View source for Sukha

{{Short description|Concept of happiness or bliss in Indian religion}}
{{other uses}}
{{Buddhism|collapsed=1}}
{{Buddhist term
| fontsize = 100%
| title    = Sukha
| bn       =
| si       = 
| en       = Happiness, ease, or bliss
| vi       = Hạnh phúc
| bo       = 
| bo-Latn  =
| zh       = 樂 (佛教)
| zh-Latn  = Lè
| ja       = 樂 (仏教)
| ja-Latn  = Raku
| km       = សុខ
| km-Latn  = Sŏkh
| ko       =
| ko-Latn  =
| my       =
| my-Latn  =
| tgl      =
| th       = [[wikt:สุขา|สุขา]], {{IPA|th|sukha|IPA}}
}}

'''''Sukha''''' ([[Pali]] and {{Langx|sa|सुख}}) means [[happiness]], [[pleasure]], ease, joy or bliss. Among the early scriptures, 'sukha' is set up as a contrast to 'preya' (प्रेय) meaning a transient pleasure, whereas the pleasure of 'sukha' has an authentic state of happiness within a being that is lasting. In the [[Pāli Canon]], the term is used in the context of describing [[Laity|laic]] pursuits and [[Dhyāna in Buddhism|meditation]].

==Etymology==
According to Monier-Williams (1964), the etymology of ''sukha'' is "said to be ''su'' ['good'] + ''kha'' ['aperture'] and to mean originally 'having a good axle-hole'"; thus, for instance, in the [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]] ''sukha'' denotes "running swiftly or easily" (applied, e.g., to chariots).  Monier-Williams also notes that the term might derive alternatively as "possibly a [[Prakrit|Prākrit]] form of ''su-stha'', q.v.; cf. ''duh̩kha''", literally meaning ''su'' ['good'] + ''stha'' ['standing']. ''Sukha'' is juxtaposed with ''du{{IAST|ḥ}}kha'' (Sanskrit; Pali: ''[[dukkha]]''; often translated as "suffering"), which were established as the major motivating life principles in early Vedic religion. This theme of the centrality of dukha was developed in later years in both Vedic and Buddhist traditions. The elimination of dukha is the ''raison d'être'' of early Buddhism.<ref>Monier-Williams (1964), p. 1220, entry for "Sukhá" (retrieved from http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/MWScanpdf/mw1220-suUti.pdf).  Square-bracketed words ("good" and "aperture") are based on Monier-Williams, pp. 334, 1219.</ref><ref>Regarding the relationship between ''sukha'' and ''dukkha'', Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-5), p. 716, entry for "Sukha" (retrieved from [https://archive.today/20120708114621/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:262.pali]), simply identifies that ''[[dukkha]]'' is one of the antonyms of ''sukha'' (along with ''asukha'') and, in such contexts, is sometimes spelled ''dukha''.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://vologda4x4.ru/viewtopic.php?id=7105&p=5 | title=Рыбацкая трофи экспедиция "Река Сука" или "Сукарека" &#124; Покатушки. Встречи. Туризм }}</ref>

==Pali literature==
{{TheravadaBuddhism}}
In the Pali Canon and related [[Pali literature|literature]], the term is used in a general sense to refer to "well-being and happiness" (''hitasukha'') in either this present life or future lives. In addition, it is a technical term associated with describing a factor of meditative absorption ([[Dhyāna in Buddhism|jhāna]]) and a sensory-derived feeling ([[vedanā]]).

===General life pursuit===
In the [[Pāli Canon]], the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] discusses with different lay persons "well-being and happiness" (''hitasukha'') "visible in this present life" (''di{{IAST|ṭṭ}}ha-dhamma'') and "pertaining to the future life" (''samparāyika''), as exemplified by the following [[sutra|suttas]].<ref>See Bodhi (2005), pp. 3-4, ''passim''.</ref>

====Anana Sutta====
In the ''Ana{{IAST|ṇ}}a Sutta'' ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 4.62), the Buddha describes four types of happiness for a "[[Householder (Buddhism)|householder]] partaking of sensuality" (''gihinā [[kāma]]-bhoginā''):
* the happiness of earning (''atthi-sukha'') wealth by just and righteous means
* the happiness of using (''bhoga-sukha'') wealth liberally on family, friends, & on meritorious deeds
* the happiness of debtlessness (''ana{{IAST|ṇ}}a-sukha'') be free from debts
* the happiness of blamelessness (''anavajja-sukha''), to live a faultless and pure life without committing evil in thought, word, and deed
Of these, the wise (''sumedhaso'') know that the happiness of blamelessness is by far the greatest householder happiness.<ref>Bodhi (2005), pp. 127-8; and, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.062.than.html Thanissaro (1997a).]  Pali is based on the Sri Lanka [[Tripitaka]] Project (SLTP) edition, retrieved 2008-05-08 from "MettaNet" at http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara2/4-catukkanipata/007-pattakammavaggo-p.html.  Bodhi's translation omits the last verse (which praises happiness of blamelessness) which can be found in both Thanissaro's translation and the SLTP.</ref> Economic and material happiness is not worth one sixteenth part of the spiritual happiness arising out of a faultless and good life.

====Kalama Sutta====
In the ''[[Kalama Sutta|Kālāmā Sutta]]'' ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 3.65), townspeople ask the Buddha how they are to ascertain which spiritual teaching is true. The Buddha counsels that one should "enter and dwell" (''upasampajja vihareyyātha'') in "things" or "qualities" (''[[dhamma|dhammā]]'') that are:
* skillful (''kusalā''), 
* blameless (''anavajjā''), 
* praised by the wise (''viññuppasatthā''), and
* when put into practice, are conducive to well-being and happiness (''samattā samādinnā hitāya sukhāya''<ref>Note that here, as elsewhere, through textual parallelism, ''sukha'' ("happiness") is used as the opposite of ''[[dukkha]]'' ("suffering").</ref>'' sa{{IAST|ṃ}}vattantī'')
Using the latter criterion, the Buddha then asks the townspeople to assess greed (''lobha''), hate (''dosa'') and delusion (''moha'') whereby it is agreed that entering and dwelling in non-greed, non-hate and non-delusion lead to well-being and happiness.  The Buddha states that, given this understanding, a noble disciple (''ariyasāvako'')<ref>Note that "noble disciples" (''ariyasāvako'') include laypeople.  See "[[Śrāvaka]]."</ref> pervades all directions with [[Maitrī|lovingkindness]], [[Karuṇā|compassion]], [[mudita|sympathetic joy]] and [[upekkha|equanimity]] (see the four ''[[brahmavihara]]s''); and, by doing so, one purifies oneself, avoids evil-induced consequences, lives a happy present life and, if there is a future karmic [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|rebirth]], one will be born in a [[Buddhist cosmology|heavenly world]].<ref>Bodhi (2005), pp. 88-91; and, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.065.than.html Thanissaro (1994).] Pali is based on the SLTP tipitaka retrieved 2008-05-08 from "MettaNet" at http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara1/3-tikanipata/007-mahavaggo-p.html.  Regarding greed, hate and delusion, see "[[kilesa]]".  Regarding the heavenly destinations of brahmavihara dwellers, see [[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 4.125 [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.125.than.html (Thanissaro, 2006).]</ref>

====Dighajanu Sutta====
In the ''[[Dighajanu Sutta|Dighajānu Sutta]]'' ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 8.54), Dighajānu approaches the Buddha and states:
:"We are lay people enjoying sensuality; living crowded with spouses & children; using Kasi fabrics & sandalwood; wearing garlands, scents, & creams; handling gold & silver. May the Blessed One teach the [[Dhamma]] for those like us, for our happiness & well-being in this life, for our happiness & well-being in lives to come."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an08/an08.054.than.html|title=Dighajanu (Vyagghapajja) Sutta: To Dighajanu|website=www.accesstoinsight.org}}</ref>
In a manner somewhat similar to his exposition in the aforementioned ''Ana{{IAST|ṇ}}a Sutta'', the Buddha identifies four sources that lead to well-being and happiness in the current life:
* productive efforts (''u{{IAST|ṭṭ}}hāna-sampadā'') in one's livelihood,
* protective efforts (''ārakkha-sampadā'') regarding ones wealth in terms of possible theft or disaster,
* virtuous friendship ([[kalyana mittata|''kalyā{{IAST|ṇ}}a-mittatā'']]), and
* even-headed living (''sama-jīvikatā''), abstaining from womanizing, drunkenness, gambling and evil friendships. 
In terms of well-being and happiness in the next life, the Buddha identifies the following sources:
* faith (''[[Śraddhā|saddhā]]'') in the fully enlightened Buddha;
* virtue (''[[sīla]]''), as exemplified by the [[Five Precepts]];
* generosity (''cāga''), giving charity and [[Alms#Buddhism|alms]]; and,
* wisdom (''[[Wisdom in Buddhism|paññā]]''), having insight into the arising and passing of things.<ref>Bodhi (2005), pp. 124-6; and, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an08/an08.054.than.html Thanissaro (1995).]</ref>

====Mettā practice====
As indicated above, in the ''Kālāmā Sutta'', the Buddha identifies the practice of the four divine abodes (''[[brahmavihara]]'') as being conducive to ''one's own'' well-being and happiness. The first of these abodes is [[mettā]] (benevolence, kindness), which is, for instance, classically expressed in the Pali canon's ''[[Metta Sutta|Karaniya Mettā Sutta]]'' ("Scripture of Compassionate Benevolence") ([[Suttanipata|Sn]] 1.8) by the sincere wish (in English and Pali):
{| style="margin:0.5em auto"
|-
| style="padding-right:1em" | May all beings be at ease!<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/snp/snp.1.08.amar.html|title=Karaniya Metta Sutta: The Buddha's Words on Loving-Kindness|website=www.accesstoinsight.org}}</ref> 
| style="padding-left:1em" | ''Sabbe sattā bhavantu sukhitattā.''
|}
Similarly, the Pali commentaries ([[Suttanipata|SN]]-[[Atthakatha|A]] 128) explicitly define ''mettā'' as "the desire to bring about the well-being and happiness [of others]" (''hita-sukha-upanaya-kāmatā'')<ref>Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-5), p. 197, entry for "[[Karuṇā]]," retrieved at {{cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:356.pali |title=The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary |access-date=2012-07-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120711002204/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:356.pali |archive-date=2012-07-11 }}.</ref> Thus, in Buddhism, to dwell wishing for others' general happiness is conducive to the development of one's own happiness.

===Feeling attribute===
In the Buddhist frameworks of the five aggregates (Sanskrit: ''[[skandha]]''; Pali: ''khandha'') and dependent origination (Sanskrit: ''pratītyasamutpāda''; Pali: paticcasamuppāda), "feelings" or "sensations" (''[[vedanā]]'') arise from the contact of an external object (such as a visual object or sound) with a [[ayatana|sensory organ]] (such as the eye or ear) and consciousness. In the [[Pali Canon]], such feelings are generally described to be of one of three types: pleasant (''sukha''), unpleasant (''dukkha''), or neither-unpleasant-nor-pleasant (''adukkha-asukha'').<ref>See, for instance, ''Datthabba Sutta'' ([[Samyutta Nikaya|SN]] 36.5; [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.005.nypo.html Nyanaponika, 1983)] and ''Chachakka Sutta'' ([[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 148; [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.148.than.html Thanissaro, 1998).] 
</ref>

===Mental factor in meditation===
{{JhanaFactors}}
{{Further|Dhyāna in Buddhism|Samādhi}}
In the commentarial tradition on [[Buddhist meditation]], the development of ''jhāna'' (Sanskrit: ''dhyāna'') is described as the development of five [[Mental factors (Buddhism)|mental factors]] (Sanskrit: ''caitasika''; Pali: ''cetasika'') that counteract the [[five hindrances]]:{{refn|group=note|See, for instance, ''Samādha{{IAST|ṅ}}ga Sutta'' (a/k/a, ''Pañca{{IAST|ṅ}}gikasamādhi Sutta'', [[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 5.28) [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.028.than.html (Thanissaro, 1997b).]}}

# ''[[Vitarka-vicāra|vitakka]]'' ("applied thought") counteracts sloth and torpor (lethargy and drowsiness)
# ''[[Vitarka-vicāra|vicāra]]'' ("sustained thought") counteracts doubt (uncertainty)
# ''[[pīti]]'' (rapture) counteracts ill-will (malice)
# ''sukha'' ("non-sensual pleasure") counteracts restlessness-worry (excitation and anxiety)
# ''[[ekaggata]]'' (one-pointedness) counteracts sensory desire

Both ''pīti'' and ''sukha'' are born of bodily seclusion and mental quietude in first ''jhāna'', but both are then born of focused concentration (''samādhi'') in the second ''jhāna'' and only ''sukha'' is sustained in the third ''jhāna'' until it is abandoned for [[Purity in Buddhism|pure]], [[Sati (Buddhism)|mindful]] [[Upekṣā|equanimity]] (''upekkhāsatipārisuddhi'') in the fourth ''jhāna''.

The ''[[Visuddhimagga]]'' distinguishes between ''pīti'' and ''sukha'' in the following experiential manner:
:And wherever the two are associated, happiness [here, Ñā{{IAST|ṇ}}amoli's translation of ''pīti''] is the contentedness at getting a desirable object, and bliss [''sukha''] is the actual experiencing of it when got.  Where there is happiness [''pīti''] there is bliss (pleasure) [''sukha'']; but where there is bliss [''sukha''] there is not necessarily happiness [''pīti'']. Happiness is included in the [[sankhara|formations]] [[skandha|aggregate]]; bliss is included in the [[vedana|feeling]] aggregate.  If a man exhausted in a desert saw or heard about a pond on the edge of a wood, he would have happiness; if he went into the wood's shade and used the water, he would have bliss....<ref>[[Visuddhimagga|Vsm]]. IV, 100 (Ñā{{IAST|ṇ}}amoli, 1999, p. 142).  Similarly, see also the [[Abhidhamma]]'s [[atthakatha|commentary]], ''Atthasalini'' [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/wheel277.html (Bodhi, 1980).]</ref>

Providing a bare-bones conditional chain of events that overlaps the above more narrative exposition, the ''Upanisa Sutta'' ([[Samyutta Nikaya|SN]] 12.23) states that ''sukha'' arises from tranquillity (''[[passaddhi]]'') of the body and mind, and in turn gives rise to concentration (''samādhi'').<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Transcendental Dependent Arising: A Translation and Exposition of the Upanisa Sutta |url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/wheel277.html |access-date=2024-09-21 |website=www.accesstoinsight.org}}</ref> Citing traditional post-canonical Pali literature related to this discourse, Bodhi (1980) adds the following functional definition of ''sukha'':
:The [[Subcommentaries, Theravada|subcommentary]] to the ''Upanisa Sutta'' explains ''sukha'' as the happiness of the access to absorption. The term 'access' (upacara) denotes the stage in the cultivation of serenity immediately preceding full absorption, the intended goal of [[samatha meditation|serenity meditation]]. Access is characterized by the abandonment of the [[five hindrances]] and the arising of the 'counterpart sign,' the self-luminous object of interior perception which is the focal point for the higher stages of concentration.<ref name=":0" />

===As a characterization of awakening===
[[Nirvāṇa|Nibbāna]] (Sanskrit: ''Nirvāṇa'') entails the foundational extinction or "blowing out" of the processes of unwholesome [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|desire, aversion, and delusion]]. From the perspective of awakened experience, the latter deleterious processes are appreciated as "agitations" of the mind. In comparative contrast to such agitation, ''sukha'' and its cognates are at places in the [[Pali Canon]] used to characterize the calm of Nibbāna, the "Unconditioned," as a bliss:

:The born, come-to-be, produced, 
:The made, the conditioned, the transient, 
:Conjoined with decay and death, 
:A nest of disease, perishable, 
:Sprung from nutriment and craving's cord — 
:That is not fit to take delight in.

:The escape from that, the peaceful, 
:Beyond reasoning, everlasting, 
:The not-born, the unproduced, 
:The sorrowless state that is void of stain, 
:The cessation of states linked to suffering, 
:The stilling of the conditioned — bliss.<ref>[[Itivuttaka]] 2.16, Ireland trans., at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/iti/iti.2.042-049x.irel.html#iti-043</ref>

==Sanskrit literature==
In [[Bhagavad Gita]] verses 6.21-23, the term '''sukha''<nowiki/>' is used to define the boundless happiness that characterizes yoga. It states that when the yogi attains this happiness, understood by the discriminative faculty (''[[buddhi]]'') but beyond the senses, he becomes firmly established in this state, free from suffering, and does not waver from it, a state known as yoga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sutton |first=Nicholas |url= |title=Bhagavad Gita: The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies Guide |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-5030-5291-8 |pages=101 |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Taittiriya Upanishad]] figuratively quantifies the bliss of Brahman, starting with the bliss of humans:

{{Blockquote|text="Let us take a young man - a first class young man who is the most learned, cultured and strong person. And let us suppose that he owns this whole world with all its resources. This situation would constitute one measure of human bliss. A single measure of the bliss of earthly gandharva celestials ...equals one hundred measures of human bliss; a single measure of the bliss of celestial gandharvas ...equals one hundred measures of the bliss of earthly gandharvas;  ...equals one hundred measures of bliss of the forefathers; a single measure of bliss of the gods who attained their status by good deeds …equals one hundred measures of the bliss of Indra; a single measure of the bliss of Prajapati, the progenitor of species, ...equals one hundred measures of the bliss of Brhaspati; a single measure of the bliss of Brahman equals one hundred measures of the bliss of Prajapati."|title=Taittiriya Upanishad|source=Verse II.8{{Sfn|Bryant|2009|p=183}}}}

In the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali#Asana|Yoga Sūtras]], Patañjali uses the term 'sukha' in verse II.46, where he defines asana as the balance between "sukha" and "sthira" (strength, steadiness, firmness).{{Sfn|Bryant|2009|p=283–287}} In Sutra I.33, sukha refers to those who are happy, and suggests fostering friendship towards them to promote mental lucidity.{{Sfn|Bryant|2009|p=128-129}}

In [[Tattvartha Sutra]], Jain scholar [[Umaswati]] explains the concept of sukha in context of spiritual liberation from [[karma]]. Umaswati explains four different meanings of sukha: as the quality of objects, as freedom from pain, as happiness resulting from meritorious actions, and as the ultimate sukha in the state of liberation (''[[moksha]]'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh S. |date=2003 |title=Umāsvāti on the Quality of Sukha |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23497055 |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=31 |issue=5/6 |pages=643–664 |issn=0022-1791}}</ref>

==Neuro-scientific basis==
Some researchers have proposed that a "shift" in the activity of the medial prefrontal cortex is what supports a state of inner fulfillment and equanimity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davidson |first=Richard J. |last2=Kabat-Zinn |first2=Jon |last3=Schumacher |first3=Jessica |last4=Rosenkranz |first4=Melissa |last5=Muller |first5=Daniel |last6=Santorelli |first6=Saki F. |last7=Urbanowski |first7=Ferris |last8=Harrington |first8=Anne |last9=Bonus |first9=Katherine |last10=Sheridan |first10=John F. |date=2003 |title=Alterations in Brain and Immune Function Produced by Mindfulness Meditation |url=https://journals.lww.com/00006842-200307000-00014 |journal=Psychosomatic Medicine |language=en |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=564–570 |doi=10.1097/01.PSY.0000077505.67574.E3 |issn=0033-3174|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col}} 
* [[Brahmavihara]] (divine abodes: lovingkindess, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity)
* [[Dependent Origination]]
* [[Dhyāna in Buddhism|Jhāna]] (absorption)
* [[Dukkha]] (suffering)
* [[Householder (Buddhism)]]
* [[Kilesa]] (defilements; such as greed, hate, and delusion)
* [[Pīti]] (Joy)
* [[Skandha|Khandas]] (aggregates)
* [[Sukhavati]]
* [[Vedanā]] (feeling)
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHYxAQAAIAAJ&source=gbs_book_other_versions |title=The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary with Insights from the Traditional Commentators |date=2009 |publisher=North Point Press |isbn=978-0-86547-736-0 |pages=183 |language=en}}

==Further reading==
* Amaravati Sangha (trans.) (1994, 2004). "Karaniya Metta Sutta: The Buddha's Words on Loving-Kindness" from ''Chanting Book: Morning and Evening Puja and Reflections'' (1994). Hemel Hempstead: Amaravati Publications. Retrieved 2008-05-10 from "Access to Insight" (2004) at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/snp/snp.1.08.amar.html Karaniya Metta Sutta: The Buddha's Words on Loving-Kindness].
* [[Bhikkhu Bodhi|Bodhi, Bhikkhu]] (1980). ''Transcendental Dependent Arising: A Translation and Exposition of the Upanisa Sutta'' (Wheel No. 277/278). Kandy: [[Buddhist Publication Society]]. Retrieved 2008-05-08 from "Access to Insight" (1995) at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/wheel277.html Transcendental Dependent Arising: A Translation and Exposition of the Upanisa Sutta].
* Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2005). ''In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon''. Boston: Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|0-86171-491-1}}.
* Ñā{{IAST|ṇ}}amoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) (1999). ''The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga''. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. {{ISBN|1-928706-00-2}}.
* [[Monier Monier-Williams|Monier-Williams, Monier]] (1899, 1964). ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary''. London: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-864308-X}}. Retrieved 2008-05-08 from "Cologne University" at [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/index.php?sfx=pdf MW Scan].
* [[Nyanaponika Thera]] (trans.) (1983). ''Datthabba Sutta: To Be Known'' ([[Samyutta Nikaya|SN]] 36.5). Retrieved 2008-05-08 from "Access to Insight" at: [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.005.nypo.html Datthabba Sutta: To Be Known].
* Nyanatiloka Mahathera (1952, 1980). ''Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines.'' Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society. {{ISBN|955-24-0019-8}}. Retrieved 2008-05-08 from "BuddhaSasana" at [http://www.budsas.org/ebud/bud-dict/dic_idx.htm Nyanatiloka: Buddhist Dictionary].
* [[T.W. Rhys Davids|Rhys Davids, T.W.]] & William Stede (eds.) (1921-5). ''The Pali Text Society's Pali–English Dictionary''. Chipstead: [[Pali Text Society]]. Retrieved 2008-05-08 from "U. Chicago" at http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/.
* [[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]] (trans.) (1994). ''Kalama Sutta: To the Kalamas'' ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 3.65). Retrieved 2008-05-08 from "Access to Insight" at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.065.than.html Kalama Sutta: To the Kalamas].
* Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1995). ''Dighajanu (Vyagghapajja) Sutta: To Dighajanu'' ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 8.54). Retrieved 2008-05-08 from "Access to Insight" at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an08/an08.054.than.html Dighajanu (Vyagghapajja) Sutta: To Dighajanu].
* Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997a). ''Anana Sutta: Debtless'' ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 4.62). Retrieved 2008-05-08 from "Access to Insight" at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.062.than.html Anana Sutta: Debtless].
* Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997b). ''Samadhanga Sutta: The Factors of Concentration'' ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 5.28). Retrieved 2008-05-09 from "Access to Insight" at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.028.than.html Samadhanga Sutta: The Factors of Concentration].
* Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997c). ''Upanisa Sutta: Prerequisites'' ([[Samyutta Nikaya|SN]] 12.23). Retrieved 2008-05-08 from "Access to Insight" at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.023.than.html Upanisa Sutta: Prerequisites].
* Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998). ''Chachakka Sutta: The Six Sextets'' (MN 148). Retrieved 2008-05-08 from "Access to Insight" at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.148.than.html Chachakka Sutta: The Six Sextets].
* Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2006). ''Metta Sutta: Good Will (1)'' ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 4.125). Retrieved 2008-05-10 from "Access to Insight" at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.125.than.html Metta Sutta: Good Will (1)].
* Walshe, Maurice O'Connell (1985). ''Upanisaa Sutta: Upanisaa (excerpt)'' ([[Samyutta Nikaya|SN]] 12.23) from ''Samyutta Nikaya: An Anthology (Wheel No. 318-321)''. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.  Retrieved from "Access to Insight" (2007) at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.023x.wlsh.html Upanisaa Sutta: Upanisaa].

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