View source for Sub-Saharan Africa

{{Short description|Regions south of the Sahara}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2013}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name                    = Sub-Saharan Africa
| image_map               = Sahara Sahel sub-Saharan Africa.svg
| map_caption             = Geographical map of sub-Saharan Africa{{Center block|{{Leftlegend|#fec44f|The Sahara}}{{Leftlegend|#fd8d3c|The Sahel}}{{Leftlegend|#417d41|Sub-Saharan Africa}}}}
| subdivision_type        = Largest cities
| subdivision_name        = {{Collapsible list
| title = [[List of cities in Africa by population#List|10 largest cities in sub-Saharan Africa]]
| 1. {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo|size=23px}} [[Kinshasa]]
| 2. {{flagicon|Nigeria|size=23px}} [[Lagos]]
| 3. {{flagicon|Angola|size=23px}} [[Luanda]]
| 4. {{flagicon|Tanzania|size=23px}} [[Dar es Salaam]]
| 5. {{flagicon|South Africa|size=23px}} [[Johannesburg]]
| 6. {{flagicon|Ivory Coast|size=23px}} [[Abidjan]]
| 7. {{flagicon|Ethiopia|size=23px}} [[Addis Ababa]]
| 8. {{flagicon|Kenya|size=23px}} [[Nairobi]]
| 9. {{flagicon|South Africa|size=23px}} [[Cape Town]]
| 10. {{flagicon|Cameroon|size=23px}} [[Yaoundé]]
}}
| population_total        = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{UN_Population|Sub-Saharan Africa}}
| population_as_of        = {{UN_Population|Year}}
| population_footnotes    = {{efn|group=infobox|Per [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR Global Trends]] in 2019, the sub-Saharan population was 1.1 billion.}}
| population_demonym      = [[List of ethnic groups of Africa|Sub-Saharan African]]
| demographics_type1      = Religions (2020)
| demographics1_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Sub-Saharan Africa Demographics |url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/regions/sub-saharan-africa/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020 |access-date=11 September 2022 |publisher=Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911205646/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/regions/sub-saharan-africa/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020 |archive-date=11 September 2022 }}</ref>
| demographics1_title1    = [[Christianity in Africa|Christianity]]
| demographics1_info1     = 62.0%
| demographics1_title2    = [[Islam in Africa|Islam]]
| demographics1_info2     = 31.4%
| demographics1_title3    = [[Traditional African religions|Traditional faiths]]
| demographics1_info3     = 3.2%
| demographics1_title4    = [[Irreligion|No religion]]
| demographics1_info4     = 3.0%
| demographics1_title5    = Other
| demographics1_info5     = 0.4%
| blank_name_sec1         = Other information
| blank1_name_sec1        = Countries
| blank1_info_sec1        = {{Collapsible list
 |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
 |title = '''[[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa|49 countries]]'''
 |{{flag|Angola|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Benin|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Botswana|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Burkina Faso|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Burundi|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Cameroon|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Cape Verde|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Central African Republic|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Chad|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Comoros|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Djibouti|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Eritrea|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Eswatini|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Ethiopia|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Gabon|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Gambia|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Ghana|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Guinea|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Ivory Coast|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Kenya|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Lesotho|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Liberia|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Madagascar|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Malawi|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Mali|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Mauritania|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Mauritius|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Mozambique|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Namibia|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Niger|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Nigeria|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Rwanda|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Senegal|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Seychelles|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Sierra Leone|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Somalia|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|South Africa|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|South Sudan|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Sudan|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Tanzania|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Togo|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Uganda|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Zambia|size=23px}}
 |{{flag|Zimbabwe|size=23px}}
}}
| blank2_name_sec1        = Languages
| blank2_info_sec1        = [[Languages of Africa|Over 1,000 languages]]
| blank3_name_sec1        = Internet [[Top-level domain|TLD]]
| blank3_info_sec1        = [[.africa]]
| footnotes               = {{notelist|group=infobox}}
}}
[[File:Sub-Saharan Africa definition UN.png|thumb|'''Combined green:''' Definition of "sub-Saharan Africa" as used in the statistics of [[United Nations]] institutions<br />'''Lighter green''': [[Sudan]], classified as a part of [[North Africa]] by the [[United Nations Statistics Division]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm |title=Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic other groupings |publisher=United Nations Statistics Division |date=11 February 2013 |access-date=20 July 2013}} "The designation sub-Saharan Africa is commonly used to indicate all of Africa except northern Africa, with the Sudan included in sub-Saharan Africa."</ref> instead of [[Eastern Africa]], though the organization states that "the assignment of countries or areas to specific groupings is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories."]]
[[File:Africa map.png|thumb|'''Red''': [[Arab world|Arab states]] in Africa ([[Arab League]] and [[UNESCO]])]]
[[File:East and southern africa early iron age.png|thumb|Simplified climatic map of Africa: sub-Saharan Africa consists of the [[Sahel]] and the [[Horn of Africa]] in the north (yellow), the [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|tropical savannas]] (light green) and the [[tropical rainforest]]s (dark green) of [[Equatorial Africa]], and the arid [[Kalahari Basin]] (yellow) and the "[[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]]" south coast (olive) of [[Southern Africa]]. The numbers shown correspond to the dates of all [[Iron Age]] artifacts associated with the [[Bantu expansion]].]][[File:Religion distribution Africa crop.png|thumb|The distribution of religions in Africa.]]
[[File:Jared Diamond Africa map.jpg|thumb| Simplified map of Africa's major population groups from [[Jared Diamond|Jared Diamond's]] [[Guns, Germs, and Steel]], depicting the spread of [[Bantu peoples]] ("[[Black people|Blacks]]") across much of sub-Saharan Africa and other ethnic groups, such as [[Berbers]]/[[Copts]] ("[[White people|whites]]"), [[Pygmy peoples]], the [[Khoisan]], and [[Austronesian peoples]] ("[[Indonesians]]"). The map's racial categories and title have been widely criticised as outdated and echoing colonial-era classifications.]]

'''Sub-Saharan Africa'''{{efn|Shortened to '''Subsahara''' and abbreviated as '''SSA'''.}} is the areas and regions of the continent of [[Africa]] that lie south of the [[Sahara]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=ecosostenibile |date=2 February 2023 |title=Afrotropical ecozone: boundaries, characteristics, biomes ... |url=https://antropocene.it/en/2023/02/02/afrotropical-ecozone/ |access-date=9 August 2023 |website=An Eco-sustainable World |language=en-GB }}</ref> These include [[Central Africa]], [[East Africa]], [[Southern Africa]], and [[West Africa]]. Geopolitically, in addition to the [[list of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa|African countries and territories]] that are situated fully in that specified region, the term may also include polities that only have part of their territory located in that region, per the definition of the [[United Nations geoscheme for Africa|United Nations]] (UN).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://esa.un.org/unpp/definition.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420040243/http://esa.un.org/unpp/definition.html |archive-date=20 April 2010 |title=Political definition of 'Major regions', according to the UN. |access-date=15 December 2010 }}</ref> This is considered a non-standardised geographical region with the number of countries included varying from 46 to 48 depending on the organisation describing the region (e.g. [[United Nations|UN]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Bank]], etc.). The [[Regions of the African Union|African Union]] (AU) uses a different regional breakdown, recognising all 55 member states on the continent—grouping them into five distinct and standard regions.

The term serves as a grouping counterpart to [[North Africa]], which is instead grouped with the definition of [[Middle East and North Africa|MENA]] (i.e. [[Middle East]] and North Africa) as it is part of the [[Arab world]], and most North African states are likewise members of both the [[Arab League]] and the [[African Union|AU]]. However, while they are also [[member states of the Arab League]], the [[Comoros]], [[Djibouti]], [[Mauritania]], and [[Somalia]] (and sometimes [[Sudan]]) are all geographically considered to be part of sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="definition"/> Overall, the [[United Nations Development Programme|UN Development Programme]] applies the "sub-Saharan" classification to 46 of Africa's 55 countries, excluding Djibouti, [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|SADR]], Somalia, and Sudan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.africa.undp.org/content/rba/en/home/regioninfo.html |title=About Africa |website=UNDP in Africa |access-date=15 March 2020 |archive-date=11 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411014537/https://www.africa.undp.org/content/rba/en/home/regioninfo.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since around [[African humid period#End|3900 BCE]]<!--says 3900 BC WP link target-->,<ref>
* {{cite journal |last1=Claussen |first1=Mark |last2=Kubatzki |first2=Claudia |last3=Brovkin |first3=Victor |last4=Ganopolski |first4=Andrey |last5=Hoelzmann |first5=Philipp |last6=Pachur |first6=Hans-Joachim |year=1999 |title=Simulation of an Abrupt Change in Saharan Vegetation in the Mid-Holocene |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=26 |issue=14 |pages=2037–40 |doi=10.1029/1999GL900494 |bibcode=1999GeoRL..26.2037C |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-FBE4-E |s2cid=6463581 |url=http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:1810390/component/escidoc:1810389/grl13300.pdf |access-date=29 October 2018 |archive-date=8 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808205835/http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:1810390/component/escidoc:1810389/grl13300.pdf |url-status=live |hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/07/990712080500.htm |title=Sahara's Abrupt Desertification Started By Changes In Earth's Orbit, Accelerated By Atmospheric And Vegetation Feedbacks |date=12 July 1999 |journal=[[Science Daily]] |access-date=28 February 2018 |archive-date=7 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307060153/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/07/990712080500.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> the Saharan and sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by the extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara, forming an effective barrier that is interrupted only by the [[Nile]] in Sudan, though navigation on the Nile was blocked by the [[Sudd]] and [[Cataracts of the Nile|the river's cataracts]]. The [[Sahara pump theory]] explains how [[Natural history of Africa#Flora|flora]] and [[Fauna of Africa|fauna]] (including ''[[Recent African origin of modern humans|Homo sapiens]]'') left Africa to penetrate [[Eurasia]] and beyond. African [[pluvial]] periods are associated with a "[[African humid period|Wet Sahara]]" phase, during which larger lakes and more rivers existed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=van Zinderen-Bakker |first=E.M. |title=A Late-Glacial and Post-Glacial Climatic Correlation between East Africa and Europe |journal=Nature |volume=194 |pages=201–03 |date=14 April 1962 |doi=10.1038/194201a0 |issue=4824 |bibcode=1962Natur.194..201V |s2cid=186244151 }}</ref>

==Nomenclature and conceptual criticism==
[[File:Ethnographic map of Africa, Arabia, the Indian Subcontinent, and Southeast Asia, from Meyers Blitz-Lexikon (1932).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Ethnographic map of Africa, from ''Meyers Blitz-Lexikon'' (1932)]]

Geographers historically divided the region into several distinct [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] sections based on each area's respective inhabitants.<ref name="Raunig">{{cite book |last=Raunig |first=Walter |title=Afrikas Horn: Akten der Ersten Internationalen Littmann-Konferenz 2. bis 5. Mai 2002 in München |year=2005 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3-447-05175-2 |page=130 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JpNY7VPn1WUC&pg=PA130 |quote=ancient Arabic geography had quite a fixed pattern in listing the countries from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean: These are al-Misr (Egypt) – al-Muqurra (or other designations for Nubian kingdoms) – al-Habasha (Abyssinia) – Barbara (Berber, i.e. the Somali coast) – Zanj (Azania, i.e. the country of the "blacks"). Correspondingly almost all these terms (or as I believe: all of them!) also appear in ancient and medieval Chinese geography |access-date=9 June 2016 }}</ref> The concept of "sub-Saharan Africa" has been criticised as a [[Scientific racism|racist construction]] intended to separate Africa.<ref name="Mohamed">{{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Mohamed Hassan |year=2010 |title=Africanists and Africans of the Maghrib: casualties of Analogy |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629387.2010.486573 |journal=The Journal of North African Studies |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=349–374 |doi=10.1080/13629387.2010.486573 |s2cid=145782335|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Critics from various countries have provided arguments supporting the interconnectedness of continental Africa, pointing to historical and cultural connections, as well as [[Trans-Saharan trade|trade between North, West, and East Africa]].<ref name="Merolla">{{cite web |last1=Merolla |first1=Daniela |title=Beyond 'two Africas' in African and Berber literary studies |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2722003/view |website=Scholarly Publications Leiden University |publisher=African Studies Centre Leiden}}</ref> Another source of criticism has been that traditional racial taxonomy which has arbitrarily divided separated Africa into a white "northern" Africa and black "southern" Africa, has overlooked [[genetic history of Africa|common genetic links]] and regional diversity across the continent.<ref><br />p.516-517- "Interestingly, and for some unexpectedly, in terms of older ideas about living African populations and ‘race’, the P2 mutation is a distant descendant of M96, deep within the E haplogroup family tree. P2’s (E1b1’s) immediate ancestors and their siblings are all found in tropical Africa. This is important in that it shows a primary connection between males from all over Africa, including supra-Saharan western Africa and Egypt. Significantly, the E haplogroup does not split at its base into two different macro-populations that occupy different sides of the Sahara, as might be anticipated based on old ideas about African human variation – a ‘white’ and ‘black’ Africa – and traditional ‘racial’ taxonomy."<br />p.526 - "Interestingly, and for some unexpectedly, in terms of older ideas about living African populations and ‘race’, the P2 mutation is a distant descendant of M96, deep within the E haplogroup family tree. P2’s (E1b1’s) immediate ancestors and their siblings are all found in tropical Africa. This is important in that it shows a primary connection between males from all over Africa, including supra-Saharan western Africa and Egypt. Significantly, the E haplogroup does not split at its base into two different macro-populations that occupy different sides of the Sahara, as might be anticipated based on old ideas about African human variation – a ‘white’ and ‘black’ Africa – and traditional ‘racial’ taxonomy."{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin |title=The Genealogical Connections of Africa's Regions: The Y Chromosome Evidence in General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited |pages=516–527|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7}}</ref>

Commentators in Arabic in the [[Post-classical history|medieval period]] used the general term ''bilâd as-sûdân'' ("Land of the Blacks") for the vast [[Sudan (region)|Sudan region]] (an expression denoting [[Central Africa|Central]] and [[West Africa]]),<ref>{{citation |author=International Association for the History of Religions |title=Numen |publisher=EJ Brill |place=Leiden |year=1959 |page=131 |quote=West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the west, to the Cameroons in the east; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad as-Sūdan, 'Land of the Blacks', of the Arabs }}</ref> or sometimes extending from the coast of West Africa to [[Western Sudan]].<ref name="Levtzion">[[Nehemia Levtzion]], Randall Lee Pouwels, The History of Islam in Africa, (Ohio University Press, 2000), p. 255.</ref> Its equivalent in [[Southeast Africa]] was ''[[Zanj]]'' ("Country of the Blacks"), which referred primarily to the [[Swahili coast]].<ref name="Raunig"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Daren |title=The Swahili World |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |chapter=Defining the Swahili |pages=67–80 |doi=10.4324/9781315691459-5 |isbn=978-1-315-69145-9 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315691459-5/defining-swahili-daren-ray}}</ref>

The geographers drew an explicit ethnographic distinction between the Sudan region and its analogue Zanj, from the area to their extreme east on the [[Red Sea]] coast in the [[Horn of Africa]].<ref name="Raunig"/> In modern-day Ethiopia and [[Eritrea]] was ''[[Al-Habash]]'' or Abyssinia,<ref name="Robinson">Sven Rubenson, The survival of Ethiopian independence, (Tsehai, 2003), p. 30.</ref> which was inhabited by the ''Habash'' or Abyssinians, who were the forebears of the [[Habesha peoples|Habesha]].<ref name="Blank">Jonah Blank, Mullahs on the mainframe: Islam and modernity among the Daudi Bohras, (University of Chicago Press, 2001), p. 163.</ref> In northern Somalia was ''[[Barbara (region)|Barbara]]'' or the ''Bilad al-Barbar'' ("Land of the [[Berbers]]"), which was inhabited by the Eastern ''Baribah'' or ''Barbaroi'', as the ancestors of the [[Somali people|Somalis]] were referred to by medieval Arab and ancient [[Greeks|Greek]] geographers, respectively.<ref name="Raunig"/><ref name="Bagley">F.R.C. Bagley et al., ''The Last Great Muslim Empires'', (Brill: 1997), p. 174</ref><ref name="Ogot">[[Bethwell A. Ogot]], ''Zamani: A Survey of East African History'', (East African Publishing House: 1974), p. 104</ref><ref name="Hastings">James Hastings, ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 12: V. 12'', (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2003), p. 490</ref>

==List of countries and regional organisation==
Sub-Saharan Africa is composed of 49 countries. Only six African countries are not geopolitically a part of sub-Saharan Africa: [[Algeria]], [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Morocco]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Western Sahara]] (claimed by Morocco); they form the [[UN subregion]] of [[Northern Africa]], which also makes up the largest bloc of the [[Arab World]]. Nevertheless, some international organisations include Sudan as part of North Africa. Although a long-standing member of the [[Arab League]], Sudan has around 30% non-Arab populations in the west ([[Darfur]], [[Masalit people|Masalit]], [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]]), far north ([[Nubian people|Nubian]]) and south ([[Kordofan]], [[Nuba]]),<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/nov/23/nubian-monkey-arab-racism |work=The Guardian |location=London |title='Nubian monkey' song and Arab racism |first=Nesrine |last=Malik |date=23 November 2009 |access-date=9 April 2010 |archive-date=8 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908061021/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/nov/23/nubian-monkey-arab-racism |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://pages.towson.edu/thompson/Courses/Regional/Reference/SSA.Physical.pdf Towson.edu] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003104/http://pages.towson.edu/thompson/Courses/Regional/Reference/SSA.Physical.pdf |date=3 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/EXTPUBREP/EXTSTATINAFR/0,,contentMDK:21106218~menuPK:824080~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:824043,00.html |title=Worldbank.org |publisher=Web.worldbank.org |date=27 October 2006 |access-date=15 November 2009 |archive-date=30 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330041501/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/EXTPUBREP/EXTSTATINAFR/0,,contentMDK:21106218~menuPK:824080~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:824043,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdcdevelopmentsolutions.org/africa |title=CDCdevelopmentSolutions.org |publisher=CDCdevelopmentSolutions.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620035055/http://cdcdevelopmentsolutions.org/africa |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_africa/sudan/ |title=Where We Work |publisher=[[USAID]] |date=29 May 2012 |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017021206/http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_africa/sudan/ |archive-date=17 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.transparency.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413084510/http://www.transparency.org/regional_pages/africa_middle_east/sub_saharan_africa |title=Transparency International - The Global Anti-Corruption Coalition |archive-date=13 April 2012 |website=www.transparency.org }}</ref> and a largely Arabised native Nubian population that represents the majority at 70% hence its inclusion in North Africa, but geographically and culturally Sudan is part of Sub Saharan Africa. [[Mauritania]] and [[Niger]] only include a band of the Sahel along their southern borders. All other African countries have at least significant portions of their territory within sub-Saharan Africa.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ African countries by region
! Region !! Subregion !! Country !! Capital !! Currency !! Language(s)
|-
! rowspan="10" | Central Africa
| rowspan="4" | [[Economic Community of Central African States]] || {{flagg|unc|Angola}} || [[Luanda]] || [[Angolan kwanza]] (Kz) || Portuguese
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Burundi}} || [[Gitega]] || [[Burundian franc]] (FBu) || Kirundi, French, English
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} || [[Kinshasa]] || [[Congolese franc]] (FC) || French
|-
| {{flagg|unc|São Tomé and Príncipe}} || [[São Tomé]] || [[São Tomé and Príncipe dobra]] (Db) || Portuguese
|-
| rowspan="6" | [[CEMAC]] || {{flagg|unc|Cameroon}} || [[Yaoundé]] || [[Central African CFA franc]] (FCFA) || English, French
|-
| {{flag|Central African Republic}} || [[Bangui]] || [[Central African CFA franc]] (FCFA) || Sango, French
|-
| {{flag|Chad}} || [[N'Djamena]] || [[Central African CFA franc]] (FCFA) || French, Arabic
|-
| {{flag|Republic of the Congo}} || [[Brazzaville]] || [[Central African CFA franc]] (FCFA) || French
|-
| {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} || [[Malabo]] || [[Central African CFA franc]] (FCFA) || Spanish, French
|-
| {{flag|Gabon}} || [[Libreville]] || [[Central African CFA franc]] (FCFA) || French
|-
! rowspan="10" | East Africa
| rowspan="10" | [[Economic Community of Central African States]] / Horn || {{flag|Sudan}} || [[Khartoum]] || [[Sudanese pound]] (£S.) || Arabic ([[Sudanese Arabic]]), English
|-
| {{flagg|unc|South Sudan}} || [[Juba]] || [[South Sudanese pound]] (£) || English, Arabic ([[Juba Arabic]])
|-
| {{flag|Somalia}} || [[Mogadishu]] || [[Somali shilling]] (So.Sh) || Somali, Arabic
|-
| {{flag|Kenya}} || [[Nairobi]] || [[Kenyan shilling]] (KSh /=) || Swahili, English
|-
| {{flag|Uganda}} || [[Kampala]] || [[Ugandan shilling]] (USh /=) || Swahili, English
|-
| {{flag|Rwanda}} || [[Kigali]] || [[Rwandan franc]] (RF) || Kinyarwanda, English, French, Swahili
|-
| {{flag|Tanzania}} || [[Dodoma]] || [[Tanzanian shilling]] (TSh /=) || Swahili, English
|-
| {{flag|Burundi}} || [[Gitega]] || [[Burundian franc]] (FBu) || Kirundi, French
|-
| {{flag|Eritrea}} || [[Asmara]] || [[Eritrean nakfa]] (Nfk) || Tigrinya, Arabic, Italian, English
|-
| {{flag|Djibouti}} || [[Djibouti]] || [[Djiboutian franc]] (Fdj) || Arabic, French
|-
! rowspan="14" | Southern Africa
| rowspan="14" | [[Southern African Development Community]] || {{flag|Angola}} || [[Luanda]] || [[Angolan kwanza]] (Kz) || Portuguese
|-
| {{flag|Botswana}} || [[Gaborone]] || [[Botswana pula]] (P) || Tswana, English
|-
| {{flag|Comoros}} || [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] || [[Comorian franc]] (FC) || Comorian, Arabic, French
|-
| {{flag|Eswatini}} || [[Mbabane]] || [[Swazi lilangeni]] (L/E) || SiSwati, English
|-
| {{flag|Lesotho}} || [[Maseru]] || [[Lesotho loti]] (L/M) || Sesotho, English
|-
| {{flag|Madagascar}} || [[Antananarivo]] || [[Malagasy ariary]] (Ar.) || Malagasy, French
|-
| {{flag|Malawi}} || [[Lilongwe]] || [[Malawian kwacha]] (MK) || English
|-
| {{flag|Mauritius}} || [[Port Louis]] || [[Mauritian rupee]] (Re/Rs) || English
|-
| {{flag|Mozambique}} || [[Maputo]] || [[Mozambican metical]] (MTn) || Portuguese
|-
| {{flag|Namibia}} || [[Windhoek]] || [[Namibian dollar]] (N$) || English
|-
| {{flag|Seychelles}} || [[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]] || [[Seychellois rupee]] (Re/Rs) || Seychellois Creole, English, French
|-
| {{flag|South Africa}} || [[Pretoria]] / [[Cape Town]] / [[Bloemfontein]] || [[South African rand]] (R) || 11 official languages
|-
| {{flag|Zambia}} || [[Lusaka]] || [[Zambian kwacha]] (ZK) || English
|-
| {{flag|Zimbabwe}} || [[Harare]] || [[Zimbabwean dollar (1980–2009)|Zimbabwean dollar]] ($) || English
|-
! rowspan="16" | West Africa
| rowspan="8" | [[ECOWAS]] || {{flag|Ivory Coast}} || [[Yamoussoukro]] / [[Abidjan]] || [[West African CFA franc]] (CFA) ||
|-
| {{flag|The Gambia}} || [[Banjul]] || [[Gambian dalasi]] (D) ||
|-
| {{flag|Ghana}} || [[Accra]] || [[Ghanaian cedi]] (GH₵) ||
|-
| {{flag|Guinea}} || [[Conakry]] || [[Guinean franc]] (FG) ||
|-
| {{flag|Liberia}} || [[Monrovia]] || [[Liberian dollar]] (L$) ||
|-
| {{flag|Mauritania}} || [[Nouakchott]] || [[Mauritanian ouguiya]] (UM) ||
|-
| {{flag|Nigeria}} || [[Abuja]] || [[Nigerian naira]] (₦) ||
|-
| {{flag|Sierra Leone}} || [[Freetown]] || [[Sierra Leonean leone]] (Le) ||
|-
| rowspan="8" | [[West African Economic and Monetary Union]] || {{flag|Benin}} || [[Porto-Novo]] || [[West African CFA franc]] (CFA) ||
|-
| {{flag|Burkina Faso}} || [[Ouagadougou]] || [[West African CFA franc]] (CFA) ||
|-
| {{flag|Ivory Coast}} || [[Yamoussoukro]] / [[Abidjan]] || [[West African CFA franc]] (CFA) ||
|-
| {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} || [[Bissau]] || [[West African CFA franc]] (CFA) ||
|-
| {{flag|Mali}} || [[Bamako]] || [[West African CFA franc]] (CFA) ||
|-
| {{flag|Niger}} || [[Niamey]] || [[West African CFA franc]] (CFA) ||
|-
| {{flag|Senegal}} || [[Dakar]] || [[West African CFA franc]] (CFA) ||
|-
| {{flag|Togo}} || [[Lomé]] || [[West African CFA franc]] (CFA) ||
|}

==History==
{{Main|History of Africa|History of West Africa|History of Central Africa|History of East Africa|History of Southern Africa}}

{{Further|African empires|List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa#List of African kingdoms|African archaeology}}

===Prehistory===
{{Further|History of Africa#Prehistory|Prehistoric West Africa|Prehistoric Central Africa|Prehistoric East Africa|Horn of Africa#Prehistory|Prehistoric Southern Africa|African archaeology}}
[[File:Olduvai stone chopping tool.jpg|thumb|Stone chopping tool from [[Olduvai Gorge]]]]

According to [[paleontology|palaeontology]], early hominid skull anatomy was similar to that of their close cousins, the great African forest [[great ape|apes]], [[gorilla]] and [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]. However, they had adopted a [[biped]]al locomotion and freed hands, giving them a crucial advantage enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the open [[savanna]] at a time when Africa was drying up, with savanna encroaching on forested areas. This occurred 10&nbsp;million to 5&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="Shillington, Kevin 2005 p. 2">Shillington, Kevin(2005). History of Africa, Rev. 2nd Ed. New York: [[Palgrave Macmillan]], p. 2, {{ISBN|0-333-59957-8}}.</ref>

By 3&nbsp;million years ago several [[Australopithecus|australopithecine]] [[hominid]] species had developed throughout [[Southern Africa|Southern]], [[East Africa|East]], and [[Central Africa]]. They were tool users rather than tool manufacturers. The next major evolutionary step occurred around 2.3&nbsp;million&nbsp;BCE, when primitive [[Lithic technology|stone tools]] were used to scavenge the carcasses of animals killed by other predators, both for their meat and their marrow. In hunting, ''H. habilis'' was most likely not capable of competing with large predators and was more prey than hunter, although ''H. habilis'' likely did steal eggs from nests and may have been able to catch small [[game (food)|game]] and weakened larger prey such as cubs and older animals. The tools were classed as [[Oldowan]].<ref name="Shillington, Kevin 2005 p. 2-3">Shillington, Kevin(2005). History of Africa, Rev. 2nd Ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 2–3, {{ISBN|0-333-59957-8}}.</ref>

Roughly 1.8&nbsp;million years ago, ''[[Homo ergaster]]'' first appeared in the fossil record in Africa. From ''Homo ergaster'', ''[[Homo erectus]]'' (upright man) evolved 1.5&nbsp;million years ago. Some of the earlier representatives of this species were small-brained and used primitive [[lithic technology|stone tools]], much like ''[[Homo habilis|H. habilis]]''. The brain later grew in size, and ''H. erectus'' eventually developed a more complex stone tool technology called the [[Acheulean]]. Potentially the first hominid to engage in hunting, ''H. erectus'' mastered the art of making fire. They were the first hominids to leave Africa, going on to colonise the entire [[Old World]], and perhaps later on giving rise to ''[[Homo floresiensis]]''. Although some recent writers suggest that ''[[H. georgicus]]'', a ''H. habilis'' [[lineage (anthropology)|descendant]], was the first and most primitive hominid to ever live outside Africa, many scientists consider ''H. georgicus'' to be an early and primitive member of the ''H. erectus'' species.<ref>Shillington, Kevin(2005). History of Africa, Rev. 2nd Ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 3, {{ISBN|0-333-59957-8}}.</ref>

The fossil and genetic evidence shows ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' developed in East and Southern Africa by around 350,000 to 260,000 years ago<ref name=Schlebusch350-260>{{cite journal |last=Schlebusch |display-authors=etal |title=Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago |journal=Science |volume=358 |issue=6363 |date=3 November 2017 |pages=652–655 |doi=10.1126/science.aao6266 |pmid=28971970 |bibcode=2017Sci...358..652S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="NAT-20190910">{{cite journal |last1=Mounier |first1=Aurélien |last2=Lahr |first2=Marta |title=Deciphering African late middle Pleistocene hominin diversity and the origin of our species |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=3406 |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-11213-w |pmid=31506422 |pmc=6736881 |year=2019 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.3406M }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Scerri |first1=Eleanor M. L. |last2=Thomas |first2=Mark G. |last3=Manica |first3=Andrea |last4=Gunz |first4=Philipp |last5=Stock |first5=Jay T. |last6=Stringer |first6=Chris |last7=Grove |first7=Matt |last8=Groucutt |first8=Huw S. |last9=Timmermann |first9=Axel |author-link9=Axel Timmermann|last10=Rightmire|first10=G. Philip |last11=d'Errico |first11=Francesco |date=1 August 2018 |title=Did Our Species Evolve in Subdivided Populations across Africa, and Why Does It Matter? |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |language=en |volume=33 |issue=8 |pages=582–594 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2018.05.005 |issn=0169-5347 |pmid=30007846 |pmc=6092560 |bibcode=2018TEcoE..33..582S }}</ref> and gradually migrated across the continent in waves. Between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago, their expansion [[Single-origin hypothesis|out of Africa]] launched the colonisation of the planet by modern humans. By 10,000&nbsp;BCE, ''Homo sapiens'' had spread to all corners of the world. This dispersal of the human species is suggested by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence.<ref name="Shillington, Kevin 2005 p. 2-3"/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Tishkoff SA, Reed FA, Friedlaender FR, etal |title=The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5930 |pages=1035–44 |date=May 2009 |pmid=19407144 |pmc=2947357 |doi=10.1126/science.1172257 |bibcode=2009Sci...324.1035T }}</ref>

During the 11th millennium [[Before Present|BP]], pottery was independently invented in West Africa, with the earliest pottery there dating to about 9,400 BC from central Mali.<ref name=swissinfo>{{Cite web |last1=Bradley |first1=Simon |title=Swiss archaeologist digs up West Africa's past |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-archaeologist-digs-up-west-africa-s-past/5675736 |date=18 January 2007 |website=SWI swissinfo.ch |publisher=Swiss Broadcasting Corporation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306002155/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/Home/Archive/Swiss_archaeologist_digs_up_West_Africas_past.html?cid=5675736 |archive-date=6 March 2012 |language=en }}</ref> It spread throughout the [[Sahel]] and southern [[Sahara]].<ref name="Pottery">{{cite journal |last1=Jesse |first1=Friederike |title=Early Pottery in Northern Africa - An Overview |issue=2 |pages=219–238 |journal=[[Journal of African Archaeology]] |volume=8 |jstor=43135518 |year=2010 |doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10171 }}</ref>

After the Sahara became a desert, it did not present a totally impenetrable barrier for travellers between north and south because of the application of animal husbandry towards carrying water, food, and supplies across the desert. Prior to the introduction of the [[camel]],<ref>Stearns, Peter N. (2001) ''The Encyclopedia of World History'', Houghton Mifflin Books. p. 16. {{ISBN|0-395-65237-5}}.</ref> the use of oxen, mule, and horses for desert crossing was common, and trade routes followed chains of [[Oasis|oases]] that were strung across the desert. The [[trans-saharan trade]] was in full motion by 500&nbsp;BCE with [[Carthage]] being a major economic force for its establishment.<ref>Collins, Robert O. and Burns, James. M(2007). A History of Sub-saharan Africa. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]], p. 62, {{ISBN|978-0-521-86746-7 }}</ref><ref>Davidson, Basil. Africa History, Themes and Outlines, revised and expanded edition. New York: [[Simon & Schuster]], p. 54, {{ISBN|0-684-82667-4}}.</ref><ref>Shillington, Kevin(2005). History of Africa, Rev. 2nd Ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 47, {{ISBN|0-333-59957-8}}.</ref> It is thought that the camel was first brought to [[Egypt]] after the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]] conquered Egypt in 525&nbsp;BCE, although large herds did not become common enough in North Africa for camels to be the pack animal of choice for the trans-saharan trade.<ref>McEvedy, Colin (1980) ''Atlas of African History'', p. 44. {{ISBN|0-87196-480-5}}.</ref>

===West Africa===
{{Main|History of West Africa}}

{{Further|Ghana Empire|Mali Empire|Songhay Empire|Kingdom of Benin|Kingdom of Nri}}

[[File:Nok sculpture Louvre 70-1998-11-1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nok culture|Nok]] sculpture, terracotta, [[Louvre]]]]

The [[Bantu expansion]] is a major migration movement that originated in West Central Africa (possibly around Cameroon) around 2500&nbsp;BCE, reaching East and Central Africa by 1000&nbsp;BCE and Southern Africa by the early centuries&nbsp;CE.

The [[Djenné-Djenno]] city-state flourished from 250 BCE to 900 CE and was influential to the development of the [[Ghana Empire]]. The [[Nok culture]] of Nigeria (lasting from 1,500 BCE to 200 CE) is known from a type of [[terracotta]] figure.<ref name="PB 2014">Breunig, Peter. 2014. Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context: p. 21.</ref> There were a number of medieval empires of the southern Sahara and the Sahel, based on [[trans-Saharan trade]], including the Ghana Empire and the [[Mali Empire]], [[Songhai Empire]], the [[Kanem Empire]] and the subsequent [[Bornu Empire]].<ref>Davidson, Basil. ''Africa History, Themes and Outlines'', revised and expanded edition. New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 87–107, {{ISBN|0-684-82667-4}}.</ref> They built stone structures like in [[Tichit]], but mainly constructed in [[adobe]]. The [[Great Mosque of Djenne]] is most reflective of Sahelian architecture and is the largest adobe building in the world.

In the forest zone, several states and empires such as [[Bono state|Bono State]], [[Akwamu]] and others emerged. The [[Ashanti Empire]] arose in the 18th century in modern-day [[Ghana]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meyerowitz |first=Eva L. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3lyAAAAMAAJ |title=The Early History of the Akan States of Ghana |date=1975 |publisher=Red Candle Press |isbn=978-0-608-39035-2 |language=en }}</ref> The [[Kingdom of Nri]] was established by the [[Igbo people|Igbo]] in the 11th century, was famous for having a priest-king who wielded no military power. Nri was a rare African state which was a haven for freed slaves and outcasts who sought refuge in their territory. Other major states included the kingdoms of [[Ife|Ifẹ]] and [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]] in the western block of Nigeria which became prominent about 700–900 and 1400 respectively, and were centres of [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] culture. The Yoruba built massive mud walls around their cities, the most famous being [[Sungbo's Eredo]]. Another prominent kingdom in southwestern Nigeria was the [[Kingdom of Benin]], whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century. Their dominance reached as far as the well-known city of Eko which was named [[Lagos]] by the Portuguese traders and other early European settlers. The Edo-speaking people of Benin are known for their famous bronze casting and rich coral, wealth, ancient science and technology and the [[Walls of Benin]], one of the longest man-made structures on the world.

In the 18th century, the Oyo and the [[Aro Confederacy]] were responsible for most of the slaves exported from modern-day Nigeria, selling them to [[Atlantic slave trade|European slave traders]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/7.htm |title=The Slave Trade |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=9 June 2008 |archive-date=23 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623172414/http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/7.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British expanded their influence into the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition, and in the following year the [[Royal Niger Company]] was chartered under the leadership of [[George Taubman Goldie|Sir George Goldie]]. In 1900, the company's territory came under the control of the British government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On 1 January 1901, Nigeria [[Colonial Nigeria|became]] a [[British protectorate]] as part of the [[British Empire]], the foremost world power at the time. Nigeria was granted its [[independence]] in 1960 during the period of [[decolonization]].

===Central Africa===
{{Main|History of Central Africa}}

[[File:Ann Zingha.jpg|thumb|left|Fictionalised portrait of [[Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba|Nzinga]], queen of the [[Kingdom of Ndongo|Ndongo]] and [[Kingdom of Matamba|Matamba]] kingdoms]]

Archeological finds in Central Africa provide evidence of human settlement that may date back over 10,000 years.<ref>{{cite book |author=Philippe Lavachery |title=Komé-Kribi: Rescue Archaeology Along the Chad-Cameroon Oil Pipeline |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=3937248285 |display-authors=etal }}</ref> According to Zangato and Holl, there is evidence of iron-smelting in the [[Central African Republic]] and [[Cameroon]] that may date back to 3,000 to 2,500&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=É. Zangato |author2=A.F.C. Holl |title=On the Iron Front: New Evidence from North-Central Africa |journal=Journal of African Archaeology |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=2010 |pages=7–23 |doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10153 |url=http://www.african-archaeology.de/index.php?page_id=154&journal_id=24&pdf_id=172 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226002521/http://www.african-archaeology.de/index.php?page_id=154&journal_id=24&pdf_id=172 |archive-date=26 December 2013 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Extensive walled sites and settlements have recently been found in [[Archaeology of Zilum|Zilum]], [[Chad]]. The area is located approximately {{convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest of [[Lake Chad]], and has been [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to the first millennium&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite book |author=J. Cameron Monroe |title=Akinwumi Ogundiran, Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives |page=316 |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1107009391}}, citing Magnavita 2004; Magnavita et al. 2004, 2006; Magnavita and Schleifer 2004.</ref><ref>Peter Mitchell et al., The Oxford Handbook of African Archeology (2013), p. 855: "The relatively recent discovery of extensive walled settlements at the transition from the Neolithic to the Early Iron Age in the Chad Basin (Magnavita et al., 2006) indicates what enormous sites and processes may still await recognition."</ref>

Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilisations of [[Sao civilization|Sao]], [[Kanem Empire|Kanem]], [[Bornu Empire|Bornu]], [[Shilluk Kingdom|Shilluk]], [[Kingdom of Baguirmi|Baguirmi]], and [[Wadai Empire|Wadai]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Appiah|first1=Kwame Anthony|last2=Gates|first2=Henry Louis Jr.|title=Encyclopaedia of Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC&pg=PA254|access-date=2013-05-06|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533770-9|page=254}}</ref>

Following the [[Bantu Migration]] into Central Africa, during the 14th century, the [[Luba Kingdom]] in southeast Congo came about under a king whose political authority derived from religious, spiritual legitimacy. The kingdom controlled agriculture and regional trade of salt and iron from the north and copper from the Zambian/Congo copper belt.<ref name="History of Africa pp. 138,139,142">Shillington, Kevin(2005). History of Africa, Rev. 2nd Ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 138–39, 142, {{ISBN|0-333-59957-8}}.</ref>

Rival kingship factions which split from the Luba Kingdom later moved among the Lunda people, marrying into its elite and laying the foundation of the [[Lunda Empire]] in the 16th century. The ruling dynasty centralised authority among the Lunda under the Mwata Yamyo or Mwaant Yaav. The Mwata Yamyo's legitimacy, like that of the Luba king, came from being viewed as a spiritual religious guardian. This [[imperial cult]] or system of divine kings was spread to most of central Africa by rivals in kingship migrating and forming new states. Many new states received legitimacy by claiming descent from the Lunda dynasties.<ref name="History of Africa pp. 138,139,142"/>

The [[Kingdom of Kongo]] existed from the Atlantic west to the Kwango river to the east. During the 15th century, the Bakongo farming community was united with its capital at [[M'banza-Kongo]], under the king title, [[Manikongo]].<ref name="History of Africa pp. 138,139,142"/> Other significant states and peoples included the [[Kuba Kingdom]], producers of the famous raffia cloth, the [[Eastern Lunda]], [[Bemba people|Bemba]], [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], and the [[Kingdom of Ndongo]].

===East Africa===
{{Main|History of East Africa}}

====Sudan====
{{Further|History of Sudan}}

[[File:SphinxOfTaharqa.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sphinx]] of the Nubian Emperor [[Taharqa]]]]

[[Nubia]], covered by present-day northern [[Sudan]] and southern [[Egypt]], was referred to as "[[Aethiopia]]" ("land of the burnt face") by the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Lloyd A. |title=Romans and blacks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7MQOAAAAQAAJ&q=%22Sub-Saharan+Africa%22+Ethiopia+Aethiopia&pg=PA57 |page=57 |year=1989 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=0-415-03185-0 |access-date=20 October 2020 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032003/https://books.google.com/books?id=7MQOAAAAQAAJ&q=%22Sub-Saharan+Africa%22+Ethiopia+Aethiopia&pg=PA57 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nubia in her greatest phase is considered sub-Saharan Africa's oldest urban civilisation. Nubia was a major source of gold for the ancient world. Nubians built famous structures and numerous pyramids. Sudan, the site of ancient Nubia, has more pyramids than anywhere else in the world.<ref>Mokhtar (editor), AnciGent Civilizations of Africa Vo. II, General History of Africa, UNESCO, 1990</ref>{{Better source needed|date=November 2020}}

====Horn of Africa====
{{Main|Horn of Africa#History}}

{{Further|History of Ethiopia|History of Somalia|History of Eritrea|History of Djibouti|Ethiopian historiography}}

[[File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|thumb|[[Architecture of Somalia|Stone city]] of [[Gondershe]], Somalia]]

The [[Axumite Empire]] spanned the southern Sahara, south Arabia and the Sahel along the western shore of the [[Red Sea]]. Located in northern [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]], Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between India and the Mediterranean. Growing from the proto-Aksumite [[Iron Age]] period ({{circa}} 4th century&nbsp;BCE), it rose to prominence by the 1st century&nbsp;CE. The Aksumites constructed monolithic [[Stele|stelae]] to cover the graves of their kings, such as [[King Ezana's Stele]]. The later [[Zagwe dynasty]], established in the 12th century, built churches out of solid rock. These rock-hewn structures include the [[Church of Saint George, Lalibela|Church of St. George at Lalibela]].
[[File:ET Gondar asv2018-02 img03 Fasil Ghebbi.jpg|thumb|[[Fasil Ghebbi|Fasilides Castle]], [[Ethiopia]] ]]
In [[History of somalia#Ancient|ancient Somalia]], city-states flourished such as [[Opone]], [[Cape Guardafui|Mosyllon]] and [[Malao (ancient)|Malao]] that competed with the [[Sabaeans]], [[Parthia]]ns and [[Axumite Empire|Axumites]] for the wealthy [[India|Indo]]–[[Greco-Roman|Greco]]–[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] trade.<ref>Oman in history By Peter Vine Page 324</ref>

In the Middle Ages several powerful Somali empires dominated the region's trade, including the [[Ajuran Sultanate]], which excelled in [[hydraulic]] [[engineering]] and fortress building,<ref>Shaping of Somali society Lee Cassanelli pg.92</ref> the [[Sultanate of Adal]], whose General [[Ahmed Gurey]] was the first African commander in history to use cannon warfare on the continent during [[Abyssinian–Adal War|Adal's conquest]] of the [[Ethiopian Empire]],<ref>Futuh Al Habash Shibab ad Din</ref> and the [[Geledi Sultanate]], whose military dominance forced governors of the [[Oman|Omani empire]] north of the city of [[Lamu]] to pay tribute to the [[Somali people|Somali]] Sultan [[Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]].<ref>Sudan Notes and Records&nbsp;– 147</ref><ref>Somali Sultanate: The Geledi City-state Over 150 Years - Virginia Luling (2002) Page 229</ref><ref name="Dic xxix">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC |title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia |page=xxix |date=25 February 2003 |isbn=978-0-8108-6604-1 |access-date=15 February 2014 |last1=Mukhtar |first1=Mohamed Haji |publisher=Scarecrow Press |archive-date=16 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216062140/https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Southeast Africa====
{{Further|Southeast Africa#History|History of Africa#Southeast Africa}}

According to the theory of [[recent African origin of modern humans]], the mainstream position held within the scientific community, all humans originate from either Southeast Africa or the Horn of Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/505436 |pmid=16826514 |pmc=1559480 |title=A Geographically Explicit Genetic Model of Worldwide Human-Settlement History |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=230–237 |year=2006 |last1=Liu |first1=Hua |last2=Prugnolle |first2=Franck |last3=Manica |first3=Andrea |author-link4=Francois Balloux |last4=Balloux |first4=François |bibcode=2006AmJHG..79..230L }}</ref> During the first millennium&nbsp;CE, [[Nilotic]] and [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking peoples [[Bantu expansion|moved into the region]], and the latter now account for three-quarters of Kenya's population.

[[File:Tongoni Ruins.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Tongoni Ruins]] south of [[Tanga, Tanzania|Tanga]] in [[Tanzania]]]]

On the coastal section of Southeast Africa, a mixed Bantu community developed through contact with [[Muslim]] [[Arab]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African [[Swahili Coast|Swahili City States]].<ref>{{cite book |author=James De Vere Allen |title=Swahili Origins: Swahili Culture & the Shungwaya Phenomenon |year=1993 |url=https://archive.org/details/swahilioriginssw0000alle |url-access=registration }}</ref> The [[Swahili culture]] that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many [[Afro-Arab]] members of the Bantu [[Swahili people]]. With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of [[Tanzania]] (particularly [[Zanzibar]]) and [[Kenya]]{{snd}} a seaboard referred to as the [[Swahili Coast]]{{snd}} the Bantu [[Swahili language]] contains many [[Arabic language|Arabic]] [[loan-words]] as a consequence of these interactions.<ref>Daniel Don Nanjira, African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy: From Antiquity to the 21st Century, ABC-CLIO, 2010, p. 114</ref>

The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the Southeast coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of [[Rhapta]], [[Azania]] and [[Menouthias]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Jens Finke |title=The Rough Guide to Tanzania |year=2010 |publisher=Rough Guides Limited |isbn=978-1-84836-075-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781848360754 |url-access=registration }}</ref> referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50&nbsp;CE to 500&nbsp;CE.<ref>Casson, Lionel (1989). The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Lionel Casson. (Translation by H. Frisk, 1927, with updates and improvements and detailed notes). Princeton, Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Chami, F. A. (1999). "The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland." Azania Vol. XXXIV 1999, pp. 1–10.</ref><ref>Chami, Felix A. 2002. "The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Paanchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." From: Red Sea Trade and Travel. The British Museum. Sunday 6 October 2002. Organised by The Society for Arabian Studies</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |title=Weilue: The Peoples of the West |publisher=Depts.washington.edu |date=23 May 2004 |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=23 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223070446/http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Miller, J. Innes. 1969. Chapter 8: "The Cinnamon Route". In: The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire. Oxford: University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-814264-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua_tAAAAMAAJ |title=Perspectives on the African past |date=8 January 2010 |access-date=10 August 2018 |last1=Klein |first1=Martin A. |last2=Wesley Johnson |first2=G. |archive-date=27 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627010025/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua_tAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |translator1=Hill, John E. |date=September 2004 |url=http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |title=The Peoples of the West from the Weilue: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265&nbsp;CE |orig-date=429 CE |author1=Yu Huan |access-date=17 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050315032618/http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |archive-date=15 March 2005 |language=English |at=Section&nbsp;15 and notes |via=Silk Road Seattle }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Evelyne Jone Rich |author2=Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein |title=Africa: Tradition and Change |year=1971 |page=124 |publisher=Random House School Division |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqafAAAAMAAJ |isbn=978-0-394-00938-4 |access-date=9 June 2016 |archive-date=10 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510082208/https://books.google.com/books?id=pqafAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach Southeast Africa during their migration.<ref name="Gonzales2009">{{cite book |author=Rhonda M. Gonzales |title=Societies, religion, and history: central-east Tanzanians and the world they created, c. 200&nbsp;BCE to 1800&nbsp;CE |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6owAQAAIAAJ |date=30 August 2009 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-14242-7 |page=222 |access-date=9 June 2016 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610094154/https://books.google.com/books?id=o6owAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large medieval Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the [[Buganda]],<ref name="Roland Oliver 1800. pp. 24-25">Roland Oliver, et al. "Africa South of the Equator," in Africa Since 1800. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 24–25.</ref> [[Bunyoro]] and [[Karagwe]]<ref name="Roland Oliver 1800. pp. 24-25"/> kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania.

During the early 1960s, the Southeast African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.

===Southern Africa===
{{Main|History of Southern Africa}}

{{Further|Kingdom of Mutapa}}

[[File:Great-Zimbabwe-2.jpg|thumb|[[Great Zimbabwe]]: Tower in the Great Enclosure]]

Settlements of [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking peoples, who were [[iron]]-using agriculturists and herdsmen, were already present south of the [[Limpopo River]] by the 4th or 5th century displacing and absorbing the original [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]] speakers. They slowly moved south, and the earliest ironworks in modern-day [[KwaZulu-Natal|KwaZulu-Natal Province]] are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the [[Xhosa people]], whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan inhabitants. They reached the [[Great Fish River|Fish River]] in today's [[Eastern Cape|Eastern Cape Province]]. [[Monomotapa]] was a medieval kingdom (c. 1250–1629), which existed between the [[Zambezi]] and [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] rivers of [[Southern Africa]] in the territory of modern-day [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Mozambique]]. Its old capital was located at [[Great Zimbabwe]].

In 1487, [[Bartolomeu Dias]] became the first European to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. In 1652, a [[Victualler|victualling station]] was established at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] by [[Jan van Riebeeck]] on behalf of the [[Dutch East India Company]]. For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was a [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] possession. In 1795, the Dutch colony was captured by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]. The British intended to use [[Cape Town]] as a major port on the route to [[Australia]] and [[Indian subcontinent|India]]. It was later returned to the Dutch in 1803, but soon afterward the Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and the Dutch (now under French control) and the British found themselves at war again. The British captured the Dutch possession yet again at the [[Battle of Blaauwberg]], commanded by [[Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet|Sir David Blair]]. The [[Zulu Kingdom]] was a Southern African tribal state in what is now [[KwaZulu-Natal]] in southeastern South Africa. The small kingdom gained world fame during and after their defeat in the [[Anglo-Zulu War]]. During the 1950s and early 1960s, most sub-Saharan African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.<ref>M. Martin, Phyllis and O'Meara, Patrick (1995). ''Africa''. 3rd edition, Bloomington and Indianapolis: [[Indiana University Press]], p. 156, {{ISBN|0-253-32916-7}}.</ref>

==Geography==
===Climate zones and ecoregions===
{{Further|Afrotropical realm|Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|List of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregions}}
[[File:Sub Saharan Africa Climate Map.png|thumb|[[Climate zone]]s of Africa, showing the ecological break between the [[hot desert climate]] of North Africa and the Horn of Africa (red), the [[hot semi-arid climate]] of the Sahel and areas surrounding semi-deserts (orange) and the [[tropical climate]] of Central and West Africa (blue). Southern Africa has a transition to [[subtropical]] or [[temperate climate]]s (green and yellow), and more desert or semi-desert regions, centered on Namibia and Botswana.]]

Sub-Saharan Africa has a wide variety of [[climate zone]]s or [[biome]]s. [[South Africa]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] in particular are considered [[megadiverse countries]]. It has a dry winter season and a wet summer season.
* The [[Sahel]] extends across all of Africa at a latitude of about 10° to 15° N. Countries that include parts of the Sahara Desert proper in their northern territories and parts of the Sahel in their southern region include [[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]], and [[Sudan]]. The Sahel has a [[hot semi-arid climate]].
* South of the Sahel, a belt of [[savanna]] (the [[West Sudanian savanna|West]] and [[East Sudanian savanna]]s) stretch from the Atlantic Ocean to the [[Ethiopian Highlands]]. The more humid [[Guinean forest–savanna mosaic|Guinean]] and [[Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic]] lie between the savannas and the equatorial forests.
* The [[Horn of Africa]] includes [[hot desert climate]] along the coast but a [[hot semi-arid climate]] can be found much more in the interior, contrasting with savanna and [[List of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregions|moist broadleaf forests]] in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]].
* [[Tropical Africa]] encompasses [[tropical rainforest]] stretching along the southern coast of West Africa and across most of Central Africa (the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]]) west of the [[African Great Lakes]].
* In East Africa, woodlands, savannas, and grasslands are found in the equatorial zone, including the [[Serengeti]] ecosystem in Tanzania and Kenya.
* Distinctive [[Afromontane]] forests, grasslands, and shrublands are found in the high mountains and mountain ranges of eastern Africa, from the Ethiopian Highlands to South Africa.
* South of the equatorial forests, the [[Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic|Western]] and [[Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic]] are transition zones between the tropical forests and the [[miombo woodland]] belt that spans the continent from [[Angola]] to [[Mozambique]] and [[Tanzania]].
* The [[Namib]] and [[Kalahari Desert]]s lie in Southern Africa, and are surrounded by semi-deserts including the [[Karoo]] region of South Africa. The [[Bushveld]] grasslands lie to the east of the deserts.
* The [[Cape Floristic Region]] is at Africa's southern tip, and is home to diverse subtropical and temperate forests, woodlands, grasslands, and shrublands.

==Economy==
{{Update|section|date=April 2021|reason=The most recent data in this section seems to be from 2015}}
{{Main|Economy of Africa}}

In the mid-2010s, private capital flew to sub-Saharan Africa{{snd}} primarily from members of [[BRICS]], private-sector investment portfolios, and remittances{{snd}} began to exceed official development assistance.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pugliese |first=Jessica |date=2 January 2014 |title=Rethinking Financing for Development in Sub-Saharan Africa |url=http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/africa-in-focus/posts/2014/01/02-financing-development-africa-sy |publisher=[[Brookings Institution]] |access-date=5 January 2014 |archive-date=6 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106032119/http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/africa-in-focus/posts/2014/01/02-financing-development-africa-sy |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Johannesburg CBD.jpg|thumb|[[Johannesburg]]]]
As of 2011, Africa is one of the fastest developing regions in the world. Six of the world's ten fastest-growing economies over the previous decade were situated below the Sahara, with the remaining four in East and Central Asia. According to the [[World Bank]], the economic growth rate in the region had risen to 4.7% in 2013. This continued rise was attributed to increasing investment in infrastructure and resources as well as steady expenditure per household.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2014/04/07/africas-growth-set-to-reach-52-percent-in-2014-with-strong-investment-growth-and-household-spending |title=Africa's impressive growth |publisher=World Bank |date=29 August 2014 |access-date=29 August 2014 |archive-date=1 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901030052/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2014/04/07/africas-growth-set-to-reach-52-percent-in-2014-with-strong-investment-growth-and-household-spending |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2019, 424 million people in sub-Saharan Africa were reportedly living in severe poverty. In 2022, 460 million people—an increase of 36 million in only three years—were anticipated to be living in extreme poverty as a result of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=19 October 2022 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Africa might have dodged a bullet, but systemic warnings abound for poverty reduction efforts on the continent |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/africa-might-have-dodged-bullet-systemic-warnings-abound-poverty-reduction-efforts |access-date=28 October 2022 |website=blogs.worldbank.org |date=28 September 2022 |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Extreme poverty rises in West Africa due to COVID-19 pandemic {{!}} World Food Programme |url=https://www.wfp.org/news/extreme-poverty-rises-west-africa-due-covid-19-pandemic |access-date=28 October 2022 |website=www.wfp.org |date=20 January 2022 |language=en }}</ref> Sub-Saharan Africa's [[government debt]] rose from 28% of [[gross domestic product]] in 2012 to 50% of gross domestic product in 2019. The COVID-19 pandemic caused it to rise to 57% of [[gross domestic product]] in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=COVID-19 and Africa: Socio-economic implications and policy responses |url=https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/covid-19-and-africa-socio-economic-implications-and-policy-responses-96e1b282/ |access-date=28 October 2022 |website=OECD |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=For Sub-Saharan Africa, Coronavirus Crisis Calls for Policies for Greater Resilience |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/afr/publication/for-sub-saharan-africa-coronavirus-crisis-calls-for-policies-for-greater-resilience |access-date=28 October 2022 |website=World Bank |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mukhopadhyay |first=Abhijit |title=The Search for Sustainable Solutions to Debt Accumulation in Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://www.orfonline.org/research/the-search-for-sustainable-solutions-to-debt-accumulation-in-sub-saharan-africa/ |access-date=28 October 2022 |website=ORF |language=en-US }}</ref>

Sub-Saharan Africa was severely harmed when government revenue declined from 22% of GDP in 2011 to 17% in 2021. 15 African nations were (or are) at significant risk of debt, and 7 were (2021) in financial crisis according to the IMF.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Africa's Rapid Economic Growth Hasn't Fully Closed Income Gaps |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2022/09/20/africas-rapid-economic-growth-hasnt-fully-closed-income-gaps |access-date=28 October 2022 |website=IMF |date=21 September 2022 |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sub-Saharan Africa: Living on The Edge |url=https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2022/10/13/pr22349-sub-saharan-africa-living-on-the-edge |access-date=28 October 2022 |website=IMF |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Growing Together The IMF and African Low-Income Countries |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2021/12/Africa-Low-Income-Countries |access-date=28 October 2022 |website=IMF |language=en }}</ref> 
The region went on to receive IMF [[Special Drawing Rights]] of $23 billion in 2021 to assist critical public spending.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sub-Saharan Africa: A New Shock and Little Room to Maneuver |url=https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2022/04/28/pr22133-sub-saharan-africa-a-new-shock-and-little-room-to-maneuver |access-date=28 October 2022 |website=IMF |language=en }}</ref>

===Energy and power===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; font-size:80%;"
|+ Oil production by country <br />(with other key actors of African or oil economy)
|-
! Rank || Country || Barrels/day || Year || Comparable to...
|-
| 01 || Eu: Russia || 9,980,000 || 2007 est. ||
|-
| 02 || Ar: Saudi Arabia || 9,200,000 || 2008 est. ||
|-
| 04 || Af: Libya || 4,725,000 || 2008 est. || Iran
|-
| 10 || Af: Nigeria || 2,352,000 || 2011 est. || Norway
|-
| 15 || Af: Algeria || 2,173,000 || 2007 est. ||
|-
| 16 || Af: Angola || 1,910,000 || 2008 est. ||
|-
| 17 || Af: Egypt || 1,845,000 || 2007 est. ||
|-
| 27 || Af: Tunisia || 664,000 || 2007 est. || Australia
|-
| 31 || Af: Sudan || 466,100 || 2007 est. || Ecuador
|-
| 33 || Af: Eq. Guinea || 368,500 || 2007 est. || Vietnam
|-
| 38 || Af: DR Congo || 261,000 || 2008 est.
|-
| 39 || Af: Gabon || 243,900 || 2007 est. ||
|-
| 40 || Af: South Africa || 199,100 || 2007 est. ||
|-
| 45 || Af: Chad || 156,000 || 2008 est. || Germany
|-
| 53 || Af: Cameroon || 87,400 || 2008 est. || France
|-
| 56 || Eu: France || 71,400 || 2007 ||
|-
| 60 || Af: Ivory Coast || 54,400 || 2008 est. ||
|-
! _ || Africa (total) || 10,780,400 || 2011 || Russia
|-
! _ || World (total) || 85,540,000 || 2007 est. ||
|-
! colspan="5"| Source: [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2173rank.html CIA.gov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512233445/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2173rank.html |date=12 May 2012 }}, World Fact Book.
|}
[[File:Sub-Saharan Africa electricity generation mix (2005-2015) (30010633237).png|thumb|Energy sources in sub-Saharan Africa. Fossil fuels and hydroelectric power make up the largest share of sub-Saharan African electricity.]]

{{As of|2009}}, 50% of Africa was rural with no access to electricity. In 2021, Africa generated 889 TWh of electricity, amounting to 3.13% of the global market share.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Electricity Production Data {{!}} World Electricity Statistics {{!}} Enerdata |url=https://yearbook.enerdata.net/electricity/world-electricity-production-statistics.html |access-date=19 February 2023 |website=yearbook.enerdata.net |language=en }}</ref> Many countries were (as of 2009) affected by power shortages.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Creamer Media Reporter |title=Africa's energy problems threatens growth, says Nepad CEO |url=http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/africas-energy-problems-threatens-growth-says-nepad-ceo-2009-11-12 |website=www.engineeringnews.co.za |publisher=Engineering News |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604035047/http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/africas-energy-problems-threatens-growth-says-nepad-ceo-2009-11-12 |archive-date=4 June 2013 |date=12 November 2009 }}</ref>

The percentage of residences with access to electricity in sub-Saharan Africa is the lowest in the world. In some remote regions, fewer than one in every 20 households has electricity.<ref name=":172">{{Cite web |title=Access to energy is Africa development key |url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/africa-energy-access |access-date=7 June 2021 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Access to electricity – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-electricity |access-date=7 June 2021 |website=IEA |language=en-GB }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=13 November 2019 |title=More than half of sub-Saharan Africans lack access to electricity |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2019/11/13/more-than-half-of-sub-saharan-africans-lack-access-to-electricity |access-date=7 June 2021 |issn=0013-0613 }}</ref>[[File:Greater Cape Town 12.02.2007 16-41-31.2007 16-41-33.JPG|thumb|The [[Athlone Power Station]] in [[Cape Town]], South Africa ]]

Because of rising prices in commodities such as coal and oil, thermal sources of energy are proving to be too expensive for power generation. Sub-Saharan Africa has the potential to generate 1,750 TWh of energy, of which only 7% has been explored. The failure to exploit its full energy potential is largely due to significant underinvestment, as at least four times as much (approximately $23&nbsp;billion a year) <!--something missing here, such as "could be generated"?-->and what is currently spent is invested in operating high cost power systems and not on expanding the infrastructure.<ref name="ODI1">Christian K.M. Kingombe 2011. [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5666&title=latin-america-medellin-colombia-microfinance-post-washington-consensus-microcredit-microenterprise-local-development Mapping the new infrastructure financing landscape] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918135821/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5666&title=latin-america-medellin-colombia-microfinance-post-washington-consensus-microcredit-microenterprise-local-development|date=18 September 2012}}. London: Overseas Development Institute</ref>

African governments are taking advantage of the readily available water resources to broaden their energy mix. Hydro Turbine Markets in sub-Saharan Africa generated revenues of $120.0&nbsp;million in 2007 and was estimated to reach $425.0&nbsp;million.{{when|date=February 2013}} 
Asian countries, notably China, India, and Japan, are playing an active role in power projects across the African continent. The majority of these power projects are hydro-based because of China's vast experience in the construction of hydro-power projects and part of the Energy & Power Growth Partnership Services programme.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://us-cdn.creamermedia.co.za/assets/articles/attachments/19642_frost.pdf |title=Creamer Media |publisher=Us-cdn.creamermedia.co.za |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807155204/http://us-cdn.creamermedia.co.za/assets/articles/attachments/19642_frost.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

With electrification numbers, sub-Saharan Africa with access to the Sahara and being in the tropical zones has massive potential for solar [[photovoltaic]] electrical potential.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 March 2006 |title=Nuclear Vs Solar Energy, Which? |url=https://www.redorbit.com/news/science/441990/nuclear_vs_solar_energy_which/ |access-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520151340/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/441990/nuclear_vs_solar_energy_which |archive-date=20 May 2013 |url-status=live |website=Redorbit |language=en-US }}</ref> Six hundred million people could be served with electricity based on its photovoltaic potential.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zych |first=Ariel |title=Blog: Battle of the Bots |url=https://www.sciencefriday.com/educational-resources/blog-battle-of-the-bots/ |access-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728170705/https://www.sciencefriday.com/educational-resources/blog-battle-of-the-bots/?%2Farchives%2F306-Could-Africa-Leapfrog-The-U_S_-In-Solar-Power_html |archive-date=28 July 2020 |url-status=live |website=Science Friday |date=25 April 2014 |language=en-US }}</ref>{{failed verification|date=May 2023}} 
In 2003, China promised to train 10,000 technicians from Africa and other developing countries in the use of solar energy technologies over the next five years. Training African technicians to use solar power is part of the China-Africa science and technology cooperation agreement signed by Chinese science minister [[Xu Guanhua]] and African counterparts during premier Wen Jiabao's visit to Ethiopia in December 2003.<ref>{{cite web |author=Hepeng, Jia |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/news/china-to-train-developing-nations-in-solar-technol.html |title=China to train developing nations in solar technologies |website=scidev.net |date=20 August 2004 |access-date=14 November 2009 |archive-date=3 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091103125239/http://www.scidev.net/en/news/china-to-train-developing-nations-in-solar-technol.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[New Partnership for Africa's Development]] (NEPAD) is developing an integrated, continent-wide energy strategy. This has been funded by, amongst others, the [[African Development Bank]] (AfDB) and the EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund. These projects must be sustainable, involve a cross-border dimension and/or have a regional impact, involve public and private capital, contribute to poverty alleviation and economic development, and involve at least one country in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name=ODI1/>

Renewable Energy Performance Platform was established by the [[European Investment Bank]] and the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] with a five-year goal of improving energy access for at least two million people in sub-Saharan Africa. It has so far<!--???--> invested around $45 million to renewable energy projects in 13 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. [[Solar power]] and [[hydropower]] are among the energy methods used in the projects.<ref name=":172"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=About {{!}} Renewable Energy Performance Platform (REPP) |url=https://repp.energy/about-repp/ |access-date=7 June 2021 |website=REPP |language=en }}</ref>

===Oil and minerals===
{{Main|Mineral industry of Africa}}
[[File:Phenakite-262068.jpg|thumb|[[Phenakite]] from the [[Jos Plateau]], [[Plateau State]], Nigeria.]]
The region is a major exporter to the world of [[gold]], [[uranium]], [[chromium]], [[vanadium]], [[antimony]], [[coltan]], [[bauxite]], [[iron ore]], [[copper]], and [[manganese]]. South Africa, along with [[Gabon]] and [[Ghana]], collectively supplies over 60% of global [[manganese]], and is also a major exporter of [[chromium]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/manganese/mcs-2009-manga.pdf |title=Manganese |author=Lisa A. Corathers |publisher=Minerals.usgs.gov |access-date=19 October 2015 |date=January 2009 |quote=Land-based manganese resources are large but irregularly distributed; those of the United States are very low grade and have potentially high extraction costs. South Africa accounts for about 80% of the world's identified manganese resources, and Ukraine accounts for 10%. |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000853/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/manganese/mcs-2009-manga.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last1=Chen |first1=Wenjie |last2=Laws |first2=Athene |last3=Valckx |first3=Nico |title=Harnessing Sub-Saharan Africa's Critical Mineral Wealth |url=https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2024/04/29/cf-harnessing-sub-saharan-africas-critical-mineral-wealth |access-date=13 May 2024 |website=IMF |language=en }}</ref> A 2001 estimate is that 42% of the world's reserves of chromium may be found in South Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/chromium/chromyb01.pdf |title=Chromium |author=John F. Papp |work=U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook |publisher=Minerals.usgs.gov |access-date=19 October 2015 |date=2001 |quote=About 42% of world reserves and about 75% of the world reserve base are located in South Africa. |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910071339/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/chromium/chromyb01.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> South Africa is the largest producer of [[platinum]], with 80% of the total world's annual mine production and 88% of the world's platinum reserve.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gold-eagle.com/analysis/platinum.html |title=Platinum: The Rich Man's Gold |author=Vronsky |publisher=Gold-Eagle.com |date=1 May 1997 |access-date=19 October 2015 |archive-date=12 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312083344/http://www.gold-eagle.com/analysis/platinum.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Sub-Saharan Africa produces 33% of the world's bauxite, with Guinea as the major supplier.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2009-bauxi.pdf |title=Bauxite and Alumina |author=E. Lee Bray |work=U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries |publisher=Minerals.usgs.gov |access-date=29 September 2015 |date=January 2009 |archive-date=24 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124162211/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2009-bauxi.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Zambia is a major producer of copper.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2009-coppe.pdf |title=Copper |author=Daniel L. Edelstein |work=U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries |publisher=Minerals.usgs.gov |access-date=19 October 2015 |date=January 2009 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304195020/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2009-coppe.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a major source of coltan. Production from DR Congo is very small, but the country has 80% of the proven reserves in Africa, which are 80% of those worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=maheta_molango |title=From the SelectedWorks of Maheta Matteo: From "Blood Diamond" to "Blood Coltan": Should International Corporations Pay the Price for the Rape of the DR Congo? |publisher=Works.bepress.com |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=30 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930161435/http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=maheta_molango }}</ref> Sub-Saharan Africa is a major producer of gold, producing up to 30% of global production. Major suppliers are South Africa, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Guinea, and Mali. South Africa had been first in the world in terms of gold production since 1905, but in 2007 it moved to second place, according to GFMS, the precious metals consultancy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mbendi.com/indy/ming/gold/af/p0005.htm |title=MBendi.com |publisher=MBendi.com |access-date=20 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060510010411/http://www.mbendi.com/indy/ming/gold/af/p0005.htm |archive-date=10 May 2006 }}</ref> Uranium is major commodity from the region. Significant suppliers are Niger, Namibia, and South Africa. Namibia was the number one supplier from sub-Saharan Africa in 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html |title=World-Nuclear.org |publisher=World-Nuclear.org |access-date=20 December 2009 |archive-date=26 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626071100/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The region produces 49% of the world's [[diamonds]].

Sub-Saharan Africa has been the focus of an intense race for oil by the West, China, India, and other emerging economies, even though it holds only 10% of proven oil reserves, less than the Middle East. This race has been referred to as the second [[Scramble for Africa]]. All reasons for this global scramble come from the reserves' economic benefits. Transportation cost is low and no pipelines have to be laid as in Central Asia. Almost all reserves are offshore, so political turmoil within the host country will not directly interfere with operations. Sub-Saharan oil is viscous, with a very low sulfur content. This quickens the refining process and effectively reduces costs. New sources of oil are being located in sub-Saharan Africa more frequently than anywhere else. Of all new sources of oil, {{frac|1|3}} are in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>Ghazvinian, John (2008). Untapped: The Scramble for Africa's Oil. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, pp. 1–16, {{ISBN|978-0-15-603372-5}}.</ref>

Sub-Saharan Africa is a key player in the global [[mineral]]s market, producing over 70% of the world's [[cobalt]] and hosting about 50% of its reserves in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC). The region also harbors significant [[lithium]] deposits in [[Zimbabwe]], DR Congo, and [[Mali]].<ref name="auto"/>

===Agriculture===
[[File:Rwanda GV5 lo (4108942310).jpg|thumb|Agricultural fields in [[Rwanda]]'s [[Eastern Province, Rwanda|Eastern Province]] ]]

Sub-Saharan Africa has more variety of grains than anywhere in the world. Between 13,000 and 11,000&nbsp;BCE wild grains began to be collected as a source of food in the cataract region of the Nile, south of Egypt. The collecting of wild grains as source of food spread to Syria, parts of Turkey, and Iran by the eleventh millennium&nbsp;BCE. By the tenth and ninth millennia southwest Asians domesticated their wild grains, wheat, and barley after the notion of collecting wild grains spread from the Nile.<ref name="The Civilization of Africa">[[Christopher Ehret]], (2002). The Civilization of Africa. University of Virginia Press: Charlottesville, p. 98, {{ISBN|0-8139-2085-X}}.</ref>

Numerous crops have been domesticated in the region and spread to other parts of the world. These crops included [[sorghum]], [[castor beans]], [[coffee]], [[cotton]],<ref name="Cotton of Kush">Vandaveer, Chelsie(2006). [http://www.killerplants.com/plants-that-changed-history/20020226.asp What was the cotton of Kush?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114155727/http://www.killerplants.com/plants-that-changed-history/20020226.asp |date=14 January 2010 }} KillerPlants.com, Plants That Change History Archive.</ref> [[okra]], [[black-eyed peas]], [[watermelon]], [[gourd]], and pearl [[millet]]. Other domesticated crops included [[teff]], [[enset]], [[African rice]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[kola nut]]s, [[Elaeis guineensis|oil palm]], and [[raffia palm]].<ref name="The Civilization of Africa"/><ref>National Research Council (U.S.). Board on Science and Technology for International Development (1996). Lost Crops of Africa: Grains. National Academy Press, {{ISBN|978-0-309-04990-0}}.</ref>

Domesticated animals include the [[guinea fowl]] and the [[donkey]].
[[File:2011-02-07 IMG 08.JPG|thumb|left|The Naute Fruit Farm at the [[Naute Dam]] outside of [[Keetmanshoop]], Namibia ]]
Agriculture represents 20% to 30% of GDP and 50% of exports. In some cases, 60% to 90% of the labor force are employed in agriculture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://worlddefensereview.com/pham110309.shtml |title=WorldDefenseReview.com |publisher=WorldDefenseReview.com |access-date=13 November 2009 |archive-date=7 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091107215711/http://worlddefensereview.com/pham110309.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Most agricultural activity is subsistence farming. This has made agricultural activity [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]] and global warming. As of right now Sub-Saharan Africa has degraded land covering one million square kilometres.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344142265 |title=Large scale land investments, household displacement and the effect on land degradation in semiarid agro-pastoral areas of Ethiopia }}</ref> Biotechnology has been advocated to create high yield, pest and environmentally resistant crops in the hands of small farmers. The [[Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation]] is a strong advocate and donor to this cause. Biotechnology and GM crops have met resistance both by natives and environmental groups.

Cash crops include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco.<ref name="Africa South of the Sahara">Bowden, Rob (2007). Africa South of the Sahara. Coughlan Publishing: p. 37, {{ISBN|1-4034-9910-1}}.</ref>

The [[OECD]] says Africa has the potential to become an agricultural superbloc if it can unlock the wealth of the savannahs by allowing farmers to use their land as collateral for credit.<ref>{{cite web |last=Evans |first=Ambrose |url=http://tradeafrica.blogspot.com/2009/10/middle-east-and-africa-bear-untold.html |title=Blogspot.com |publisher=Tradeafrica.blogspot.com |date=12 October 2009 |access-date=15 November 2009 |archive-date=25 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525214300/http://tradeafrica.blogspot.com/2009/10/middle-east-and-africa-bear-untold.html |url-status=live }}</ref> There is such international interest in sub-Saharan agriculture, that the World Bank increased its financing of African agricultural programs to $1.3&nbsp;billion in the 2011 fiscal year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Africa Regional Brief |work=[[World Bank]] |url=http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/polsc325-4.1-Africa-Regional-Brief.pdf |access-date=7 May 2012 |archive-date=25 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525233137/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/polsc325-4.1-Africa-Regional-Brief.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Recently, there has been a trend to purchase large tracts of land in sub-Sahara for agricultural use by developing countries.<ref name="Monthly-Review-51-03-Saul-Leys">{{Cite journal |last1=Saul |first1=John J. |last2=Leys |first2=Colin |date=1 July 1999 |title=Sub-Saharan Africa in Global Capitalism |url=https://monthlyreview.org/1999/07/01/sub-saharan-africa-in-global-capitalism/ |journal=[[Monthly Review]] |language=en-US |volume=51 |issue=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531194911/http://monthlyreview.org/2013/11/01/twenty-first-century-land-grabs |archive-date=31 May 2014 |access-date=12 February 2023 }}</ref><ref name="Monthly-Review-Magdoff-65-06">{{Cite journal |last=Magdoff |first=Fred |date=1 November 2013 |title=Twenty-First-Century Land Grabs: Accumulation by Agricultural Dispossession |url=https://monthlyreview.org/2013/11/01/twenty-first-century-land-grabs/ |journal=[[Monthly Review]] |language=en-US |volume=65 |issue=6 |doi=10.14452/MR-065-06-2013-10_1 |s2cid=144627886 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531194911/http://monthlyreview.org/2013/11/01/twenty-first-century-land-grabs |archive-date=31 May 2014 |access-date=12 February 2023 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Early in 2009, [[George Soros]] highlighted a new farmland buying frenzy caused by growing population, scarce water supplies and climate change. Chinese interests bought up large swathes of Senegal to supply it with sesame. Aggressive moves by China, South Korea, and Gulf states to buy vast tracts of agricultural land in sub-Saharan Africa could soon be limited by a new global international protocol.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2009/nov/02/global-protocol-subsahara-land-grab |work=The Guardian |location=London |title=Global protocol could limit Sub-Saharan land grab |first=Nick |last=Mathiason |date=2 November 2009 |access-date=9 April 2010 |archive-date=8 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908055736/http://www.theguardian.com/business/2009/nov/02/global-protocol-subsahara-land-grab |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Low productivity of subsistance farmers ===
Compared to South America and Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa has experienced persistently low crop yield productivity for more than 50 years.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Recent patterns of crop yield growth and stagnation |journal=Nature Communications |date=2012 |volume=3 |article-number=1293|doi=10.1038/ncomms2296 |pmid=23250423 |last1=Ray |first1=Deepak K. |last2=Ramankutty |first2=Navin |last3=Mueller |first3=Nathaniel D. |last4=West |first4=Paul C. |last5=Foley |first5=Jonathan A. |bibcode=2012NatCo...3.1293R }}</ref> As mentioned above, one factor influencing low productivity might be low access to credit studies. Many studies have focused on factors such as access to credit,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Time versus state in insurance: Experimental evidence from contract farming in Kenya. |journal=American Economic Review |date=2018 |volume=108 |issue=12 |pages=3778–3813|doi=10.1257/aer.20171526 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/159985/1/Time_versus_State_Casaburi.pdf |last1=Casaburi |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Willis |first2=Jack }}</ref> and [[time preference]]s<ref>{{cite journal |title=Nudging farmers to use fertilizer: Theory and experimental evidence from Kenya. |journal=American Economic Review |date=2011 |volume=101 |issue=6 |pages=2350–2390|doi=10.1257/aer.101.6.2350 |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w15131.pdf |last1=Duflo |first1=Esther |last2=Kremer |first2=Michael |last3=Robinson |first3=Jonathan }}</ref> as key explanations for low productivity of small farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, recent studies have explored an alternative mechanism: quality of agricultural inputs.<ref>{{cite journal |title=re Ugandan farmers using the right quality inorganic fertilizers? |journal=Policy Brief: AGRA and the Ugandan Ministry of Agriculture. |date=2015 |url=https://elibrary.acbfpact.org/acbf/collect/acbf/index/assoc/HASH0151/7bc5e90f/6ea93be2/0406.dir/Uganda%20Farmers.pdf}}</ref> Indeed, usage of high-quality inputs, such as seeds and fertiliser, would substantially increase productivity of [[Subsistence agriculture|subsistance farmers]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ten striking facts about agricultural input use in Sub- Saharan Africa. |journal=Food Policy |date=2017 |volume=67 |pages=12–25|doi=10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.09.010 |pmid=28413243 |pmc=5384438 |last1=Sheahan |first1=Megan |last2=Barrett |first2=Christopher B. }}</ref> However, there is a small take up rate of this product by farmers, despite acknowledging their benefits.

==== Structure of the agricultural market ====
First, it is important to explain the structure of the agricultural input market in countries of the Sub-Saharan Africa. The majority of seeds and fertilizers are traded informally, often of uncertain quality, either exchanged between farmers or reused from previous harvests, in the case of seeds.<ref name="Lemon technologies and adoption: Me">{{cite journal |title=Lemon technologies and adoption: Measurement, theory, and evidence from agricultural markets in Uganda. |journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics |date=2017 |volume=132|issue=3 |pages=1055–1100 |doi=10.1093/qje/qjx009 |last1=Bold |first1=Tessa |last2=Kaizzi |first2=Kayuki C. |last3=Svensson |first3=Jakob |last4=Yanagizawa-Drott |first4=David }}</ref> Only a small number of farmers purchase inputs from the formal market, which is generally considered to offer higher-quality products. We can illustrate this with the example of the Nigerian stem market. Indeed, only 1% of the stems sold in the Nigerian market are certified, while the remaining 99% are traded informally—either as recycled stems from local varieties or as uncertified stems derived from previously improved varieties.<ref>{{cite journal  |title=Estimating seed demand in the presence of market frictions: Evidence from an auction experiment in Nigeria. |journal=Journal of Development Economics |date=2024 |volume=167 |article-number=103242|doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2023.103242 |pmid=38434593 |last1=Wossen |first1=T. |last2=Spielman |first2=D. J. |last3=Alene |first3=A. D. |last4=Abdoulaye |first4=T. |pmc=10831485 }}</ref>

==== Uncertainty about quality of agricultural inputs ====
Recent studies explain that farmers mistrust the quality of fertilisers and seeds sold in the formal market.<ref name="Lemon technologies and adoption: Me"/> The study realized in Uganda<ref name="Lemon technologies and adoption: Me"/> infers quality across fertilizer and hybrid seeds varies significantly due to adulteration: sellers tend to mix the fertilizer with poor soil. However, one study realized in Tanzania<ref>{{cite journal   |title=Misperceived quality: Fertilizer in Tanzania. |journal=Journal of Development Economics |date=2021 |volume=148|doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2020.102579 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/23478044 |last1=Michelson |first1=Hope |last2=Fairbairn |first2=Anna |last3=Ellison |first3=Brenna |last4=Maertens |first4=Annemie |last5=Manyong |first5=Victor |article-number=102579 }}</ref> finds no adulteration in agricultural inputs, but do find that visual appearance of input sold in the formal market is degraded. Whether one study or the other is correct, both papers highlight uncertainty about fertilizer's quality, thus generating mistrust among farmers and consequently generates a low take-up rate.

Another factor highlighting uncertainty about quality is the presence of relatively homogenous pricing among different quality of the same inputs.<ref>{{cite journal  |title=Misperceived quality: Fertilizer in Tanzania. |journal=Journal of Development Economics |date=2021 |volume=148|doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2020.102579 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/23478044 |last1=Michelson |first1=Hope |last2=Fairbairn |first2=Anna |last3=Ellison |first3=Brenna |last4=Maertens |first4=Annemie |last5=Manyong |first5=Victor |article-number=102579 }}</ref> While in most markets price is a good indicator of quality.<ref>{{cite journal  |title=Price as an indicator of quality: Report on an enquiry |journal=Economica |series=New Series |date=1966 |volume=33 |issue=129 |jstor=2552272 |last1=Gabor |first1=André |last2=Granger |first2=C. W. J. |pages=43–70 |doi=10.2307/2552272 }}</ref> the higher the quality, the higher the price- , in this case, uniform pricing prevents farmers from using price as a signal of input quality. Consequently, the inability of farmers to infer the quality, either through physical appearance or price, creates [[Information asymmetry|asymmetric information]] in the market, leading an inefficient market.<ref name="Lemon technologies and adoption: Me"/>

Some papers have tried to understand why sellers do not simply charge higher prices when they offer high-quality seeds and fertilizers,<ref name="Lemon technologies and adoption: Me"/> using a [[Bayesian inference|Bayesian learning model]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jovanovic |first1=B. |last2=Nyarko |first2=Y. |title=A Bayesian learning model fitted to a variety of empirical learning curves |journal=Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics |date=1995 |pages=247–305 |doi=10.2307/2534775 |jstor=2534775|url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/1995/01/1995_bpeamicro_jovanovic.pdf }}</ref> It is challenging for a company to sell high-quality inputs at a [[Premium pricing|premium price]] and build a reputation in the long term, meaning that farmers will trust the seller regarding the quality of its products. Indeed, as farmers are highly suspicious -due to fear of being scammed- their [[willingness to pay]] for high-quality products is very low. So even if the firm sells high-quality products, it will take too long for farmers to start trusting the firm, and for the seller to become profitable.<ref name="Estimating seed demand in the prese">{{cite journal |title=Estimating seed demand in the presence of market frictions: Evidence from an auction experiment in Nigeria. |journal=Journal of Development Economics |date=2024 |volume=167 |article-number=103242|doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2023.103242 |last1=Wossen |first1=Tesfamicheal |last2=Spielman |first2=David J. |last3=Alene |first3=Arega D. |last4=Abdoulaye |first4=Tahirou |pmid=38434593 |pmc=10831485 }}</ref>

==== Policy recommendation ====
The literature advises to actually improve farmers perception of true quality itself, and not to improve the quality of the products which already meet the standards.<ref name="Estimating seed demand in the prese"/> This can be done by providing more information about inputs quality, how they should look like, where they come from, making firms more reliable.<ref name="Estimating seed demand in the prese"/> That would allow more companies to enter the market and sell formally higher inputs, instead of farmers using their own seed or using seed of unknown quality bought in informal markets.

=== Science and technology ===
{{Further|History of science and technology in Africa|Internet in Africa|Mobile technology in Africa|Educational technology in sub-Saharan Africa}}

===Tourism===
The development of [[tourism]] in this region has been identified as having the ability to create jobs and improve the economy. South Africa, Namibia, Mauritius, Botswana, Ghana, Cape Verde, Tanzania and Kenya have been identified as having well developed tourism industries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Africa/Report/africa-tourism-report-2013-overview.pdf |title=Tourism in Africa: Harnessing Tourism for Growth and Improved Livelihoods |publisher=Worldbank.org |access-date=29 September 2015 }}</ref> [[Cape Town]] and the surrounding area is very popular with tourists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/ms/southafrica/political/constitution/provincialgovt.shtml?flashplugin=false&flashdetect=true&area=09 |title=South Africa: Political Issues: Constitution: Provincial Government |publisher=BBC |date=29 October 2014 |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=18 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160118115401/http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/ms/southafrica/political/constitution/provincialgovt.shtml?flashplugin=false&flashdetect=true&area=09 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Infrastructure ===
{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa}}
[[File:Front de mer.jpg|thumb|Skyline of [[Libreville]], Gabon]]

According to researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, the lack of infrastructure in many [[developing countries]] represents one of the most significant limitations to [[economic growth]] and achievement of the [[Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs).<ref name="ODI1" /><ref name="Monthly-Review-51-03-Saul-Leys" /><ref name="Monthly-Review-Magdoff-65-06" /> Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such as areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.<ref name="ODI1" />

Infrastructure investments contributed to Africa's growth, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty.<ref name="ODI1" /><ref name="Monthly-Review-51-03-Saul-Leys" /><ref name="Monthly-Review-Magdoff-65-06" /> The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30–40% returns for [[telecommunications]] (ICT) investments, over 40% for [[electricity]] generation and 80% for roads.<ref name="ODI1" />

In Africa, it is argued that in order to meet the MDGs, infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15% of GDP (around $93&nbsp;billion a year).<ref name="ODI1" /> Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors.<ref name="ODI1" /> Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseas [[development aid]] (ODA) and yet others by private investors.<ref name="ODI1" /> In sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4&nbsp;billion out of a total of $24.9&nbsp;billion.<ref name="ODI1" /> In [[irrigation]], SSA states represent almost all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; in [[Information and communication technologies|ICT]] and [[water supply]] and [[sanitation]], the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure.<ref name="ODI1" /> Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending.<ref name="ODI1" /> The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments.<ref name="ODI1" /> External financing increased from $7&nbsp;billion (2002) to $27&nbsp;billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.<ref name="ODI1" />

==== Transport ====
{{Category see also|Transport in Africa}}
[[File:Roads-Rwanda-1.jpg|right|thumb|Road in Rwanda]]
Less than 40% of rural Africans live within two kilometers of an all-season road, the lowest level of rural accessibility in the developing world. Spending on roads averages just below 2% of GDP with varying degree among countries. This compares with 1% of GDP that is typical in industrialised countries, and 2–3% of GDP found in fast-growing emerging economies. Although the level of expenditure is high relative to the size of Africa's economies, it remains small in absolute terms, with low-income countries spending an average of about US$7 per capita per year.<ref>Ken Gwilliam, Vivien Foster, Rodrigo Archondo-Callao, Cecilia Briceño-Garmendia, Alberto Nogales, and Kavita Sethi(2008). [http://www.eu-africa-infrastructure-tf.net/attachments/library/aicd-background-paper-14-roads-sect-summary-en.pdf Africa infrastructure country diagnostic, Roads in Sub-Saharan Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718071708/http://www.eu-africa-infrastructure-tf.net/attachments/library/aicd-background-paper-14-roads-sect-summary-en.pdf|date=18 July 2011}}. World Bank and the SSATP: p. 4</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Africa}}

===Major cities===
{{Further|Urbanization in Africa}}[[File:Lagos Island.jpg|thumb|[[Lagos]]]]
[[File:Vue Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Kinshasa]]Sub-Saharan Africa has several large cities. [[Lagos]] is a city in the [[Nigeria]]n [[States of Nigeria|state]] of [[Lagos State|Lagos]]. The city, with its adjoining [[conurbation]], is [[List of Nigerian cities by population|the most populous in Nigeria]], and the second-most populous in [[Africa]] after [[Cairo]], Egypt. It is one of the fastest-growing cities in the world,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tk5TP7bsXnkC&pg=PA202 |title=African Cities Driving the NEPAD Initiative |publisher=UN-HABITAT |year=2006 |isbn=978-92-1-131815-9 |page=202 |access-date=4 July 2018 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032031/https://books.google.com/books?id=tk5TP7bsXnkC&pg=PA202 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMnj88kYVmcC&pg=PT60 |title=Key Concepts in Creative Industries |page=47 |author1=John Hartley |author2=Jason Potts |author3=Terry Flew |author4=Stuart Cunningham |author5=Michael Keane |author6=John Banks |publisher=SAGE |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-446-2028-90 |access-date=4 July 2018 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032029/https://books.google.com/books?id=sMnj88kYVmcC&pg=PT60 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wQJb1QpZz_4C&pg=PA118 |title=Cultures and Globalization: Cities, Cultural Policy and Governance |page=118 |author1=Helmut K Anheier |author2=Yudhishthir Raj Isar |publisher=SAGE |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4462-5850-7 |access-date=4 July 2018 |archive-date=14 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214094159/https://books.google.com/books?id=wQJb1QpZz_4C&pg=PA118 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oy-de29AtvYC&pg=PA163 |title=Hidden Innovation: Policy, Industry and the Creative Sector |series=Creative Economy and Innovation Culture |author=Stuart Cunningham |publisher=[[University of Queensland Press]] |page=163 |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-702-2509-89 |access-date=4 July 2018 |archive-date=8 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108191709/https://books.google.com/books?id=oy-de29AtvYC&pg=PA163 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQ_ZLuqZT54C&pg=PA71 |title=Cities and Nature |page=71 |publisher=Routledge Critical Introductions to Urbanism and the City |author1=Lisa Benton-Short |author-link2=John Rennie Short |author2=John Rennie Short |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-134-25274-9 |access-date=4 July 2018 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032013/https://books.google.com/books?id=rQ_ZLuqZT54C&pg=PA71 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="afropolis">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9lcn62brtGQC&pg=PA18 |title=Afropolis: City Media Art |author1=Kerstin Pinther |author2=Larissa Förster |author3=Christian Hanussek |publisher=Jacana Media |year=2012 |page=18 |isbn=978-1-431-4032-57 |access-date=4 July 2018 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032004/https://books.google.com/books?id=9lcn62brtGQC&pg=PA18 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8JPIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 |title=The Land/Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone of West and Central Africa Estuaries of the World |author1=Salif Diop |author2=Jean-Paul Barusseau |page=66 |author3=Cyr Descamps |publisher=Springer |year=2014 |isbn=978-3-319-0638-81 |access-date=4 July 2018 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032031/https://books.google.com/books?id=8JPIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 |url-status=live }}</ref> and also one of the most populous [[urban agglomeration]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/08/opinion/what-makes-lagos-a-model-city.html?_r=0 |title=What Makes Lagos a Model City |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=7 January 2014 |access-date=16 March 2015 |archive-date=19 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519051414/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/08/opinion/what-makes-lagos-a-model-city.html?_r=0 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="John Campbell">{{cite news |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/07/this-is-africas-new-biggest-city-lagos-nigeria-population-25-million/259611/ |title=This Is Africa's New Biggest City: Lagos, Nigeria, Population 21 Million |author=John Campbell |date=10 July 2012 |work=[[The Atlantic]] |location=Washington D.C. |access-date=23 September 2012 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032031/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/07/this-is-africas-new-biggest-city-lagos-nigeria-population-21-million/259611/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Lagos is a major [[financial centre]] in Africa; this [[megacity]] has the highest GDP,<ref name="metropolitan Lagos">{{cite web |url=https://ng.boell.org/2015/07/02/lagos-and-its-potentials-economic-growth |title=Lagos and Its Potentials for Economic Growth |date=2 July 2015 |access-date=26 October 2015 |archive-date=9 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009143404/http://ng.boell.org/2015/07/02/lagos-and-its-potentials-economic-growth |url-status=live }}</ref> and also houses [[Apapa]], one of the largest and busiest ports on the continent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://businesstech.co.za/news/general/81995/africas-biggest-shipping-ports/ |title=Africa's biggest shipping ports |publisher=Businesstech |date=8 March 2015 |access-date=26 October 2015 |archive-date=5 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105121001/http://businesstech.co.za/news/general/81995/africas-biggest-shipping-ports/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E-VwMKQlGjIC |title=Africa, Volume 1 of Cities of the world: a compilation of current information on cultural, geographical, and political conditions in the countries and cities of six continents, based on the Department of State's "post reports" |author1=Brian Rajewski |publisher=Gale Research International, Limited |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8103-7692-2 }}</ref><ref name="global">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lzt7BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA315 |page=315 |title=Global Gentrifications: Uneven Development and Displacement |author1=Loretta Lees |author2=Hyun Bang Shin |author3=Ernesto López Morales |publisher=Policy Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-447-3134-89 |access-date=4 July 2018 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032031/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lzt7BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA315 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Dar es Salaam]] is the former capital of, as well as the most populous city in, [[Tanzania]]; it is a regionally important economic centre.<ref name="World Factbook">{{cite web |title=Major urban areas - population |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2219.html |website=cia.gov |access-date=18 November 2014 |ref=dar es salaam population |archive-date=4 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504222851/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2219.html }}</ref> It is located on the [[Swahili coast]].

[[Johannesburg]] is the largest city in [[South Africa]]. It is the [[province|provincial]] capital and largest city in [[Gauteng]], which is the wealthiest province in South Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fasken.com/johannesburg/ |title=Johannesburg |access-date=25 May 2015 |archive-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426213642/http://www.fasken.com/johannesburg/ |url-status=live }}</ref> While Johannesburg is not one of [[South Africa#Politics and government|South Africa's three capital cities]], it is the seat of the [[Constitutional Court of South Africa|Constitutional Court]]. The city is located in the mineral-rich [[Witwatersrand]] range of hills, and is the centre of a large-scale gold and diamond trade.

[[Nairobi]] is the capital and the largest city of [[Kenya]]. The name comes from the [[Maasai language|Maasai]] phrase ''Enkare Nyrobi'', which translates to "cool water", a reference to the [[Nairobi River]] which flows through the city. The city is popularly referred to as the Green City in the Sun.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pulse Africa |title=Not to be Missed: Nairobi 'Green City in the Sun' |work=Pulse Africa Tour Operators |publisher=pulseafrica.com |url=http://www.pulseafrica.com/Highlights_1110000000_1_Nairobi+Green+City+In+The+Sun.htm |access-date=14 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428205948/http://www.pulseafrica.com/Highlights_1110000000_1_Nairobi%2BGreen%2BCity%2BIn%2BThe%2BSun.htm |archive-date=28 April 2007 }}</ref>

Other major cities in sub-Saharan Africa include [[Abidjan]], [[Cape Town]], [[Kinshasa]], [[Luanda]], [[Mogadishu]] and [[Addis Ababa]].

{{Largest cities|city_1=Lagos|city_2=Kinshasa|city_3=Johannesburg|city_4=Luanda|city_5=Dar es Salaam|city_6=Khartoum|city_7=Abidjan|city_8=Addis Ababa|city_9=Nairobi|city_10=Cape Town|city_12=Kano (city){{!}}Kano|city_13=Douala|city_14=Ibadan|city_15=Antananarivo|city_16=Abuja|city_17=Kampala|city_18=Kumasi|city_19=Dakar|city_20=Port Harcourt|city_11=Yaounde|pop_1=21,320,000|pop_11=4,336,670|pop_2=17,071,000|pop_12=4,219,209|pop_3=11,061,878|pop_13=3,926,645|pop_4=8,952,496|pop_14=3,756,445|pop_5=7,404,689|pop_15=3,669,900|pop_6=6,160,327|pop_16=3,652,029|pop_7=5,515,794|pop_17=3,651,919|pop_8=5,227,794|pop_18=3,630,326|pop_9=5,118,844|pop_19=3,326,001|pop_10=4,800,954|pop_20=3,324,694|country=Sub Saharan Africa|stat_ref=worldpopulationreview.com 2022 City Population estimates.}}

===Population===
{{Further|List of African countries by population}}
[[File:Africa population density.PNG|thumb|upright|[[Population density]] in Africa, 2006]]
[[File:Fertility Rates and Life Expectancy in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|left|upright|Fertility rates and life expectancy in sub-Saharan Africa]]
According to {{UN_Population|source}}, the population of sub-Saharan Africa was 1.1 billion in 2019. The current growth rate is 2.3%. The UN predicts for the region a population between 2 and 2.5&nbsp;billion by 2050<ref>{{cite web |url=https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/ |title=World Population Prospects 2019 – Population Division |publisher=Esa.un.org |date=28 August 2019 |access-date=22 December 2019 |archive-date=15 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615001511/https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/ |url-status=live }}</ref> with a population density of 80 per km<sup>2</sup> compared to 170 for Western Europe, 140 for Asia and 30 for the Americas.

Sub-Saharan African countries top the [[list of countries and territories by fertility rate]] with 40 of the highest 50, all with [[Total fertility rate|TFR]] greater than 4 in 2008. All are above the world average except [[South Africa]] and [[Seychelles]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?order=wbapi_data_value_2014+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=asc |title=Fertility rate, total (births per woman) {{!}} Data |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=21 July 2016 |archive-date=8 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708214110/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?order=wbapi_data_value_2014+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=asc |url-status=live }}</ref> More than 40% of the population in sub-Saharan countries is [[Demographics of Nigeria|younger]] than 15 years old, as well as in [[Sudan]], with the exception of South Africa.<ref>According to the [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2008/index.html CIA Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120805191139/http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2008/index.html |date=5 August 2012 }}: Angola, Benin, Burundi, Burkina Faso, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Chad, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, and Zambia</ref>
{{sort under}}
{|class="wikitable sortable sort-under"
|-
!Country!! [[List of countries by population|Population]]!! [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|Area&nbsp;(km<sup>2</sup>)]] !! Literacy&nbsp;(M/F)<ref name="Database AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS p. 28">(2009). Africa Development Indicators 2008/2009: From the World Bank Africa Database African Development Indicators. World Bank Publications, p. 28, {{ISBN|978-0-8213-7787-1}}.</ref>!! GDP per Capita (PPP)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/211rank.html |title=Country Comparison :: GDP - per capita (PPP) — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency |website=www.cia.gov |access-date=2 January 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114032309/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/211rank.html }}</ref>!!Transparency<br>(Rank/Score)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2009/cpi_2009_table |title=Research – CPI – Overview |publisher=Transparency.org |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=12 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112022807/https://www.transparency.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> || Life&nbsp;Exp.<ref name="Database AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS p. 28"/> || [[List of countries by Human Development Index|HDI]] || [http://www.doingbusiness.org/economyrankings/?direction=Asc&sort=2 EODBR/SAB]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rankings - Doing Business |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/economyrankings/?direction=Asc&sort=2 |date=2010 |website=The Doing Business Project |publisher=World Bank |access-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100407152649/http://www.doingbusiness.org/economyrankings/?direction=Asc&sort=2 |archive-date=7 April 2010 |language=en }}</ref> || [https://web.archive.org/web/20150930230930/http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2009%2C1001.html PFI]&nbsp;(RANK/MARK)
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Angola}} || 18,498,000 || 1,246,700 || 82.9%/54.2% || 6,800 || 168/2 || 42.4 || 0.486 || 172/171 || 132/58,43
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Burundi}} || 8,988,091 || 27,830 || 67.3%/52.2% || 700 || 168/1.8 || 49 || 0.316 || 176/130 || 103/29,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} || 68,692,542 || 2,345,410 || 80.9%/54.1% || 800 || 162/11.9 || 46.1 || 0.286 || 182/152 || 146/53,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Cameroon}} || 18,879,301 || 475,440 || 77%/59.8% || 3,700 || 146/2.2 || 50.3 || 0.482 || 171/174 || 109/30,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Central African Republic}} || 4,511,488 || 622,984 || 64.8%/33.5% || 700 || 158/2.8 || 44.4 || 0.343 || 183/159 || 80/17,75
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Chad}} || 10,329,208 || 1,284,000 || 40.8%/12.8% || 2,300 || 175/1.6 || 50.6 || 0.328 || 178/182 || 132/44,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Republic of the Congo}} || 3,700,000 || 342,000 || 90.5%/79.0% ||800 || 162/1.9 || 54.8 || 0.533 || N/A || 116/34,25
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Equatorial Guinea}} || 1,110,000 || 28,051 || 93.4%/80.3% || 37,400 || 168/1.8 || 51.1 || 0.537 || 170/178 || 158/65,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Gabon}} || 1,514,993 || 267,667 || 88.5%/79.7% || 18,100 || 106/2.9 || 56.7 || 0.674 || 158/152 || 129/43,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Kenya}} || 39,002,772 || 582,650 || 77.7%/70.2% || 3,500 || 146/2.2 || 57.8 || 0.519 || 95/124 || 96/25,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Nigeria}} ||174,507,539 || 923,768 || 84.4%/72.7%<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/pages/download/43 |title=National Literacy Survey |publisher=National Bureau of Statistics |date=June 2010 |access-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150917115717/https://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/pages/download/43 |archive-date=17 September 2015 }}</ref> || 5,900 || 136/2.7 || 57 || 0.504 || 131/120 || 112/34,24
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Rwanda}} || 10,473,282 || 26,338 || 71.4%/59.8% || 2,100 || 89/3.3 || 46.8 || 0.429 || 67/11 || 157/64,67
|-
| {{flagg|unc|São Tomé and Príncipe}} || 212,679 || 1,001 || 92.2%/77.9%|| 3,200 || 111/2.8 || 65.2 || 0.509 || 180/140 || NA
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Tanzania}} || 44,928,923 || 945,087 || 77.5%/62.2% || 3,200 || 126/2.6 || 51.9 || 0.466 || 131/120 || NA/15,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Uganda}} || 32,369,558 || 236,040 || 76.8%/57.7% || 2,400 || 130/2.5 || 50.7 || 0.446 || 112/129 || 86/21,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Sudan}} || 31,894,000 || 1,886,068 || 79.6%/60.8% || 4,300|| 176/1.5 || 62.57<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2102.html |title=The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=28 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528191952/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2102.html }}</ref> || 0.408 || 154/118 || 148/54,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|South Sudan}} || 8,260,490 || 619,745 || || 1,600|| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Djibouti}} || 516,055 || 23,000 || N/A || 3,600 || 111/2.8 || 54.5 || 0.430 || 163/177 || 110/31,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Eritrea}} || 5,647,168 || 121,320 || N/A || 1,600 || 126/2.6 || 57.3 || 0.349 || 175/181 || 175/115,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Ethiopia}} || 85,237,338 || 1,127,127 || 50%/28.8% || 2,200 || 120/2.7 || 52.5 || 0.363 || 107/93 || 140/49,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Somalia}} || 9,832,017 || 637,657 || N/A || N/A || 180/1.1 || 47.7 || N/A || N/A || 164/77,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Botswana}} || 1,990,876 || 600,370 || 80.4%/81.8% || 17,000 || 37/5.6 || 49.8 || 0.633 || 45/83 || 62/15,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Comoros}} || 752,438 || 2,170 || N/A || 1,600 || 143/2.3 || 63.2 || 0.433 || 162/168 || 82/19,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Lesotho}} || 2,130,819 || 30,355 || 73.7%/90.3% || 3,300 || 89/3.3 || 42.9 || 0.450 || 130/131 || 99/27,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Madagascar}} || 19,625,000 || 587,041 || 76.5%/65.3% || 1,600 || 99/3.0 || 59 || 0.480 || 134/12 || 134/45,83
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Malawi}} || 14,268,711 || 118,480 || N/A || 1,200 || 89/3.3 || 47.6 || 0.400 || 132/128 || 62/15,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Mauritius}} || 1,284,264 || 2,040 || 88.2%/80.5% || 22,300 || 42/5.4 || 73.2 || 0.728 || 17/10 || 51/14,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Mozambique}} || 21,669,278 || 801,590 || N/A || 1,300 || 130/2.5 || 42.5 || 0.322 || 135/96 || 82/19,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Namibia}} || 2,108,665 || 825,418 || 86.8%/83.6% || 11,200 || 56/4.5 || 52.5 || 0.625 || 66/123 || 35/9,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Seychelles}} || 87,476 || 455 || 91.4%/92.3% || 29,300 || 54/4.8 || 72.2 || 0.773 || 111/81 || 72/16,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|South Africa}} || 59,899,991|| 1,219,912 || N/A || 13,600 || 55/4.7 || 50.7 || 0.619 || 34/67 || 33/8,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc| Eswatini}} || 1,123,913 || 17,363 || 80.9%/78.3% || 11,089 || 79/3.6 || 40.8 || 0.608 || 115/158 || 144/52,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Zambia}} || 11,862,740 || 752,614 || N/A || 4,000 || 99/3.0 || 41.7 || 0.430 || 90/94 || 97/26,75
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Zimbabwe}} || 11,392,629 || 390,580 || 92.7%/86.2% || 2,300 || 146/2.2 || 42.7 || 0.376 || 159/155 || 136/46,50
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Benin}} || 8,791,832 || 112,620 || 47.9%/42.3% || 2,300 || 106/2.9 || 56.2 || 0.427 || 172/155 || 97/26,75
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Mali}} || 12,666,987 || 1,240,000 || 32.7%/15.9% || 2,200 || 111/2.8 || 53.8 || 0.359 || 156/139 || 38/8,00
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Burkina Faso}} ||15,730,977 ||274,200 ||25.3% ||1,900 ||79/3.6 ||51 ||0.331 ||150/116 ||N/A
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Cape Verde}} ||499,000 ||322,462 || ||7,000
| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Ivory Coast}} ||20,617,068 || 322,463 || ||3,900
| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Gambia}} ||1,782,893 || 11,295 || ||2,600
| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Ghana}} ||24,200,000 || 238,535 || ||4,700
| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Guinea}} ||10,057,975 || 245,857 || || 2,200|| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Guinea-Bissau}} ||1,647,000 || 36,125 || || 1,900|| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Liberia}} ||4,128,572 || 111,369 || ||1,300
| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Mauritania}} ||3,359,185 || 1,030,700 || ||4,500
| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Niger}} ||17,129,076 || 1,267,000 || ||1,200
| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Senegal}} ||12,855,153 || 196,712 || ||3,500
| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Sierra Leone}} ||6,190,280 || 71,740 || || 1,600|| || || || ||
|-
| {{flagg|unc|Togo}} ||7,154,237 || 56,785 || ||1,700
| || || || ||
|}

'''GDP per Capita (PPP)''' ''(2016, 2017 (PPP, US$))'', '''Life Exp.''' ''(Life Expectancy 2006)'', '''Literacy (Male/Female 2006)''', '''Trans''' ''(Transparency 2009)'', '''HDI''' ''(Human Development Index)'', '''EODBR''' ''(Ease of Doing Business Rank June 2008 through May 2009)'', '''SAB''' (''Starting a Business June 2008 through May 2009)'', '''PFI''' ''(Press Freedom Index 2009)''

===Languages and ethnic groups===
{{Further|Languages of Africa|Writing systems of Africa#Indigenous writing systems|List of African ethnic groups|African diaspora|Black people}}
[[File:Languages of Africa map.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Map showing the traditional language families spoken in Africa]]<!-- for actual ethnic groups, not social constructs -->
[[File:Kwarastatedrummers.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.55|[[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] drummers ([[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]])]]
[[File:San tribesman.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.55|A [[San people|San]] man ([[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]])]]
[[File:Maasai women and children.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.55|[[Maasai people|Maasai]] women and children ([[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]])]]
[[File:Eritrean Women.jpeg|thumb|left|upright=0.55|[[Saho people|Saho]] women ([[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]])]]
[[File:Boerfamily1886.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.55|A [[Boer]] [[European African]] family ([[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]])]]
Sub-Saharan Africa contains over 1,500 languages.

==== Afroasiatic ====
With the exception of the extinct [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] (a [[language isolate]]) of [[Mesopotamia]], Afroasiatic has the oldest documented history of any language family in the world. Egyptian was recorded as early as 3200&nbsp;BCE. The [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] branch was recorded as early as 2900&nbsp;BCE in the form of the [[Akkadian language]] of Mesopotamia ([[Assyria]] and [[Babylonia]]) and circa 2500&nbsp;BCE in the form of the [[Eblaite language]] of northeastern [[Syria]].<ref>Brown, Keith and Ogilvie, Sarah(2008). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world ''Concise Encyclopedias of Language and Linguistics Series''. Elsevier, p. 12, {{ISBN|978-0-08-087774-7}}.</ref>

The distribution of the [[Afroasiatic languages]] within Africa is principally concentrated in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Languages belonging to the family's [[Berber languages|Berber]] branch are mainly spoken in the north, with its speech area extending into the Sahel (northern Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hcp.ma/Recensement-general-de-la-population-et-de-l-habitat-2004_a633.html |title=Recensement général de la population et de l'habitat 2004 |first=Youssef |last=Maaroufi |work=Site institutionnel du Haut-Commissariat au Plan du Royaume du Maroc |access-date=26 July 2017 |archive-date=6 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906063343/http://www.hcp.ma/Recensement-general-de-la-population-et-de-l-habitat-2004_a633.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Lafkioui |first1=Mena B. |title=Berber Languages and Linguistics |url=https://hal.science/hal-01914346/file/Lafkioui%20Mena%20B_Berber_languages_and_linguistics_-_linguistics_-_oxford_bibliographies_2018.pdf |publisher=Oxford Bibliographies |access-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203010052/https://hal.science/hal-01914346/file/Lafkioui%20Mena%20B_Berber_languages_and_linguistics_-_linguistics_-_oxford_bibliographies_2018.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2023 |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780199772810-0219 |date=24 May 2018 }}</ref> The [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branch of Afroasiatic is centered in the Horn, and is also spoken in the Nile Valley and parts of the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, the Semitic branch of the family, in the form of [[Arabic]], is widely spoken in the parts of Africa that are within the Arab world. [[South Semitic languages]] are also spoken in parts of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). The [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] branch is distributed in Central and West Africa.<ref>Peek, Philip M. and Yankah, Kwesi (2004). African folklore: an encyclopedia. London: (Routledge) Taylor & Francis, p. 205, {{ISBN|0-415-93933-X}}, 9780415939331</ref> [[Hausa language|Hausa]], its most widely spoken language, serves as a [[lingua franca]] in West Africa (Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, and Chad).<ref>Schneider, Edgar Werner and Kortmann, Bernd(2004). A handbook of varieties of English: a multimedia reference tool, Volume 1. Berlin: [[Walter de Gruyter]], pp. 867–68, {{ISBN|978-3-11-017532-5}}.</ref>

==== Khoisan ====
Several languages included under the term [[Khoi-San]] are indigenous to [[Southern Africa]] and [[Tanzania]], although the [[Khoi languages]] appear to have moved to their current locations not long before the [[Bantu expansion]].<ref name=GE>Güldemann, Tom and Edward D. Elderkin (forthcoming) [http://email.eva.mpg.de/~gueldema/pdf/Gueldemann_Elderkin.pdf "On external genealogical relationships of the Khoe family".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325021922/http://email.eva.mpg.de/~gueldema/pdf/Gueldemann_Elderkin.pdf |date=25 March 2009}} In Brenzinger, Matthias and Christa König (eds.), ''Khoisan languages and linguistics: the Riezlern symposium 2003.'' Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung 17. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.</ref> In Southern Africa, their speakers are the [[Khoikhoi]] and [[San people|San]] (Bushmen), in Southeast Africa, the [[Sandawe people|Sandawe]] and [[Hadza people|Hadza]].

==== Niger–Congo ====
The [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] family is the largest in the world in terms of the number of languages (1,436) it contains.<ref>Bellwood, Peter S.(2005). First farmers: the origins of agricultural societies. Wiley-Blackwell, p. 218, {{ISBN|978-0-631-20566-1}}.</ref> The vast majority of languages of this family are [[tonal language|tonal]], such as [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] and [[Igbo language|Igbo]]. However, others such as [[Fulani language|Fulani]], [[Wolof language|Wolof]] and [[Kiswahili]] are not. A major branch of the Niger–Congo languages is [[Bantu languages|Bantu]], which covers a greater geographic area than the rest of the family. Bantu speakers represent the majority of inhabitants in southern, central and southeastern Africa, though [[San people|San]], [[Pygmy]], and [[Nilotic]] groups, respectively, can also be found in those regions. Bantu-speakers can also be found in parts of [[Central Africa]] such as [[Gabon]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], and southern [[Cameroon]]. [[Swahili language|Swahili]], a Bantu language with many [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Farsi|Persian]], and other Middle Eastern and South Asian [[loan word]]s, developed as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' for trade between the different peoples in southeastern Africa. In the [[Kalahari Desert]] of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "[[Khoikhoi|Hottentots]]") have long been present. The San evince unique physical traits, and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of Central Africa.

==== Nilo-Saharan ====
The [[Nilo-Saharan languages]] are concentrated in the upper parts of the [[Chari River|Chari]] and [[Nile]] rivers of Central Africa and Southeast Africa. They are principally spoken by [[Nilotic]] peoples and are also spoken in Sudan among the [[Fur people|Fur]], [[Masalit people|Masalit]], [[Nubian people|Nubian]], and [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]] peoples and in West and Central Africa among the [[Songhai people|Songhai]], [[Zarma people|Zarma]], and [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]]. The [[Old Nubian language]] is also a member of this family.

Major languages of Africa by region, family and number of [[primary language]] speakers in millions:
{{Clear}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-valign:top"
|- valign="top"
|
;Central Africa
* [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]], [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]
** [[Lingala]]<ref name = "CIA DRC">{{Citation |title=Congo, Democratic Republic of the |date=22 May 2023 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/congo-democratic-republic-of-the/ |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524102858/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/congo-democratic-republic-of-the/ |archive-date=24 May 2023 |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023 }}</ref>
** [[Kinyarwanda]]:&nbsp;12<ref name = "CIA Rwanda">{{Citation |title=Rwanda |date=16 May 2023 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/rwanda/ |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524113734/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/rwanda/ |archive-date=24 May 2023 |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023 }}</ref>
** [[Kongo language|Kongo]]:&nbsp;5+<ref name = "CIA DRC"/><ref name = "CIA Angola">{{Citation |title=Angola |date=16 May 2023 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/angola/ |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524100346/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/angola/ |archive-date=24 May 2023 |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023 }}</ref><ref name = "CIA Congo">{{Citation |title=Congo, Republic of the |date=16 May 2023 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/congo-republic-of-the/ |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524113611/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/congo-republic-of-the/ |archive-date=24 May 2023 |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023 }}</ref>
** [[Tshiluba language|Tshiluba]]<ref name = "CIA DRC"/>
** [[Kirundi]]<ref name = "CIA Burundi">{{Citation |title=Burundi |date=16 May 2023 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524100422/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ |archive-date=24 May 2023 |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]]
** [[Nubian language|Nubian]]: 5+<ref>{{cite web |title=Memories of Utopia – Infoshop, World Bank |url=http://www.secid.org/usefsociety/pdf/nubian.pdf |website=secid.org |publisher=South East Consortium for International Development |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406044519/http://www.secid.org/usefsociety/pdf/nubian.pdf |archive-date=6 April 2012 |date=31 May 2006 }}</ref>
** [[Fur language|Fur]]: 5+<ref>{{Cite web |title=SSI Finance – Loans and lending guide. |url=http://www.southsudaninfo.net/ |access-date=12 February 2023 |language=en-US }}</ref>
** [[Zaghawa language|Zaghawa]]<ref>{{cite book |author=John A. Shoup |title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East |year=2011 |page=333 |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=159884363X}} "The Zaghawa is one of the major divisions of the Beri peoples who live in western Sudan and eastern Chad, and their language, also called Zaghawa, belongs to the Saharan branch of the Nilo-Saharan language group."</ref>
** [[Masalit language|Masalit]]
* [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]
** [[Kordofanian languages]]
*** [[Nuba]]<ref name = "CIA Sudan">{{Citation |title=Sudan |date=23 May 2023 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/ |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524114855/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/ |archive-date=24 May 2023 |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023 }}</ref>
|
;Horn of Africa
* [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]
** [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
*** [[Amharic language|Amharic]]: 20+
*** [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]: 5
** [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]
*** [[Somali language|Somali]]: 10–15
*** [[Oromo language|Oromo]]: 30–35
* [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]]:&nbsp;<1<!--fewer than 1?! ">1" meant?--><ref name = "CIA Eritrea">{{cite web |title=Summary and Statistical Report of the 2007: Population and Housing Census Results |url=http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations Population Fund]] |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305231227/http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2009 |location=[[New York City]] |date=2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Eritrea |date=16 May 2023 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/ |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524103615/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/ |archive-date=24 May 2023 |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023 }}</ref>
** [[Gumuz language|Gumuz]]
** [[Anuak language|Anuak]]
** [[Kunama language|Kunama]]
** [[Nara language|Nara]]
* [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]:&nbsp;<1<!--error for?--><ref>{{cite web |title=Report on minority groups in Somalia |url=http://www.somraf.org/research%20Matrerials/joint%20british%20danish%20dutch%20fact%20finding%20mission%20in%20Nairobi%20-%202001.pdf |website=somraf.org |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021044246/http://www.somraf.org/research%20Matrerials/joint%20british%20danish%20dutch%20fact%20finding%20mission%20in%20Nairobi%20-%202001.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013 }}</ref><ref name = "CIA Somalia">{{Citation |title=Somalia |date=16 May 2023 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/ |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524114540/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/ |archive-date=24 May 2023 |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023 }}</ref>
** [[Zigula language|Zigula]]
** [[Swahili language|Swahili]] ([[Bravanese dialect|Bravanese]] and [[Bajuni dialect|Bajuni]] dialects)
|
;Southeast Africa
* [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]], [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]:
** [[Swahili language|Swahili]]: 5–10
** [[Gikuyu language|Gikuyu]]: 9<ref name = "CIA Kenya"/>
** [[Ganda language|Ganda]]: 20<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newvision.co.ug/articledetails/90236 |title=20 million people can speak Luganda - linguists |website=New Vision |date=11 February 2021 }}</ref>
** [[Luhya languages|Luhya]]: 6<ref name = "CIA Kenya"/>
* [[Austronesian language|Austronesian]]
** [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]: 20+<ref>{{Cite web |title=Malagasy |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mlg/ |website=Ethnologue |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525173749/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mlg/ |archive-date=25 May 2023 |access-date=25 May 2023 |language=en }}</ref>
* [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]], [[Ubangian languages|Ubangian]]
** [[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]]: 2<ref name = "CIA CAR">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/central-african-republic/ "Central African Republic"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110054329/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/central-african-republic |date=10 January 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 13 November 2014.</ref>{{failed verification|date=May 2023}}
** [[Banda languages|Banda]]: 1–2<ref name = "CIA CAR"/>
** [[Zande language|Zande]]<ref name = "CIA SSudan">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-sudan/ "South Sudan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112154752/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-sudan |date=12 January 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 13 November 2014.</ref>{{failed verification|date=May 2023}}
* [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]]
** [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]: 10<ref name = "CIA Nigeria">[https://web.archive.org/web/20260113104032/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/ "Nigeria"]. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 13 November 2014.</ref><ref name = "CIA Niger">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/niger/ "Niger"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032003/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/niger/ |date=30 March 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 13 November 2014.</ref><ref name="CIA Chad">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/chad/ "Chad"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032225/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/chad/ |date=26 January 2021 }} . CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 16 November 2014.</ref>
** [[Luo languages|Luo]]: 5<ref name = "CIA Kenya">{{Citation |title=Kenya |date=7 February 2023 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kenya/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207013515/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kenya/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 February 2023 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=12 February 2023 }}</ref><ref name = "CIA Uganda">{{Citation |title=Uganda |date=6 February 2023 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/uganda/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206015459/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/uganda/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 February 2023 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=12 February 2023 }}</ref>
** [[Sara languages|Sara]]: 3–4<ref name = "CIA CAR"/><ref name = "CIA Chad"/>
** [[Kalenjin language|Kalenjin]]: 5<ref name = "CIA Kenya"/>
** [[Dinka language|Dinka]]<ref name = "CIA SSudan"/>
** [[Nuer language|Nuer]]<ref name = "CIA SSudan"/>
** [[Shilluk language|Shilluk]]<ref name = "CIA SSudan"/>
** [[Maasai language|Maasai]]: 1–2<ref>{{cite web |title=Population and Housing Census |url=http://www.knbs.or.ke/censusethnic.php |website=www.knbs.or.ke |publisher=Kenya National Bureau of Statistics |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202213527/http://www.knbs.or.ke/censusethnic.php |archive-date=2 February 2014 |date=2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thelanguagejournal.com/2012/04/maasai-of-kenya-and-tanzania.html |title=The Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania |publisher=The Language Journal |date=22 April 2012 |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905153616/http://www.thelanguagejournal.com/2012/04/maasai-of-kenya-and-tanzania.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|
;Southern Africa
* [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]], [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]
** [[Zulu language|Zulu]]: 10<ref name = "CIA SAfrica">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-africa/ "South Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110042951/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-africa |date=10 January 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 16 November 2014.</ref>
** [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]]: 8<ref name = "CIA SAfrica"/>
** [[Shona language|Shona]]: 21
** [[Sotho language|Sotho]]: 5
** [[Tswana language|Tswana]]: 4<ref name = "CIA SAfrica"/><ref name = "CIA Botswana">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/botswana/ "Botswana"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109202201/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/botswana |date=9 January 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. 20 November 2014.</ref>
** [[Umbundu language|Umbundu]]: 4<ref name = "CIA Angola"/>
** [[Northern Sotho language|Northern Sotho]]: 4<ref name = "CIA SAfrica"/>
** [[Chewa language|Chichewa]]: 8<ref name = "CIA Malawi">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malawi/ "Malawi"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204143332/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malawi/ |date=4 February 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 16 November 2014.</ref><ref name = "CIA Zambia">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zambia/ "Zambia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032804/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zambia/ |date=26 January 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. 20 November 2014.</ref>
** [[Makua language|Makua]]: 8<ref name = "CIA Mozambique">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mozambique/ "Mozambique"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110035001/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mozambique |date=10 January 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. 20 November 2014.</ref>
* [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
** [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
*** [[Afrikaans]]: 7–10
** [[Romance languages|Romance]]
*** [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]:&nbsp;14<ref>{{cite web |title=The Future of Portuguese |url=http://www.bbportuguese.com/the-future-of-portuguese.html |publisher=BB Portuguese |access-date=11 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502204211/http://www.bbportuguese.com/the-future-of-portuguese.html |archive-date=2 May 2012 }}</ref>
|
;West Africa
* [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]
** [[Benue–Congo]]
*** [[Ibibio language|Ibibio]] (Nigeria): 7<ref name = "CIA Nigeria"/>
** [[Volta–Niger]]
*** [[Igbo language|Igbo]] (Nigeria): 30–35<ref name = "CIA Nigeria"/>
*** [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]: 40<ref name = "CIA Nigeria"/>
** [[Kwa languages|Kwa]]:
*** [[Akan language|Akan]] (Ghana, Ivory Coast): 20–25
** [[Gur languages|Gur]]
*** [[More language|More]]: 5
** [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]]
*** [[Fula language|Fula]] (West Africa): 40<ref name = "CIA Nigeria"/><ref name = "CIA Niger"/><ref name = "CIA Senegal">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/senegal/ "Senegal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204143936/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/senegal/ |date=4 February 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 20 November 2014.</ref><ref name = "CIA Gambia">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gambia-the/ "The Gambia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201065934/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gambia-the/ |date=1 February 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 20 November 2014.</ref><ref name = "CIA Cameroon">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/ "Cameroon"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010000/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/ |date=20 January 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 20 November 2014.</ref>
*** [[Wolof language|Wolof]]: 8<ref name = "CIA Senegal"/><ref name = "CIA Gambia"/>
* [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]
** [[Chadic languages|Chadic]]
*** [[Hausa language|Hausa]]: 50<ref name = "CIA Nigeria"/><ref name = "CIA Niger"/>
* [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]]
** [[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
*** [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]: 10<ref name = "CIA Niger"/><ref name = "CIA Chad"/><ref name = "CIA Mali">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mali/ "Mali"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032030/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mali/ |date=30 March 2021 }}. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 20 November 2014.</ref>
*** [[Songhai language|Songhai]]: 5<ref name = "CIA Niger"/><ref name = "CIA Mali"/>
*** [[Zarma language|Zarma]]: 5<ref name = "CIA Niger"/><ref name = "CIA Mali"/>
|}

==== Genetic history ====
{{Main|Genetic history of Africa|Genetic history of the African diaspora}}

===Religion===
{{Further|Religion in Africa|Christianity in Africa|Islam in Africa|Hinduism in Africa|African traditional religion}}
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religion in Sub Saharan Africa
| label1 = [[Christianity]]
| value1 = 62
| color1 = DodgerBlue
| label2 = [[Islam]]
| value2 = 31
| color2 = Green
| label3 = [[African traditional religion|Traditional faiths]]
| value3 = 3
| color3 = Maroon
| label4 = Others
| value4 = 4
| color4 = DarkOrange
}}
[[File:Africa_By_Muslim_Pop.png|thumb|right|Distribution of [[Islam in Africa]] by country]]
The principal religions of Sub-Saharan Africa are [[Christianity]], [[Islam]] and [[traditional African religions]], with Christianity being the largest religion, and [[religious syncretism]] being also common. African countries below the Sahara are largely Christian, while those above the Sahara, in [[North Africa]], are predominantly Islamic. There are also Muslim majorities in parts of the Horn of Africa ([[Djibouti]] and [[Somalia]]) and in the Sahel and Sudan regions ([[the Gambia]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Guinea]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Senegal]], [[Burkina Faso]] and [[Chad]]), as well as significant Muslim communities in [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]], and on the Swahili Coast ([[Tanzania]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Kenya]]).<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Year 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003) {{ISBN|978-0-85229-956-2}} p. 306 <br /> However, Southern Africa is predominantly Christian. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 376,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. [http://www.greenwoodsvillage.com/gor/islam.htm Ian S. Markham,(A World Religions Reader. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112064308/http://www.greenwoodsvillage.com/gor/islam.htm |date=12 November 2010 }} is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates and remain a matter of conjecture. See Amadu Jacky Kaba. The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at the [http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/Statistics.htm World Christian Encyclopedia, summarised here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305222924/http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/Statistics.htm |date=5 March 2016 }}, as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see: [https://foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3835 The List: The World's Fastest-Growing Religions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125105653/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3835 |date=25 January 2010 }}, Foreign Policy, May 2007.</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=27 January 2011 |title=Region: Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-sub-saharan-africa/ |website=Pew Research Center }}</ref> [[West Africa]] is the only subregion of sub-Saharan Africa which has a Muslim majority population, and [[Nigeria]] has the largest Muslim population in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="auto1"/>

[[Mauritius]] is the only country in [[Africa]] to have a [[Hindu]] majority. In 2012, sub-Saharan Africa constituted in absolute terms the [[Christianity by country|world's third largest Christian population]], after Europe and [[Latin America]] respectively.<ref name="Survey">{{cite web |url=https://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |title=The Global Religious Landscape |publisher=Pewforum.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125173538/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |access-date=7 May 2020 |archive-date=25 January 2017 }}</ref> In 2012, sub-Saharan Africa also constituted in absolute terms the [[Islam by country|world's third largest Muslim population]], after [[Asia]] and the [[Middle East and North Africa]] respectively.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2011/01/FutureGlobalMuslimPopulation-WebPDF-Feb10.pdf |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=27 January 2011 }}</ref>

[[Traditional African religions]] are also commonly practiced across sub-Saharan Africa, with these religions being especially common in [[South Sudan]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/south-sudan#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2016 |title=Religions in South Sudan &#124; PEW-GRF |date=2 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202113435/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/south-sudan#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2016 |archive-date=2 December 2018 }}</ref> [[Guinea Bissau]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea-bissau/#people-and-society |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110022253/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea-bissau#people-and-society |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 January 2021 |title=Guinea-Bissau |date=12 June 2024 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |via=CIA.gov }}</ref> [[Mozambique]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=156c#IRFDEMOG |title=National Profiles &#124; World Religion |website=www.thearda.com }}</ref> and [[Cameroon]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=40c |title=National Profiles &#124; World Religion |website=www.thearda.com }}</ref> Traditional African religions can be broken down into linguistic cultural groups, with common themes. Among [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]-speakers is a belief in a creator god or higher deity, along with ancestor spirits, territorial spirits, evil caused by human ill will and neglecting ancestor spirits, and priests of territorial spirits.<ref name="Ehret2002">{{cite book |last=Ehret |first=Christopher |title=The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0K0p8wCNKTQC&q=Christopher+Ehret+Niger+Congo+religion |year=2002 |publisher=James Currey Publishers |isbn=978-0-85255-475-3 |access-date=20 October 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126131412/https://books.google.com/books?id=0K0p8wCNKTQC&q=Christopher+Ehret+Niger+Congo+religion |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ehret |first=Christopher |date=November 2004 |title=A Conversation with Christopher Ehret |url=https://worldhistoryconnected.press.uillinois.edu/2.1/ehret.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424121335/http://worldhistoryconnected.press.uillinois.edu/2.1/ehret.html |archive-date=24 April 2018 |url-status=live |journal=World History Connected |volume=2 |issue=1 }}</ref><ref name="Okwu">{{cite journal |vauthors=Okwu AS |title=Life, Death, Reincarnation, and Traditional Healing in Africa |journal=Issue: A Journal of Opinion |volume=9 |issue=3 |date=1979 |doi=10.2307/1166258 |pages=19–24 |jstor=1166258 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC&q=traditional+african+religions+polytheism&pg=RA1-PA185 |title=Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia |last=Stanton |first=Andrea L. |date=2012 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4129-8176-7 |language=en |access-date=20 October 2020 |archive-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205132320/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC&q=traditional+african+religions+polytheism&pg=RA1-PA185 |url-status=live }}</ref> New world religions such as [[Santería]], [[West African Vodun|Vodun]], and [[Candomblé]], would be derived from this world. Among [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] speakers is the belief in Divinity; evil is caused by divine judgement and retribution; prophets as middlemen between Divinity and man. Among [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]-speakers is [[henotheism]], the belief in one's own gods but accepting the existence of other gods; evil here is caused by malevolent spirits. The Semitic [[Abrahamic religion]] of [[Judaism]] is comparable to the latter world view.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baldick |first=Julian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBzGsr1bw6cC&q=christianity+judaism+islam+afroasiatics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503012144/https://books.google.com/books?id=JBzGsr1bw6cC&printsec=frontcover&dq=christianity+judaism+islam+afroasiatics&source=bl&ots=w_AOA-fbkt&sig=Vee5ya1z2umJZ1iEi7TaqTDF1_E&hl=en&ei=-TzWS-3eCpKesgOG-fWlAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CBkQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=3 May 2016 |url-status=live |title=Black God: The Afroasiatic Roots of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Religions |date=1998 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-0522-5 |language=en }}</ref><ref name="Ehret2002"/><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://worldhistoryconnected.press.uillinois.edu/2.1/ehret.html |title=A Conversation with Christopher Ehret |first=Christopher |last=Ehret |date=5 November 2004 |journal=World History Connected |volume=2 |issue=1 |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-date=21 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821144957/http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/2.1/ehret.html }}</ref> [[San religion]] is non-theistic but a belief in a Spirit or Power of existence which can be tapped in a trance-dance; trance-healers.<ref>[[Christopher Ehret]], (2002). The Civilizations of Africa. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, pp. 102–03, {{ISBN|0-8139-2085-X}}.</ref>

Generally, traditional African religions are united by an ancient complex [[animism]] and [[ancestor worship]].<ref>{{citation |last=Vontress |first=Clemmont E. |chapter=Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa |date=2005 |chapter-url=https://sk.sagepub.com/books/integrating-traditional-healing-practices-into-counseling-and-psychotherapy/n11.xml |title=Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy |pages=124–137 |publisher=SAGE Publications |access-date=2 November 2019 |doi=10.4135/9781452231648 |isbn=978-0-7619-3047-1 |archive-date=31 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031180939/http://sk.sagepub.com/books/integrating-traditional-healing-practices-into-counseling-and-psychotherapy/n11.xml |url-status=live |chapter-url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Traditional religions in sub-Saharan Africa often display complex ontology, cosmology and metaphysics. Mythologies, for example, demonstrated the difficulty fathers of creation had in bringing about order from chaos. Order is what is right and natural and any deviation is chaos. [[Cosmology]] and [[ontology]] is also neither simple or linear. It defines duality, the material and immaterial, male and female, heaven and earth. Common principles of being and becoming are widespread: Among the Dogon, the principle of ''Amma'' (being) and ''Nummo'' (becoming), and among the Bambara, ''Pemba'' (being) and ''Faro'' (becoming).<ref>Davidson, Basil (1969). ''The African Genius, An Introduction to African Social and Cultural History''. Little, Brown and Company: Boston, pp. 168–80. {{LCCN|7080751}}.</ref>
[[File:Ifedivination.JPG|thumb|[[Ifá]] divination and its four digit binary code]]
;West Africa
* [[Akan mythology]]
* [[Ashanti mythology]] (Ghana)
* [[Dahomey mythology|Dahomey (Fon) mythology]]
* [[Efik mythology]] (Nigeria, Cameroon)
* [[Igbo mythology]] (Nigeria)
* [[Serer religion]] and [[Serer creation myth]] (Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania)
* [[Yoruba mythology]] (Nigeria, Benin)

;Central Africa
* [[Dinka mythology]] (South Sudan)
* [[Lotuko mythology]] (South Sudan)
* [[Bushongo mythology]] (Congo)
* [[Bambuti mythology|Bambuti (Pygmy) mythology]] (Congo)
* [[Lugbara mythology]] (Congo)

;Southeast Africa
* [[Akamba mythology]] (eastern Kenya)
* [[Masai mythology]] (Kenya, Tanzania)

;Southern Africa
* [[Khoisan religion]]
* [[Lozi mythology]] (Zambia)
* [[Tumbuka mythology]] (Malawi)
* [[Zulu mythology]] (South Africa)

Sub-Saharan traditional divination systems display great sophistication. For example, the bamana sand divination uses well established symbolic codes that can be reproduced using four bits or marks. A binary system of one or two marks are combined. Random outcomes are generated using a [[fractal]] recursive process. It is analogous to a digital circuit but can be reproduced on any surface with one or two marks. This system is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>Eglash, Ron: "African Fractals: Modern computing and indigenous design." Rutgers 1999 {{ISBN|0-8135-2613-2 }}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2014}}

===Education===
{{main|Education in Africa}}

{{Further|History of education#Africa}}
[[File:University of Botswana Earth Science.JPG|thumb|The [[University of Botswana]]'s Earth Science building in [[Gaborone]], Botswana ]]
Forty per cent of African scientists live in [[OECD]] countries, predominantly in Europe, the United States and Canada.<ref name="buanews.gov.za">{{cite news |last1=Gabara |first1=Nthambeleni |title=Developed nations should invest in African universities |url=http://www.buanews.gov.za/news/09/09111213051001 |website=buanews.gov.za |publisher=BuaNews Online |access-date=16 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223004951/http://www.buanews.gov.za/news/09/09111213051001 |archive-date=23 February 2012 |date=12 November 2009 }}</ref> This has been described as an African [[brain drain]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2016/01/18/how-severe-is-africas-brain-drain/ |title=How severe is Africa's Brain Drain? |last=Firsing |first=Scott |date=18 January 2016 |website=London School of Economics Blogs |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112025134/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2016/01/18/how-severe-is-africas-brain-drain/ |archive-date=12 November 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/january-march-2018/african-brain-drain-there-alternative |title=African brain drain: is there an alternative? |last=Ngwé |first=Luc |date=24 January 2018 |website=UNESCO |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511134037/https://en.unesco.org/courier/january-march-2018/african-brain-drain-there-alternative |archive-date=11 May 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite this, sub-Saharan African universities tripled between 1991 and 2005, expanding at an annual rate of 8.7%, which is one of the highest regional growth rates in the world.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=Oct 7, 2008 |title=Accelerating Catch-up: Tertiary Education for Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/305471468202164066/accelerating-catch-up-tertiary-education-for-growth-in-sub-saharan-africa |location=Washington DC |publisher=The World Bank |page=xxvi |isbn=978-0-8213-7738-3 |access-date=July 6, 2025}}</ref> In the last 10 to 15 years interest in pursuing university-level degrees abroad has increased.<ref name="buanews.gov.za"/>

According to the CIA, low global literacy rates are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa, [[West Asia]] and [[South Asia]]. However, literacy rates in sub-Saharan Africa vary significantly between countries. The highest registered literacy rate in the region is in [[Zimbabwe]] (90.7%; 2003 est.), while the lowest literacy rate is in [[South Sudan]] (27%).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html#xx |title=World |work=[[CIA Factbook]] |access-date=29 August 2014 |archive-date=24 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124171442/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html#xx }}</ref>

Research on [[human capital]] formation was able to determine, that the [[numeracy]] levels of sub-Saharan Africa and Africa, in general, were higher than numeracy levels in South Asia. In the 1940s more than 75% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa was numerate. The numeracy of the West African countries, Benin and Ghana, was even higher with more than 80% of the population being numerate. In contrast, numeracy in South Asia was only around 50%.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baten |first=Jörg |title=A history of the global economy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-107-10470-9 |pages=328–329 }}</ref>

Higher diversity in Sub-Saharan African countries has been found to lead to a poorer economy. Researchers have argued that this is because of ethnic favouritism in their politics. Sub-Saharan leaders are more likely to provide better resources to their coethnic groups when in power. A study found that, on average, children of the favoured ethnic group are 2.25% more likely to attend primary school and 1.80% more likely to complete primary school. A 1% increase in GDP is associated with a 1.5% increase in the ethnic favouritism effect on primary school attendance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Franck |first1=Raphaël |last2=Rainer |first2=Ilia |title=Does the Leader's Ethnicity Matter? Ethnic Favoritism, Education, and Health in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=American Political Science Review |date=May 2012 |volume=106 |issue=2 |pages=294–325 |doi=10.1017/S0003055412000172 |hdl=10419/96093 |s2cid=15227415 |url=https://econ.biu.ac.il/sites/econ/files/working-papers/2012-06.pdf }}</ref>

Sub-Saharan African countries spent an average of 0.3% of their GDP on science and technology in 2007. This represents an increase from US$1.8&nbsp;billion in 2002 to US$2.8&nbsp;billion in 2007, a 50% increase in spending.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nordling |first=Linda |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/opinions/africa-analysis-progress-on-science-spending-.html |title=Africa Analysis: Progress on science spending? |publisher=scidev.net |date=29 October 2009 |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=14 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614081257/http://www.scidev.net/en/opinions/africa-analysis-progress-on-science-spending-.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.dst.gov.za/media-room/press-releases/south-africa2019s-investment-in-research-and-development-on-the-rise |title=South Africa's Investment in Research and Development on the Rise |publisher=Department of Science and Technology |date=22 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727182253/http://www.dst.gov.za/media-room/press-releases/south-africa2019s-investment-in-research-and-development-on-the-rise |archive-date=27 July 2011 }}</ref>

==== Major progress in access to education ====
[[File:University of Antananarivo Madagascar.JPG|thumb|The [[University of Antananarivo]] in [[Antananarivo]], Madagascar ]]
At the World Conference held in [[Jomtien Beach|Jomtien]], Thailand in 1990, delegates from 155 countries and representatives of some 150 organisations gathered with the goal to promote [[Universal Primary Education|universal primary education]] and the radical reduction of illiteracy before the end of the decade. The [[World Education Forum]], held ten years later in [[Dakar]], Senegal, provided the opportunity to reiterate and reinforce these goals. This initiative contributed to having education made a priority of the [[Millennium Development Goals]] in 2000, with the aim of achieving universal schooling (MDG2) and eliminating gender disparities, especially in primary and secondary education (MDG3).<ref name=":2">[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002318/231867e.pdf Agence Française de Développement, Agence universitaire de la Francophonie, Orange, & UNESCO. (2015). Digital Services for Education in Africa. ''Savoirs communs, 17.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013151759/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000231867_eng/ |date=13 October 2020 }}</ref> Since the World Education Forum in Dakar, considerable efforts have been made to respond to these demographic challenges in terms of education. The amount of funds raised has been decisive. Between 1999 and 2010, public spending on education as a percentage of [[Gross national product|gross national product (GNP)]] increased by 5% per year in sub-Saharan Africa, with major variations between countries, with percentages varying from 1.8% in Cameroon to over 6% in Burundi.<ref name=":02">{{cite book |title=Youth and skills: putting education to work |date=2012 |publisher=[[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] |location=[[Paris]] |isbn=978-92-3-104240-9 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000218003_eng |access-date=22 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722043322/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000218003 |archive-date=22 July 2023 |language=en, ar, zh, fr, es }}</ref> As of 2015, governments in sub-Saharan Africa spend on average 18% of their total budget on education, against 15% in the rest of the world.<ref name=":2" />

In the years immediately after the Dakar Forum, the efforts made by the African States towards achieving [[Education For All|EFA]] produced multiple results in sub-Saharan Africa. The greatest advance was in access to primary education, which governments had made their absolute priority. The number of children in a primary school in sub-Saharan Africa thus rose from 82&nbsp;million in 1999 to 136.4&nbsp;million in 2011. In Niger, for example, the number of children entering school increased by more than three-and-a-half times between 1999 and 2011.<ref name=":02" /> In Ethiopia, over the same period, over 8.5&nbsp;million more children were admitted to primary school. The net rate of first-year access in sub-Saharan Africa has thus risen by 19 points in 12 years, from 58% in 1999 to 77% in 2011. Despite the considerable efforts, the latest available data from the [[UNESCO Institute for Statistics]] estimates that, for 2012, there were still 57.8&nbsp;million children who were not in school. Of these, 29.6&nbsp;million were in sub-Saharan Africa alone, a figure which has not changed for several years.<ref name=":2" /> Many sub-Saharan countries have notably included the first year of secondary school in basic education. In Rwanda, the first year of secondary school was attached to primary education in 2009, which significantly increased the number of pupils enrolled at this level of education.<ref name=":02"/><ref name=":2"/> In 2012, the primary completion rate (PCR) – which measures the proportion of children reaching the final year of primary school – was 70%, meaning that more than three out of ten children entering primary school do not reach the final primary year.<ref name=":2"/>

Literacy rates have gone up in sub-Saharan Africa, and internet access has improved considerably. At least 39 countries in sub-Saharan Africa have some large-scale school feeding programs, which can improve access to education. In aggregate, 16% of school-age children (and 25% of primary school-age children) in the region benefit from school meal programs, and about 82% of the funding for these programs is provided by governments.<ref>{{Cite report |date=2022 |title=School Meal Programs Around the World: Results from the 2021 Global Survey of School Meal Programs |url=https://gcnf.org/global-reports/ |access-date=12 February 2023 |publisher=Global Child Nutrition Foundation |language=en-US }}</ref> Nonetheless, a lot must yet happen for this region to catch up. The statistics show that the literacy rate for sub-Saharan Africa was 65% in 2017. In other words, one-third of the people aged 15 and above were unable to read and write. The comparative figure for 1984 was an illiteracy rate of 49%. In 2017, only about 22% of Africans were internet users at all, according to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).<ref>{{cite news |title=More must happen |url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/literacy-rates-have-risen-sub-saharan-africa-reality-probably-worse-official-numbers-suggest |author=Alphonce Shiundu |work=D+C, development and cooperation |date=2 September 2018 |access-date=3 February 2019 |archive-date=1 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201014717/https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/literacy-rates-have-risen-sub-saharan-africa-reality-probably-worse-official-numbers-suggest |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Health===
{{Further|Demographics of Africa|HIV/AIDS in Africa|Syphilis in Africa}}
[[File:Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana.jpg|thumb|The Komfo Anokye Hospital in [[Kumasi]], Ghana ]]
Health challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa include [[HIV/AIDS in Africa]], [[malaria]], [[neglected tropical diseases]], [[tuberculosis]], [[onchocerciasis]], [[maternal mortality]] and [[infant mortality]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fact sheet about malaria |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria |access-date=22 May 2024 |website=www.who.int |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Neglected Tropical Diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa: Review of Their Prevalence, Distribution, and Disease Burden |first1=Peter J. |last1=Hotez |first2=Aruna |last2=Kamath |date=25 August 2009 |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=3 |issue=8 |article-number=e412 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000412 |doi-access=free |pmid=19707588 |pmc=2727001 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 May 2024 |title=Tuberculosis (TB) |url=https://www.afro.who.int/health-topics/tuberculosis-tb |access-date=22 May 2024 |website=WHO {{!}} Regional Office for Africa |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Onchocerciasis (river blindness) |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/onchocerciasis |access-date=22 May 2024 |website=www.who.int |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Maternal Mortality in Africa: Regional Trends (2000–2017) |first1=Luc |last1=Onambele |first2=Wilfrido |last2=Ortega-Leon |first3=Sara |last3=Guillen-Aguinaga |first4=Maria João |last4=Forjaz |first5=Amanuel |last5=Yoseph |first6=Laura |last6=Guillen-Aguinaga |first7=Rosa |last7=Alas-Brun |first8=Alberto |last8=Arnedo-Pena |first9=Ines |last9=Aguinaga-Ontoso|first10=Francisco|last10=Guillen-Grima |date=12 October 2022 |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=19 |issue=20 |article-number=13146 |doi=10.3390/ijerph192013146 |doi-access=free |pmid=36293727 |pmc=9602585 }}</ref>

In 1987, the [[Bamako Initiative]] conference organized by the [[World Health Organization]] was held in [[Bamako]], the capital of [[Mali]], and helped reshape the health policy of sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eldis.org/healthsystems/userfees/background.htm |title=User fees for health: a background |access-date=28 December 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128203803/http://www.eldis.org/healthsystems/userfees/background.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=28 November 2006 }}</ref> The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community-based [[healthcare reform]], resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Africa (a-z). |last=Godfrey. |first=Mugoti |date=2009 |publisher=Lulu Com |isbn=978-1-4357-2890-5 |location=[Place of publication not identified] |oclc=946180025}}{{self-published source|date=February 2020 }}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2020}} A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Knippenberg R, Alihonou E, Soucat A, etal |title=Implementation of the Bamako Initiative: strategies in Benin and Guinea |journal=The International Journal of Health Planning and Management |volume=12 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S29–47 |date=June 1997 |pmid=10173105 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1751(199706)12:1+<S29::AID-HPM465>3.0.CO;2-U }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medicusmundi.ch/mms/services/bulletin/bulletin200201/kap01/07kuechler.html |title=Manageable Bamako Initiative schemes |access-date=28 December 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008211344/http://www.medicusmundi.ch/mms/services/bulletin/bulletin200201/kap01/07kuechler.html |archive-date=8 October 2007 }}</ref>

[[File:World map of HIV prevalence, 2023.png|thumb|left|A world map illustrating the proportion of population aged 15–49 infected with HIV in 2023. HIV is endemic especially in [[Southern Africa]].]]

In 2011, sub-Saharan Africa was home to 69% of all people living with [[HIV/AIDS]] worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2012/gr2012/20121120_FactSheet_Global_en.pdf |title=World Aids Day 2012 |publisher=Unaids.org |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=27 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327233932/http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2012/gr2012/20121120_factsheet_global_en.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In response, a number of initiatives have been launched to educate the public on HIV/AIDS. Among these are combination prevention programmes, considered to be the most effective initiative, the [[abstinence, be faithful, use a condom]] campaign, and the [[Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation]]'s outreach programs.<ref name="DTHF">{{cite web |title=Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation: What we do |url=http://www.desmondtutuhivcentre.org.za/page/work |publisher=Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation |access-date=27 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116014630/https://www.desmondtutuhivcentre.org.za/page/work/ |archive-date=16 January 2013 }}</ref> According to a 2013 special report issued by the [[Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS]] (UNAIDS), the number of HIV positive people in Africa receiving anti-retro viral treatment in 2012 was over seven times the number receiving treatment in 2005, with an almost 1&nbsp;million added in the last year alone.<ref name="UNAIDS Press Release">{{cite web |url=http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/pressreleaseandstatementarchive/2013/may/20130521prupdateafrica |title=UNAIDS reports more than 7 million people now on HIV treatment across Africa—with nearly 1 million added in the last year—while new HIV infections and deaths from AIDS continue to fall |publisher=Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS |date=21 May 2013 |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=7 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181207073259/http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/pressreleaseandstatementarchive/2013/may/20130521prupdateafrica |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="UNAIDS Special Report">{{cite web |url=http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/document/2013/05/20130521_Update_Africa.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010214522/http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/document/2013/05/20130521_Update_Africa.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2017 |title=Special Report: How Africa Turned AIDS Around |publisher=Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS |date=2013 |access-date=29 September 2015 }}</ref>{{rp|15}} The number of AIDS-related deaths in sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 33 per cent less than the number in 2005.<ref name="UNAIDS 2012">{{cite web |title=UNAIDS Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic 2012 |url=http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2012/gr2012/20121120_UNAIDS_Global_Report_2012_with_annexes_en.pdf |access-date=13 May 2013 |archive-date=5 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141005111142/http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2012/gr2012/20121120_UNAIDS_Global_Report_2012_with_annexes_en.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The number of new HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 25 per cent less than the number in 2001.<ref name="UNAIDS 2012"/>

[[Life expectancy at birth]] in sub-Saharan Africa increased from 40 years in 1960 to 61 years in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=ZG |title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) - Sub-Saharan Africa {{!}} Data |website=data.worldbank.org |language=en-us |access-date=30 October 2019 |archive-date=30 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030175623/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN%3Flocations%3DZG |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Malaria]] is an endemic illness in sub-Saharan Africa, where the majority of malaria cases and deaths worldwide occur.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/ |title=WHO &#124; Malaria |publisher=Who.int |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=3 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903002027/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Routine immunisation has been introduced in order to prevent [[measles]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Verguet S, Jassat W, Hedberg C, Tollman S, Jamison DT, Hofman KJ |title=Measles control in Sub-Saharan Africa: South Africa as a case study |journal=Vaccine |volume=30 |issue=9 |pages=1594–600 |date=February 2012 |pmid=22230581 |doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.12.123 }}</ref> [[Onchocerciasis]] ("river blindness"), a common cause of [[blindness]], is also endemic to parts of the region. More than 99% of people affected by the illness worldwide live in 31 countries therein.<ref name="who.int">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs374/en/ |title=WHO &#124; Onchocerciasis |publisher=Who.int |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=16 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316195959/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs374/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In response, the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) was launched in 1995 with the aim of controlling the disease.<ref name="who.int"/> [[Maternal mortality]] is another challenge, with more than half of maternal deaths in the world occurring in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs348/en/ |title=WHO &#124; Maternal mortality |publisher=Who.int |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=30 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930184330/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs348/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, there has generally been progress here as well, as a number of countries in the region have halved their levels of maternal mortality since 1990.<ref name="autogenerated2"/> Additionally, the [[African Union]] in July 2003 ratified the [[Maputo Protocol]], which pledges to prohibit [[female genital mutilation]] (FGM).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bonino |first=Emma |date=15 September 2004 |title=Opinion &#124; A brutal custom: Join forces to banish the mutilation of women |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/15/opinion/a-brutal-custom-join-forces-to-banish-the-mutilation-of-women.html |access-date=12 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Feldman-Jacobs |first=Charlotte |date=February 2009 |title=Commemorating International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation |publisher=[[Population Reference Bureau]] |url=http://www.prb.org/Articles/2009/fgmc.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213125942/http://www.prb.org/Articles/2009/fgmc.aspx |archive-date=13 February 2010 }}</ref> Somalia, Guinea, Djibouti, Sierra Leone and Mali have the highest prevalence of FGM in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/press-releases/glo-media-FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf |title=Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern |website=UNICEF |access-date=30 July 2024 }}</ref> [[Infibulation]], the most extreme form of FGM, is concentrated primarily in [[Northeast Africa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/WP39/WP39.pdf |title=Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total |website=DHS Program |publisher=United States Agency for International Development |access-date=30 July 2024 }}</ref>

National health systems vary between countries. In [[Ghana]], most health care is provided by the government and largely administered by the [[Ministry of Health, Ghana|Ministry of Health]] and [[Ghana Health Services]]. The healthcare system has five levels of providers: health posts which are first-level primary care for rural areas, health centers and clinics, district hospitals, regional hospitals, and tertiary hospitals. These programs are funded by the government of Ghana, financial credits, Internally Generated Fund (IGF), and Donors-pooled Health Fund.<ref>{{cite book |title=Public Health and Education Spending in Ghana in 1992-98 |date=April 2001 |publisher=World Bank Publication |first1=Sudharshan |last1=Canagarajah |first2=Xiao |last2=Ye |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/05/08/000094946_01042509523051/additional/109509322_20041117140518.pdf |page=21 |access-date=29 August 2014 |archive-date=6 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306151327/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/05/08/000094946_01042509523051/additional/109509322_20041117140518.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> 
[[Ebola virus disease]], which was first identified in 1976, occasionally occurs in outbreaks in tropical regions of Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease |title=Ebola virus disease |website=www.who.int }}</ref> The 2013–2016 [[Western African Ebola virus epidemic]] originated in Guinea, later spreading to neighbouring Liberia and Sierra Leone.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa — The First 9 Months of the Epidemic and Forward Projections |date=16 October 2014 |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=371 |issue=16 |pages=1481–1495 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1411100 |pmid=25244186 |pmc=4235004 |author1=WHO Ebola Response Team |last2=Aylward |first2=B. |last3=Barboza |first3=P. |last4=Bawo |first4=L. |last5=Bertherat |first5=E. |last6=Bilivogui |first6=P. |last7=Blake |first7=I. |last8=Brennan |first8=R. |last9=Briand |first9=S. |last10=Chakauya |first10=J. M. |last11=Chitala |first11=K. |last12=Conteh |first12=R. M. |last13=Cori |first13=A. |last14=Croisier |first14=A. |last15=Dangou |first15=J. M. |last16=Diallo |first16=B. |last17=Donnelly |first17=C. A. |last18=Dye |first18=C. |last19=Eckmanns |first19=T. |last20=Ferguson |first20=N. M. |last21=Formenty |first21=P. |last22=Fuhrer |first22=C. |last23=Fukuda |first23=K. |last24=Garske |first24=T. |last25=Gasasira |first25=A. |last26=Gbanyan |first26=S. |last27=Graaff |first27=P. |last28=Heleze |first28=E. |last29=Jambai |first29=A. |last30=Jombart |first30=T. |display-authors=1 }}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Further|Culture of Africa|West Africa#Culture|Central Africa#Culture|East Africa#Culture|Horn of Africa#Culture|Southern Africa#Culture|Southeast Africa#Culture}}
Sub-Saharan Africa is diverse, with many communities, villages, and cities, each with their own beliefs and traditions. Traditional African Societies are communal, they believe that the needs of the many far outweigh an individual's needs and achievements. Essentially, an individual's keep must be shared with other extended family members. Extended families are made up of various individuals and families who have shared responsibilities within the community. This extended family is one of the core aspects of every African community. "An African will refer to an older person as auntie or uncle. Siblings of parents will be called father or mother rather than uncle and aunt. Cousins will be called brother or sister". This system can be very difficult for outsiders to understand; however, it is no less important. "Also reflecting their communal ethic, Africans are reluctant to stand out in a crowd or to appear different from their neighbours or colleagues, a result of social pressure to avoid offense to group standards and traditions." Women also have a very important role in African culture because they take care of the house and children. Traditionally, in many cultures "men do the heavy work of clearing and ploughing the land, women sow the seeds, tend the fields, harvest the crops, haul the water, and bear the major burden for growing the family's food". Despite their work in the fields, women are expected to be subservient to men in some African cultures. "When young women migrate to cities, this imbalance between the sexes, as well as financial need, often causes young women of lower economic status, who lack education and job training, to have sexual relationships with older men who are established in their work or profession and can afford to support a girlfriend or two".<ref name="Intercultural Press">{{cite book |last1=Richmond |first1=Yale |last2=Gestrin |first2=Phyllis |title=Into Africa: a guide to Sub-Saharan culture and diversity |date=2009 |publisher=Intercultural Press |location=Boston |isbn=978-1-931930-91-8 }}</ref>

===Art===
{{Further|African art|Pottery#Africa|Ceramic art#Sub-Saharan Africa}}
[[File:Chiwara Chicago sculpture.jpg|thumb|Two [[Bambara people|Bambara]] [[Chiwara]] {{circa}} late 19th / early 20th centuries. Female (left) and male Vertical styles.]]
The oldest [[abstract art]] in the world is a shell necklace, dated to 82,000 years, in the Cave of Pigeons in [[Taforalt]], eastern Morocco.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070618091210.htm |title=ScienceDaily.com |publisher=ScienceDaily.com |date=18 June 2007 |access-date=28 February 2018 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327090204/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070618091210.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The second-oldest abstract form of art, and the oldest rock art, is found in the [[Blombos Cave]] at the Cape in South Africa, dated 77,000 years.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1753326.stm |work=BBC News |title='Oldest' prehistoric art unearthed |date=10 January 2002 |access-date=9 April 2010 |archive-date=30 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130102308/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1753326.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Sub-Saharan Africa has some of the oldest and most varied style of rock art in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.africanrockart.org/rockafrica/main.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130191809/http://www.africanrockart.org/rockafrica/main.html |title=>TARA – Trust for African Rock Art: Rock Art in Africa |date=6 January 2009 |archive-date=30 January 2010 |access-date=21 November 2009 }}</ref>

Although sub-Saharan African art is very diverse, there are some common themes. One is the use of the human figure. Second, there is a preference for [[sculpture]]. Sub-Saharan African art is meant to be experienced in three dimensions, not two. A house is meant to be experienced from all angles. Third, art is meant to be performed. Sub-Saharan Africans have a specific name for masks. The name incorporates the sculpture, the dance, and the spirit that incorporates the mask. The name denotes all three elements. Fourth, art that serves a practical function. The artist and craftsman are not separate. A sculpture shaped like a hand can be used as a stool. Fifth, the use of [[fractals]] or non-linear scaling. The shape of the whole is the shape of the parts at different scales. Before the discovery of fractal geometry, Leopold Sedar Senghor, Senegal's first president, referred to this as "dynamic symmetry". [[William Buller Fagg|William Fagg]], a British art historian, has compared it to the logarithmic mapping of natural growth by biologist D'Arcy Thompson. Lastly, sub-Saharan African art is visually abstract, instead of naturalistic. Sub-Saharan African art represents spiritual notions, social norms, ideas, values, etc. An artist might exaggerate the head of a sculpture in relation to the body not because he does not know anatomy but because he wants to illustrate that the head is the seat of knowledge and wisdom.

The visual abstraction of African art was very influential in the works of [[modernist art]]ists like [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Henri Matisse]], and [[Jacques Lipchitz]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/aima/hd_aima.htm |title=African Influences in Modern Art &#124; Thematic Essay &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History &#124; The Metropolitan Museum of Art |publisher=Metmuseum.org |date=2 June 2014 |access-date=29 September 2015 |archive-date=18 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618025538/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/aima/hd_aima.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Alexandre, Marc(1998). World Bank Publication: DC. {{ISBN|978-0-8213-4195-7 }}</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Further|History of architecture#Africa|Megalith#African megaliths|Tumulus#Africa}}

===Music===
{{Further|Music of Africa|African dance|African popular music|Sub-Saharan African music traditions|Rhythm in Sub-Saharan Africa|History of music#Africa|Dance#Africa}}
[[File:TrebleKalimba.jpg|thumb|A traditional polyrhythmic [[kalimba]]]]

Traditional sub-Saharan African music is as diverse as the region's various populations. The common perception of sub-Saharan African music is that it is rhythmic music centered around the drums. This is partially true. A large part of sub-Saharan music, mainly among speakers of [[Niger–Congo]] and [[Nilo-Saharan]] languages, is rhythmic and centered around the drum. Sub-Saharan music is polyrhythmic, usually consisting of multiple rhythms in one composition. Dance involves moving multiple body parts. These aspects of sub-Saharan music has been transferred to the new world by enslaved sub-Saharan Africans and can be seen in its influence on music forms as [[samba]], [[jazz]], [[rhythm and blues]], [[rock and roll]], [[salsa music|salsa]], [[reggae]] and [[rap music]].<ref name=autogenerated1>Bowden, Rob(2007). Africa South of the Sahara. Coughlan Publishing: p. 40, {{ISBN|1-4034-9910-1}}.</ref>

Some forms of sub-Saharan African music use strings, horns, and very little poly-rhythms. Music from the eastern Sahel and along the Nile, among the [[Nilo-Saharan]], made extensive use of strings and horns in ancient times. Among the [[Afro-Asiatic]]s of [[Horn of Africa|Northeast Africa]], there is extensive use of [[Music of Ethiopia|string instruments]] and the [[pentatonic scale]]. Dancing involves swaying body movements and footwork. Among the [[San people|San]] is extensive use of string instruments with emphasis on footwork.<ref>[[Christopher Ehret]], (2002). The Civilizations of Africa. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, p. 103, {{ISBN|0-8139-2085-X}}.</ref>

Modern sub-Saharan African music has been influenced by music from the New World (Jazz, Salsa, Rhythm and Blues etc.) vice versa being influenced by enslaved sub-Saharan Africans. Popular styles are [[Mbalax]] in [[Senegal]] and [[Gambia]], [[Highlife]] in [[Ghana]], [[Zoblazo]] in [[Ivory Coast]], [[Makossa]] in [[Cameroon]], [[Soukous]] in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Kizomba]] in [[Angola]], and [[Mbaqanga]] in [[South Africa]]. New World styles like Salsa, R&B/Rap, Reggae, and Zouk also have widespread popularity.

===Clothing===
{{Further|Clothing in Africa|Folk costume#Africa}}
[[File:Kent wove.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Akan people|The Akan]] [[Kente]] cloth patterns|alt=]]

Like most of the world, sub-Saharan Africans have adopted Western-style clothing. In some countries like Zambia, used Western clothing has flooded markets, causing great angst in the retail community. Sub-Saharan Africa boasts its own traditional [http://www.hamillgallery.com/SITE/Textiles.html clothing style]. Cotton seems to be the dominant material.

In East Africa, one finds extensive use of cotton clothing. Shemma, shama, and [[kuta (clothing)|kuta]] are types of Ethiopian clothing. [[Kanga (African garment)|Kanga]] are [[Swahili culture|Swahili]] cloth that comes in rectangular shapes, made of pure cotton, and put together to make clothing. [[Kitenge]]s are similar to kangas and [[kikoy]], but are of a thicker cloth, and have an edging only on a long side. [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]], [[Tanzania]], and [[South Sudan]] are some of the African countries where kitenge is worn. In [[Malawi]], [[Namibia]] and [[Zambia]], kitenge is known as Chitenge. One of the unique materials, which is not a fiber and is used to make clothing is barkcloth,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?cp=UG&topic=mp |title=Intangible Heritage Home –- intangible heritage – Culture Sector |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=17 November 2009 |archive-date=12 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091112105439/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?cp=UG&topic=mp |url-status=live }}</ref> an innovation of the Baganda people of Uganda. It came from the Mutuba tree ([[Ficus natalensis]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Proclamation 2005: La fabrication des tissus d'écorce en Ouganda |trans-title=Proclamation 2005: Barcloth making in Uganda |language=fr |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?cp=UG&topic=mp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091112105439/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?cp=UG&topic=mp |archive-date=12 November 2009 }}</ref> In Madagascar a type of draped cloth called [[Lamba (garment)|lamba]] is worn.

[[File:Kangas drying in Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kanga (African garment)|Kangas]]]]
In West Africa, again cotton is the material of choice. In the Sahel and other parts of West Africa the [[boubou (clothing)|boubou]] and [[kaftan]] style of clothing are featured. [[Kente cloth]] is created by the [[Akan people]] of Ghana and Ivory Coast, from silk of the various moth species in West Africa. Kente comes from the [[Akan language|Akan]] [[twi]] word ''kenten'' which means basket. It is sometimes used to make [[dashiki]] and [[kufi]]. Adire is a type of Yoruba cloth that is starch resistant. Raffia cloth<ref name="metmuseum.org">{{Cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/11/sfc/ho_1999.522.15.htm |title=Prestige Panel &#91;Democratic Republic of Congo; Kuba peoples&#93; (1999.522.15) &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History &#124; the Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=17 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217053531/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/11/sfc/ho_1999.522.15.htm |archive-date=17 February 2009 }}</ref> and barkcloth are also utilised in the region.

In Central Africa, the Kuba people developed raffia cloth<ref name="metmuseum.org"/> from the raffia plant fibers. It was widely used in the region. Barkcloth was also extensively used.

In Southern Africa, one finds numerous uses of animal hide and skins for clothing. The Ndau in central Mozambique and the Shona mix hide with barkcloth and cotton cloth. Cotton cloth is referred to as machira. Xhosa, Tswana, Sotho, and Swazi also made extensive use of hides. Hides come from cattle, sheep, goat, and elephant. Leopard skins were coveted and were a symbol of kingship in Zulu society. Skins were tanned to form leather, dyed, and embedded with beads.

===Theater===
{{Further|History of theatre#African theatre}}

===Media===
In 2007, radio was the major source of information in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="gallup.com">{{Cite web |last=English |first=Cynthia |date=23 June 2008 |title=Radio the Chief Medium for News in Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/108235/Radio-Chief-Medium-News-SubSaharan-Africa.aspx |access-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091117032536/http://www.gallup.com/poll/108235/Radio-Chief-Medium-News-SubSaharan-Africa.aspx |archive-date=17 November 2009 |url-status=live |website=Gallup.com |language=en }}</ref> Average coverage stands at more than a third of the population. Countries such as [[Gabon]], [[Seychelles]], and [[South Africa]] boast almost 100% penetration. Only five countries—Burundi, [[Djibouti]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], and [[Somalia]]—still have a penetration of less than 10%. [[Broadband|Broadband penetration]] outside of South Africa has been limited where it is exorbitantly expensive.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 October 2009 |title=Africa calling: Cellphone usage sees record rise |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2009-10-23-africa-calling-cellphone-usage-sees-record-rise/ |access-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025130318/http://www.mg.co.za/article/2009-10-23-africa-calling-cellphone-usage-sees-record-rise |archive-date=25 October 2009 |url-status=live |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA }}</ref><ref>Aker, Jenny C.(2008). [http://www.cgdev.org/files/894409_file_Aker_Cell_Phone_Niger.pdf "Can You Hear Me Now?"How Cell Phones are Transforming Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030321/http://www.cgdev.org/files/894409_file_Aker_Cell_Phone_Niger.pdf |date=4 March 2016}}, Center for Global Development.</ref> Access to the internet via cell phones is on the rise.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mg.co.za/article/2009-12-23-africa-sees-massive-growth-in-mobile-web-usage |title=MG.co.za |publisher=MG.co.za |date=23 December 2009 |access-date=27 December 2009 |archive-date=26 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091226035646/http://www.mg.co.za/article/2009-12-23-africa-sees-massive-growth-in-mobile-web-usage |url-status=live }}</ref>

Television is the second major source of information.<ref name="gallup.com"/> Because of power shortages, the spread of television viewing has been limited. Eight per cent have television, a total of 62&nbsp;million. Those in the television industry view the region as an untapped green market. Digital television and pay for service are on the rise.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pfanner |first=Eric |date=6 August 2007 |title=Competition increases for pay TV in sub-Saharan Africa |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/06/technology/06iht-web-africa.6996947.html |access-date=12 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331 }}</ref>

===Film industry===
{{Further|Cinema of Africa|List of African films}}

===Games===
{{Further|History of games#Africa}}

===Cuisine===
{{Further|African cuisine|List of African cuisines|History of breakfast#Africa|History of the potato#Africa}}
[[File:Fufu.jpg|thumb|A plate of [[fufu]] accompanied with [[peanut soup]]]]

[[African cuisine|Sub-Saharan African cuisine]] is very diverse. A lot of regional overlapping occurs, but there are dominant elements region by region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Njogu |first1=K. |last2=Ngeta |first2=K. |last3=Wanjau |first3=M. |title=Ethnic Diversity in Eastern Africa: Opportunities and Challenges |publisher=Twaweza Communications |year=2010 |isbn=978-9966-7244-8-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15V7_OFkh6QC&pg=PA78 |access-date=30 November 2017 |pages=78–79 |archive-date=21 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221115317/https://books.google.com/books?id=15V7_OFkh6QC&pg=PA78 |url-status=live }}</ref>

West African cuisine can be described as starchy, flavorfully spicey. Dishes include [[fufu]], [[kenkey]], [[couscous]], [[garri]], foutou, and [[Banku (dish)|banku]]. Ingredients are of native starchy tubers, [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[Eddoe|cocoyams]], and [[cassava]]. Grains include [[millet]], [[sorghum]], and [[rice]], usually in the Sahel. Oils include [[palm oil]] and [[shea butter]] (Sahel). One finds recipes that mix [[Fish as food|fish]] and [[meat]]. Beverages are [[palm wine]] (sweet or sour) and [[millet beer]]. [[Roasting]], [[baking]], [[boiling]], [[frying]], [[mashing]], and [[spicing]] are all cooking techniques.
[[File:Ugali and cabbage.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ugali]] and [[cabbage]]]]
Southeast African cuisine, especially those of the Swahili people, reflects its Islamic, geographical Indian Ocean cultural links. Dishes include [[ugali]], [[sukuma wiki]], and [[halva]]. Spices such as [[curry]], [[saffron]], [[clove]]s, [[cinnamon]], [[pomegranate juice]], [[cardamon]], [[ghee]], and [[Salvia officinalis|sage]] are used, especially among Muslims. Meat includes [[cattle]], [[sheep]], and [[goat]]s, but is rarely eaten since meat is viewed as a luxury.

In the [[Horn of Africa]], pork and non-fish seafood are avoided by Christians and Muslims. Dairy products and all meats are avoided during lent by Ethiopians. [[Maize]] (corn) is a major staple. [[Cornmeal]] is used to make ugali, a popular dish with different names. [[Teff]] is used to make [[injera]] or canjeero (Somali) bread. Other important foods include [[enset]], [[noog]], [[lentil]]s, rice, [[banana]], [[leafy greens]], [[chili pepper]]s, [[coconut milk]], and [[tomato]]es. Beverages are coffee (domesticated in Ethiopia), [[chai tea]], fermented [[beer]] from banana or millet. Cooking techniques include roasting and [[marinating]].

[[File:Special meat and cheese dish in Yod Abyssinia.jpg|thumb|This meal, consisting of ''[[injera]]'' and several kinds of ''[[Wat (food)|wat]]'' (stew), is typical of [[Ethiopia]]n and [[Eritrea]]n cuisine.]]
Central African cuisine connects with all major regions of sub-Saharan Africa: Its cuisine reflects that. [[Ugali]] and fufu are eaten in the region. Central African cuisine is very starchy and spicy hot. Dominant crops include [[Cooking banana|plantains]], cassava, [[peanut]]s, chillis, and okra. Meats include [[beef]], [[Chicken as food|chicken]], and sometimes exotic meats called [[bushmeat]] ([[antelope]], [[warthog]], [[crocodile]]). Widespread spicy hot fish cuisine is one of the differentiating aspects. [[Edible mushroom|Mushroom]] is sometimes used as a meat substitute.

Traditional Southern African cuisine surrounds meat. Traditional society typically focused on raising sheep, goats, and especially cattle. Dishes include [[braai]] (barbecue meat), [[sadza]], [[bogobe]], [[pap (food)|pap]] (fermented cornmeal), [[milk product]]s ([[buttermilk]], [[yoghurt]]). Crops utilised are sorghum, maize (corn), pumpkin beans, leafy greens, and [[cabbage]]. Beverages include ting (fermented sorghum or maize), [[milk]], [[chibuku]] (milky beer). Influences from the Indian and Malay communities can be seen in its use of curries, [[sambal]]s, [[pickled fish]], [[fish stew]]s, [[chutney]], and [[samosa]]. European influences can be seen in cuisines like [[biltong]] (dried beef strips), [[potjie]]s (stews of maize, [[onion]]s, tomatoes), [[French wine]]s, and crueler or [[koeksister]] (sugar syrup cookie).

===Sports===
Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan men are its main patrons. Major competitions include the [[CAF Champions League|African Champions League]], a competition for the best clubs on the continent and the [[CAF Confederation Cup|Confederation Cup]], a competition primarily for the national cup winner of each African country. The [[Africa Cup of Nations]] is a competition of 16 national teams from various African countries held every two years. South Africa hosted the [[2010 FIFA World Cup]], a first for a sub-Saharan country. In 2010, Cameroon played in the [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]] for the sixth time, which is the current record for a sub-Saharan team. In [[Nigeria at the 1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Nigeria won the Olympic gold for football]]. In 2000 Cameroon maintained the continent's supremacy by winning the title too. Momentous achievements for sub-Saharan African football. Famous sub-Saharan football stars include [[Abedi Pele]], [[Emmanuel Adebayor]], [[George Weah]], [[Michael Essien]], [[Didier Drogba]], [[Roger Milla]], [[Nwankwo Kanu]], [[Jay-Jay Okocha]], [[Bruce Grobbelaar]], [[Samuel Eto'o]], [[Kolo Touré]], [[Yaya Touré]], [[Sadio Mané]] and [[Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang]]. The most talented sub-Saharan African football players find themselves courted and sought after by European leagues. There are currently more than 1000 Africans playing for European clubs. Sub-Saharan Africans have found themselves the target of racism by European fans. FIFA has been trying hard to crack down on racist outburst during games.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://goafrica.about.com/od/workinafrica/a/football.htm |title=About.com |work=About.com Travel |publisher=Goafrica.about.com |access-date=26 December 2009 |archive-date=20 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520165528/http://goafrica.about.com/od/workinafrica/a/football.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200911161557.html |title=AllAfrica.com |publisher=AllAfrica.com |date=16 November 2009 |access-date=26 December 2009 |archive-date=18 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091118154311/http://allafrica.com/stories/200911161557.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1798795,00.html |title=European Soccer's Racism Problem |date=2 December 2005 |journal=[[Deutsche Welle]] |access-date=26 December 2009 |archive-date=10 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410041000/http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1798795,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Namibia Rugby Team.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Namibia national rugby union team|Namibia rugby team]]]]
[[Rugby union|Rugby]] is popular in sub-Saharan Africa. The [[Confederation of African Rugby]] governs rugby games in the region. South Africa is a major force in the game and won the Rugby World Cup in [[1995 Rugby World Cup|1995]], [[2007 Rugby World Cup|2007]], [[2019 Rugby World Cup|2019]] and [[2023 Rugby World Cup|2023]]. Africa is also allotted one guaranteed qualifying place in the [[Rugby World Cup]].

Boxing is a popular sport. [[Battling Siki]] is the first world champion to come out of sub-Saharan Africa. Countries such as Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa have produced numerous professional world champions such as [[Dick Tiger]], [[Hogan Bassey]], [[Gerrie Coetzee]], [[Samuel Peter]], [[Azumah Nelson]] and [[Jake Matlala]].

Cricket has a following. The [[African Cricket Association]] is an international body which oversees cricket in African countries. South Africa and Zimbabwe have their own governing bodies. In 2003 the [[Cricket World Cup]] was held in South Africa, first time it was held in sub-Saharan Africa.

Over the years, [[Ethiopia]] and [[Kenya]] have produced many notable long-distance athletes. Each country has federations that identify and cultivate top talent. Athletes from Ethiopia and Kenya hold, save for two exceptions, all the men's outdoor records for Olympic distance events from 800m to the [[marathon]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Men's outdoor world records |url=http://www.iaaf.org/records/by-category/world-records#results-tab-sub=0&results-tab-sub-men=0 |access-date=26 October 2013 |publisher=[[IAAF|iaaf.org]] |archive-date=8 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808043103/http://www.iaaf.org/records/by-category/world-records#results-tab-sub=0&results-tab-sub-men=0 |url-status=live}}<br />As can be seen: 800m is Kenya; 5000m is Ethiopia; 10000m is Ethiopia; marathon is Kenya. The two exceptions are the 1500m and 3000m steeplechase records, though the latter is held by [[Stephen Cherono]], who was born and raised in Kenya.</ref> Famous runners include [[Haile Gebrselassie]], [[Kenenisa Bekele]], [[Paul Tergat]], and [[John Cheruiyot Korir]].<ref>Tucker, Ross and Dugas, Jonathan. [http://www.sportsscientists.com/2008/07/kenya-vs-ethiopia.html ''Sport's great rivalries: Kenya vs. Ethiopia, and a one-sided battle (at least on the track)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420161131/http://www.sportsscientists.com/2008/07/kenya-vs-ethiopia.html |date=20 April 2010 }}, The Science of Sport, 14 July 2008.</ref>
{{Clear}}

==See also==
{{portal|Africa|Geography}}
<!-- No redundant/circular or Maafa links -->
* [[Aethiopia]]
* [[African diaspora]]
* [[Black people]]
* [[Geography of Africa]]
* [[History of Africa]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="definition">
*{{cite web |title=League of Arab States |url=http://www.lasportal.org/ar/aboutlas/Pages/CountryData.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728054544/http://www.lasportal.org/ar/aboutlas/Pages/CountryData.aspx |archive-date=28 July 2017 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/worldwide/arab-states/ |title=Arab States |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=20 November 2016 |archive-date=19 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119105146/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/worldwide/arab-states/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |author=Infosamak |url=http://www.infosamak.org/english/countries.cfm |title=Centre for Marketing, Information and Advisory Services for Fishery Products in the Arab Region |publisher=Infosamak |access-date=30 August 2009 |archive-date=8 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308230246/http://infosamak.org/english/countries.cfm |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Barakat |first=Halim |date=14 October 1993 |title=The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |page=80 |url=https://archive.org/details/arabworldsociety00bara/mode/2up |isbn=978-0-520-0790-76}}
*{{cite book |last=Markakis |first=John |date=23 January 1998 |title=Resource Conflict in the Horn of Africa |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |page=39 |isbn=978-0-803-9884-77}}
*{{cite book |last=Erlikh |first=Ḥagai |date=1983 |title=The Struggle Over Eritrea, 1962-1978: War and Revolution in the Horn of Africa |publisher=[[Hoover Institution Press]] |page=59 |isbn=978-0-817-9760-26}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Fegley |first=Randall |encyclopedia=World Bibliographical Series |title=Eritrea |date=1995 |publisher=[[Clio Press]] |volume=181 |page=mxxxviii |isbn=978-1-851-0924-51}}
*{{cite book |last=Frishkopf |first=Michael A. |title=Music and Media in the Arab World |date=2010 |publisher=[[American University in Cairo Press]] |page=61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KANOAYzkhA8C |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728170650/https://books.google.com/books?id=KANOAYzkhA8C |archive-date=28 July 2020 |isbn=978-9-774-1629-30}}
</ref>
</references>

=== Sources ===
* ''Taking Action to Reduce Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa'', [[World Bank]] Publications (1997), {{ISBN|0-8213-3698-3}}.

{{Free-content attribution |title=Digital Services for Education in Africa |author=Agence Française de Développement, Agence universitaire de la Francophonie, Orange & UNESCO |publisher=Agence Française de Développement & UNESCO |page numbers= |source= |documentURL=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002318/231867e.pdf |license statement URL=https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/ |license=CC-BY-SA}}

== Further reading ==
* Chido, Diane E. "[https://permanent.fdlp.gov/gpo35755/pub1146%5b1%5d.pdf From Chaos to Cohesion: A Regional Approach to Security, Stability, and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa]". Carlisle, Pa.: [[Strategic Studies Institute]] and U.S. Army War College Press, 2013.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120715234704/http://www.africanpeople.info/ African People website] (archived)
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index.shtml The Story of Africa] – BBC World Service

{{Regions of Africa}}
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[[Category:Geography of Africa]]
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