master]] at the ''studium provinciale'' at [[Santa Sabina]] the forerunner of the [[Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas|Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, ''Angelicum'']], is often considered the most perfect specimen of this kind of literature.
 
The term "Summulæ" was used, for the most part, to designate the logical compendiums which came to be adopted as texts in the schools during the thirteenth century. The best known of these is the "Summulæ Logicales" of [[Peter Hispanus]], afterwards Pope John XXI.

==Dominican works==
Manuals of theology and more especially manuals, or summae, on penance for the use of confessors were composed in great numbers. The oldest Dominican commentaries on the "Sentences" are those of [[Roland of Cremona]], [[Hugh of Saint Cher]], [[Richard Fitzacre]], [[Robert of Kilwardby]] and [[Albertus Magnus]]. The series begins with the year 1230 if not earlier and the last are prior to the middle of the thirteenth century.<ref>[[Mandonnet]], ''Siger de Brabant'', I, 53.</ref>

The "Summa" of St. Thomas (1265–75) is still the masterpiece of theology. The monumental work of Albertus Magnus is unfinished. The "Summa de bono" of [[Ulrich of Strasburg]] (d. 1277), a disciple of Albert is still unedited, but is of interest to the historian of the thought of the thirteenth century.<ref>[[Martin Grabmann]], "Studien ueber Ulrich von Strassburg" in {{lang|de|[[Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie]]}}, XXIX, 1905, 82.</ref> The theological summa of [[Antoninus of Florence|St. Antoninus]] is highly esteemed by moralists and economists.<ref>Ilgner, "Die Volkswirtschaftlichen Anschauungen: Antonins von Florenz", Paderborn, 1904.</ref> The "Compendium theologicæ veritatis" of [[Hugh Ripelin]] of Strasburg (d. 1268) is the most widespread and famous manual of the Middle Ages.<ref>Mandonnet, "Des écrits authentiques de St. Thomas", Fribourg, 1910, p. 86.</ref>

The chief manual of confessors is that of [[Paul of Hungary]] composed for the [[Brothers of St. Nicholas of Bologna]] (1220–21) and edited without mention of the author in the "Bibliotheca Casinensis"<ref>IV, 1880, 191.</ref> and with false assignment of authorship by [[Raymund Duellius]].<ref>"Miscellan. Lib." (Augsburg, 1723, 59.</ref> The "Summa de Poenitentia" of [[Raymond of Pennafort]], composed in 1235, was a classic during the Middle Ages and was one of the works of which the manuscripts were most multiplied. The "Summa Confessorum" of [[John of Freiburg]] (d. 1314) is, according to [[Johann Friedrich von Schulte]], the most perfect product of this class of literature.

The Pisan [[Bartolommeo of San Concordio]] has left us a "Summa Casuum" composed in 1338, in which the matter is arranged in alphabetical order. It was very successful in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The manuals for confessors of [[John Nieder]] (d. 1438), [[Antoninus of Florence|St. Antoninus]], [[Archbishop of Florence]] (d. 1459), and [[Girolamo Savonarola]] (d. 1498) were much esteemed in their time<ref>Quétif and [[Jacques Échard]], {{lang|la|Scriptores ordinis prædicatorum recensiti, notisque historicis illustrati ad annum 1700 auctoribus}}; I, passim, Hurter, "Nomenclator literarius; aetas media", Innsbruck, 1906, passim; F. von Schulte, "Gesch. der Quellen und Literatur des canonischen Rechts", Stuttgart, II, 1877, p. 410 sqq.; Dietterle, "Die Summæ confessorum von ihren Anfängen an bis zu Silvester Prierias" in "Zeitschrift für Kirchengesch.", XXIV, 1903; XXVIII, 1907).</ref><ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Order of Preachers}}</ref>

==Law==
In the area of Law, the ''summa'' is a practical and didactic genre, that was developed from the methodology of the [[Gloss (annotation)|gloss]]. It was divided into two different literary genres: the summa (derived from the ''similia''), and the ''questio legitima'' (derived from the ''contraria'').

The ''summa'' was born in the minor Law schools whose aim was to instruct their students with easy summaries of the [[Justinian]] codes. In order to achieve this goal, easy, simple and systematic summaries of whole works were made, and the literary genre of the ''summae'' in the legal area was born.

The ''summae'' were developed specially in the [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] schools of [[Occitania (administrative region)|Occitanie]] specially regarding Justinian's ''Institutiones''.

===Some important legal ''summae''===
*[[Azo of Bologna]]'''s Summa Codicis''.
*''Summa Codicis'' written in [[Occitan language|Occitan]] and known as ''Lo Codi'', translated into Latin by [[Riccardo Pisano]].

==Theology and Philosophy==
The teaching of [[Theology]] and [[Philosophy]] during the Middle Ages had two different ways: ''lectio'' and ''disputatio'':
* The ''lectio'' (lesson) was very similar to a present class. The teacher commented the sentences and doctrines of famous and known authors, such as for instance, [[Aristotle]]'s or [[Boethius]]' works, or [[Peter Lombard]]'s sentences. 
* The ''disputatio'' (dispute) was more informal than the ''lectio'', and was a real dialogue between teachers and disciples, where arguments in favour of or against any theses or subject were defended.
These two school methods originated their literary forms:
* From the ''lectio'', the ''commentaria'' (commentaries) were born. And these ones brought the ''summae'' about, which were freer and more autonomous and systematic than the ''commentaria''. 
* The ''disputatio'' originated the ''quaestiones disputatae'' (disputed matters), that gather the material of the disputes that were held every two weeks; and the ''[[quodlibeta]]'' (random questions), that gathered the disputes that were held in [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]]. This methodology of the ''disputationes'' was the technical model of the famous mediaeval ''summae''.<ref>Merino, J.A. OFM. Historia de la filosofía franciscana. Madrid. BAC. 1993, p. 13. {{in lang|es}}</ref>

===Theology===
There are more or less sixty extant ''summae'' in this field, including:
*[[Simon of Tournai]]'s ''Summa'' or ''Institutiones in sacram paginam'', 1165
*[[Prepositinus of Cremona]]'s ''Summa de officiis'' or ''Summa de poenitentia''
*[[Gerard of Sesso]], incipit ''Ne transgrediaris'', c. 1200
*[[William of Auxerre]]'s ''Summa Aurea'', 1220
*[[Thomas Aquinas]]' ''[[Summa Theologiae]]'', 1274
*Thomas Aquinas' ''[[Summa contra Gentiles]]''
*[[Alexander of Hales]]' ''Summa Theologiae'', 13th century
*[[Gerard of Bologna]]'s ''Summa Theologiae'', 1317
*[[Francesc Eiximenis]]' ''Summa Theologica'' (fragments). 14th century

==References==
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Summæ}}

;Attribution
{{Catholic|wstitle=Summæ}}

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Christian theology books|*]]
[[Category:Medieval European encyclopedias]]