View source for Sub-Roman Britain

{{Short description|Period in late antiquity in Great Britain}}
{{Use British English|date = April 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Multiple issues| {{Lead too short|date=February 2022}} {{More footnotes needed|date=July 2022}} }}
[[File:End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg|thumb|A map of the end of Roman rule in Britain]]
{{Periods in English History}}

'''Sub-Roman Britain''', also called '''post-Roman Britain''' or '''[[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Age]] Britain''', is the period of [[late antiquity]] in [[Great Britain]] between the [[End of Roman rule in Britain|end of Roman rule]] and the [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|founding of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms]]. The term was originally used to describe archaeological remains found in 5th- and 6th-century AD sites that hinted at the decay of locally made wares from a previous higher standard under the [[Roman Empire]]. It is now used to describe the period that began with the recall of Roman troops from [[Roman Britain|Britannia]] to [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]] by [[Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)|Constantine III]] in 407 and ended with the [[Battle of Deorham]] in 577. This period has attracted a great deal of academic and popular debate, in part because of the lack of written records from the time.

==Meaning of terms==
The period of sub-Roman Britain traditionally covers the [[history of England|history of the parts of Britain that had been under Roman rule]] from the end of [[End of Roman rule in Britain|Roman imperial rule]], traditionally dated to be in 410, to the arrival of [[Augustine of Canterbury|Saint Augustine]] in 597.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henshall |first=Kenneth G. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/314773412 |title=Folly and Fortune in Early British History: From Caesar to the Normans |date=2008 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-58379-5 |location=Basingstoke |pages=84 |oclc=314773412}}</ref> The date taken for the end of this period is arbitrary in that the sub-Roman culture continued in northern England until the merger of [[Rheged]] (the kingdom of the [[Brigantes]]) with [[Northumbria]] by dynastic marriage in 633, and longer in the west of Britain, and [[Cornwall]], [[Cumbria]] and [[Wales]] especially.

The term "post-Roman Britain" is also used for the period; "sub-Roman" and "post-Roman" are terms that apply to the old [[Roman province]] of [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], i.e. Britain south of the [[River Forth|Forth]]–[[River Clyde|Clyde]] line. The history of the area between [[Hadrian's Wall]] and the Forth–Clyde line is similar to that of Wales (see Rheged, [[Bernicia]], [[Gododdin]] and [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]]). North of the line lay a thinly populated area including the kingdoms of the Maeatae (in [[Angus, Scotland|Angus]]), [[Dalriada]] (in [[Argyll]]), and the kingdom whose ''kaer'' (castle) near [[Inverness]] was visited by Saint [[Columba]]. The Romans referred to these peoples collectively as ''[[Picts|Picti]]'', meaning 'Painted Ones'.

The term "[[late antiquity]]", implying wider horizons, is finding more use in the academic community, especially when transformations of classical culture common throughout the post-Roman West are examined. The period may also be considered as part of the [[early Middle Ages]], if continuity with the following periods is stressed. Popular (and some academic) works use a range of more dramatic names for the period: the [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]], the Brythonic Age, the Age of Tyrants, or the Age of [[King Arthur|Arthur]].<ref>John Morris, ''The Age of Arthur'' (1973) is his title for a popular history of the British Isles from 350 to 650.</ref>

==Written accounts==
Little extant written material is available from this period, though a considerable amount from later periods may be relevant. A lot of what is available deals with the first few decades of the 5th century only. The sources can usefully be classified into British and continental, and into contemporary and non-contemporary.

Two primary contemporary British sources exist: the ''Confessio'' of [[Saint Patrick]] and [[Gildas]]' {{Lang|la|[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]}} (''On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain'').<ref>Discussion in [[Ken Dark]], ''Britain and the End of the Roman Empire'', (Stroud: Tempus, 2000), pp.32–37</ref> Patrick's ''Confessio'' and his ''Letter to [[Ceretic Guletic|Coroticus]]'' reveal aspects of life in Britain, from where he was abducted to Ireland. It is particularly useful in highlighting the state of [[Celtic Christianity|Christianity at the time]]. Gildas is the nearest to a source of sub-Roman history, but there are many problems in using it; the document represents British history as he and his audience understood it. Though a few other documents of the period do exist, such as Gildas' letters on monasticism, they are not directly relevant to British history. Gildas' ''De Excidio'' is a [[jeremiad]]: it is written as a [[polemic]] to warn contemporary rulers against sin, demonstrating through historical and biblical examples that bad rulers are always punished by God&nbsp;– in the case of Britain, through the destructive wrath of the [[Saxons|Saxon]] invaders. The historical section of ''De Excidio'' is short, and the material in it is clearly selected with Gildas' purpose in mind. There are no absolute dates given, and some of the details, such as those regarding the Hadrian's and [[Antonine Wall|Antonine]] Walls are clearly wrong. Nevertheless, Gildas does provide us with an insight into some of the kingdoms that existed when he was writing, and how an educated monk perceived the situation that had developed between the [[Anglo-Saxons]] and the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]].

More continental contemporary sources mention Britain, although their information is sparse and open to question. The ''Historia Nova'' of [[Byzantine]] scholar [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] notes in passing that western Emperor [[Honorius]], in the throes of [[Alaric I|Alaric]]'s invasion [[Sack of Rome (410)|in 410]], sent a [[rescript]] to British cities that they must look to their own defence. Some historians have suggested that the reference was instead to [[Bruttians|Bruttium]], but Gildas describes Britain receiving just such a message.<ref>Birley, Anthony Richard ''The Roman Government of Britain'' OUP Oxford (29 September 2005) {{ISBN|978-0-19-925237-4}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=izIMUEgzjm0C&dq=bruttium+honorius&pg=PA461 pp.461–463] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307020806/https://books.google.com/books?id=izIMUEgzjm0C&pg=PA461&dq=bruttium+honorius&num=100&as_brr=3&cd=2#v=onepage&q=bruttium%20honorius&f=false |date=7 March 2017 }}</ref><ref>Halsall, Guy ''Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376–568'' Cambridge University Press; illustrated edition (20 December 2007) {{ISBN|978-0-521-43491-1}} pp.217–218</ref><ref>Discussion in [[Martin Millett]], ''The Romanization of Britain'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and in Philip Bartholomew 'Fifth-Century Facts' ''Britannia'' vol. 13, 1982 p. 260</ref> The Gallic chronicles, [[Chronica Gallica of 452|''Chronica Gallica'' of 452]] and [[Chronica Gallica of 511|''Chronica Gallica'' of 511]], say prematurely that "Britain, abandoned by the Romans, passed into the power of the Saxons" and provide information about Saint [[Germanus of Auxerre|Germanus]] and his visit or visits to Britain, though again this text has received considerable academic deconstruction.<ref>[[Michael Jones (historian)|Michael Jones]] and [[John Casey (academic)|John Casey]], 'The Gallic Chronicle Restored: A Chronology for the Anglo-Saxon Invasions and the End of Roman Britain', ''Britannia'' '''19''', (1988), pp.367–398; R.W. Burgess, 'The Dark Ages Return to Fifth-Century Britain: The 'Restored' Gallic Chronicle Exploded', ''Britannia'' '''21''', (1990), pp.185–195</ref> The work of [[Procopius]], another 6th-century Byzantine writer, makes some references to Britain, though the accuracy of these is uncertain.

Numerous later written sources claim to provide accurate accounts of the period. The first to attempt this was the monk [[Bede]], writing in the early 8th century. He based his account of the sub-Roman period in his ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' (written around 731) heavily on Gildas, though he tried to provide dates for the events Gildas describes. It was written from an anti-Briton point of view. Later sources, such as the ''[[Historia Brittonum]]'' often attributed to [[Nennius]], the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' (again written from a non-Briton point of view, based on West Saxon sources) and the ''[[Annales Cambriae]]'', are all heavily shrouded in myth and can only be used with caution as evidence for this period.<ref>[[David Dumville]], "Sub-Roman Britain: History and Legend", ''History'' 62, (1977), pp.173–192</ref> There are also documents giving [[Welsh poetry]] (of [[Taliesin]] and [[Aneirin]]) and land deeds ([[Book of Llandaff|Llandaff charters]]) that appear to date back to the 6th century.

After the [[Norman Conquest]] there were many books written that purport to give the history of the sub-Roman period. These have been influenced by the fictionalised account in [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' (''History of the Kings of Britain''). Therefore, they can only be regarded as showing how the legends grew. Not until modern times have serious studies of the period been undertaken. Later ''Lives'' of Celtic saints, although often unreliable, do provide some insights into life in sub-Roman Britain. For example, there is a description of a dilapidated but still occupied [[Roman villa]] near [[Chepstow]] (probably at [[Portskewett]]<ref>{{cite book|first1=John|last1=Morris|title=The Age of Arthur|publisher=Phoenix Press|date= 1973 |isbn=978-1-84-212477-2|page=572}}</ref>) included in an account of a visit by [[Tathan|Saint Tatheus]]; and the Roman ruins of [[Carlisle]], as they were in 685, are described in a ''Life'' of Saint [[Cuthbert]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=John Nowell Linton|last1=Myres|title=The English Settlements|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S1EdW6i3iTcC&dq=Sub-roman+saints+lives&pg=PA18|publisher=Oxford University Press|date= 1998 |isbn=978-0-19-282235-2|page=18}}</ref>

==Archaeological evidence==
[[File:Barbury Castle Hill Fort, near Swindon - western entrance.jpg|thumb|[[Barbury Castle]], a 6th-century [[hillfort]] in [[Wiltshire]]|263x263px]]
Archaeology provides further evidence for this period, in some cases suggesting that the depopulation of Roman towns and the development of villa and estate organization was already occurring in the 4th century.<ref>"Town and Country: The End of Roman Britain", ''World Archaeology'' '''12'''(1), (June 1980:77–92); Simon T. Loseby, "Power and towns in Late Roman Britain and early Anglo-Saxon England" in Gisela Ripoll and Josep M. Gurt, eds., ''Sedes regiae (ann. 400–800)'', (Barcelona, 2000: pp. 319–370 ([http://www.raco.cat/index.php/MemoriasRABL/article/viewFile/23771/23605 on-line text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125224730/http://www.raco.cat/index.php/MemoriasRABL/article/viewFile/23771/23605 |date=25 January 2012 }}) makes a strong case for the discontinuity of urban life.</ref> The 5th and 6th centuries in Britain are marked by a sharp discontinuity in town life, with the exception of a few sites such as [[Londinium]], [[Eboracum]], [[Canterbury]] and [[Wroxeter]],<ref>Philip Barker's excavation in the Baths Basilica at Wroxeter, (1975) is noted by R. Reece, "Town and country: the end of Roman Britain", ''World Archaeology'', 1980.</ref> but the discontinuity in the episcopate also suggests a decline in town life.<ref>H.R. Loyn, ''Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquest'', 2nd ed. 1991:15f: "it is altogether unlikely that organized town-life can have survived through the troubles of the fifth and sixth centuries. Gildas lamented the destruction of the twenty-eight cities of Britain, and there is no reason to doubt the essential truth of his statement" (p16).</ref> The Roman villa system, represented by some 500 archaeological sites, did not survive either; unlike [[Gaul]], in Britain no villa names survived into the Germanic period. However, at [[Chedworth Roman Villa|Chedworth]], building work continued: a mosaic within Room 28, discovered in 2020, was designed and created in the middle of the 5th century.<ref>The 5th Century Chedworth Mosaic: https://archaeologynationaltrustsw.wordpress.com/tag/chedworth-roman-villa/</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Morris |first1=Steven |title=Stunning dark ages mosaic found at Roman villa in Cotswolds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/dec/10/stunning-dark-ages-mosaic-found-at-roman-villa-in-cotswolds |access-date=10 December 2020 |work=The Guardian|location=London |date=10 December 2020 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210000737/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/dec/10/stunning-dark-ages-mosaic-found-at-roman-villa-in-cotswolds |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Chedworth Roman Villa: Mosaic's age stuns historians |publisher=BBC News |date=10 December 2020 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-gloucestershire-55256415 |access-date=10 December 2020 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210134800/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-gloucestershire-55256415 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the sub-Roman period, building in stone gradually came to an end; buildings were constructed of less durable materials than during the Roman period. However, brooches, pottery, and weapons from this period have survived. The study of burials and cremations, and the grave goods associated with these, has done much to expand the understanding of cultural identities in the period.<ref>A.S. Esmonde Cleary, "The Roman to medieval transition" in ''Britons and Romans: advancing an archaeological agenda''. ed. S. James & M. Millett, (York: Council for British Archaeology, 2001)</ref> Archaeology has shown some evidence of continuity with [[Education in ancient Rome|Roman education]], [[Roman commerce|trade with the Mediterranean]], and with [[Celtic art]]. Archaeological excavations in south Wales in 2023 sought evidence of an early medieval monastery and school said to have been founded by Saint [[Illtud]] in the early 6th century, the forerunner of [[St Illtyd's Church, Llantwit Major]] (c.1100).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://glamorganstar.co.uk/excavation-in-llantwit/|title=Excavation looks for evidence of early monastery in Llantwit Major|date=19 September 2023|author=Tim Young|website=Glamorgan Star|access-date=19 November 2023}}</ref>

Excavations of settlements have revealed possible changes in social structures, and the extent to which life in Britain continued unaltered in certain pockets into the early medieval period. Hilltops (the so-called "[[hillfort]]s"), ''[[castra]]'', and monasteries have been excavated. Work on towns has been particularly important. Work on the hillforts has shown evidence of refurbishment and also of overseas trade. One of the earliest major excavations was at [[Tintagel]] (Radford 1939). This uncovered rectangular structures and much Mediterranean pottery. The buildings were initially interpreted as a monastery but later as a princely stronghold and trading post. Another important excavation was at [[Dinas Powys]] (Alcock 1963) which showed evidence of metalworking. Alcock also led the excavations at [[South Cadbury]] (Alcock 1995). Many other sites have now been shown to have been occupied during the sub-Roman period, including [[Banna (Birdoswald)|Birdoswald]] and [[Saxon Shore]] forts. Work on field systems and environmental archaeology has also highlighted how much agricultural practice continued and changed over the period.<ref>John Davey, "The Environs of South Cadbury in the Late Antique and Early Medieval Periods" in ''Debating Late Antiquity in Britain AD 300–700''. ed. Rob Collins & James Gerrard, (Oxford: British Archaeological Review, 2004)</ref> Archaeology has confirmed [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] burials at [[Bowcombe]] and [[Gatcombe]] on the [[Isle of Wight]] that took place at least 50 years before the dates suggested by historical sources,<ref name="IOW">Archaeological Resource Assessment of the Isle of Wight: Early Medieval period. Compiled by Ruth Waller, Isle of Wight County Archaeology Service, August 2006 [https://oxfordarchaeology.com/images/pdfs/Solent_Thames/County_resource_assessments/Early_Medieval_IOW.pdf Oxford Archaeology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704235557/https://oxfordarchaeology.com/images/pdfs/Solent_Thames/County_resource_assessments/Early_Medieval_IOW.pdf |date=4 July 2022 }}.</ref> concurrent with Honorius's award of land in [[Gallia Aquitania]] to the [[Visigoths]] in 418. There is archaeological evidence of Anglo-Saxons and Britons living on the same site. For example, in the cemetery at [[Wasperton]], Warwickshire, there is evidence of a family adopting Anglo-Saxon culture over a long period.<ref>[[Helena Hamerow]], 'The earliest Anglo-Saxon kingdoms' in ''The New Cambridge Medieval History, I, c.500–c.700''. ed. Paul Fouracre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pg. 265.</ref>

[[File:All Roman coins 1997 - 2010 (2).jpg|thumb|200px|Roman coins findings clearly indicate the areas of greatest "Romanization" and presence in Roman Britain.]]

Although radiocarbon dating can provide a rough estimate, this is not accurate enough to associate archaeological finds with historical events. [[Dendrochronology]] depends on the presence of suitable pieces of wood. Coins are often the most useful tool for dating, but no newly minted coins are believed to have entered circulation in Britain after the very early 5th century.<ref>A. S. Esmonde Cleary, ''The Ending of Roman Britain'', (London: Batsford, 1989), pp.138–139</ref>

==End of Roman rule==

The proximate cause of the end of Roman rule in Britannia appears to have been a power struggle between aristocrats and [[Stilicho]], a Roman general and strongman of the Roman Empire.<ref>Bury, J. B., A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. I (1889)</ref> In order to protect Italy from invasions by the Visigoths, Stilicho had seriously depleted the Roman forces defending the ''[[Limes Germanicus]]''. In the summer of 406 there was a rebellion of [[Legionary|''legionarii'']] in Britain<ref>Birley, Anthony R., The Roman Government of Britain, Oxford University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-19-925237-8}}</ref> that resulted in the acclamation of several usurpers in quick succession as ''[[imperator]]'',<ref>Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin, John Robert Martindale, John Morris, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, volume 2, Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-20159-4}}</ref> a declaration of rebellion against the ruling emperor. The last of these, [[Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)|Constantine III]], crossed the [[English Channel]] at [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Bononia]] and took with him all of the mobile troops left in Britain, thus denuding the province of any first-line military protection.{{sfn|Elton|1999|p=}} The Roman forces in Gaul declared for him, followed by most of those in [[Hispania]]. On 31 December 406 the [[Vandals]], [[Burgundians]], [[Alans]] and [[Suebi|Sueves]] [[Crossing of the Rhine|crossed the Rhine]] and overran the ''Limes Germanicus''. Meanwhile, there were barbarian raids on Britain in 408, but these seem to have been defeated. After 410 Honorius apparently sent letters to the cities of Britain telling them to fend for themselves, though this is sometimes disputed.<ref>Birley, Anthony Richard ''The Roman Government of Britain'' OUP Oxford (29 September 2005); {{ISBN|978-0-19-925237-4}}, pp. 461–463</ref><ref>
Halsall, Guy ''Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West'', pp. 376–568 Cambridge University Press; illustrated edition (20 December 2007); {{ISBN|978-0-521-43491-1}}, pp. 217–218
</ref><ref>Discussion in Martin Millett, ''The Romanization of Britain'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and in Philip Bartholomew 'Fifth-Century Facts' ''Britannia'' vol. 13, 1982, p. 260</ref>

From the middle of the 5th century the Germanic raiders began to settle in the eastern river valleys.<ref>H.R. Loyn, ''Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquest'', 2nd ed. 1991, p. 3.</ref> Later civil wars seem to have broken out, which have been interpreted either as being between pro-Roman and independence groups or between "Established Church" and [[Pelagian]] parties,<ref>Myres 1965</ref><ref>Morris 1965</ref> a class struggle between peasants and land owners,<ref>Thompson 1977</ref><ref>Wood 1984</ref> or a coup by an urban elite.<ref>Snyder 1988</ref> A recent view sees Britain fragmenting into kingdoms based on British tribal identities.<ref>Laycock, ''Britannia the Failed State'', 2008</ref> Life seems to have continued much as before in the countryside and on a reduced scale in the towns as evidenced by the descriptions of [[Germanus of Auxerre|Germanus]]' visits. It appears that while Roman cities and towns decreased in size, they retained administrative and symbolic importance for new polities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fafinski |first=Mateusz |title=Roman infrastructure in early medieval Britain: the adaptations of the past in text and stone |date=2021 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-485-5197-2 |series=Early medieval North Atlantic |location=Amsterdam |pages=83–119}}</ref>

Gildas says that a "council" was convened by [[Vortigern]] to find ways of countering the barbarian threat. The council opted to hire Saxon mercenaries, following Roman practice. After a while these turned against the British and plundered the towns. British leader [[Ambrosius Aurelianus]] fought against them in a number of battles apparently over a long period. Towards the end of this period was the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus]] around 490, which later sources claim was won by [[King Arthur]], though Gildas does not identify him. After this there was a long period of peace. The British seem to have been in control of England and Wales roughly west of a line from [[York]] to [[Bournemouth]]. The Saxons had control of eastern areas in an arc from [[East Yorkshire]] through [[Lincolnshire]] and perhaps [[Nottinghamshire]], to [[East Anglia]] and [[South East England]].

Writing in Latin, perhaps about 540, Gildas gives an account of the history of Britain, but the earlier part (for which other sources are available) is severely muddled. He castigates five rulers in western Britain&nbsp;– Constantine of [[Dumnonia]], Aurelius Caninus, Vortipor of the [[Kingdom of Dyfed|Demetae]], Cuneglasus and Maglocunus ([[Mailcun]] or in later spelling [[Maelgwn Gwynedd|Maelgwn]] of [[Gwynedd]]) &nbsp;– for their sins. He also attacks the British clergy. He gives information on the British diet, dress and entertainment. He writes that Britons were killed, emigrated or enslaved but gives no numbers.

In the late 6th century there was another period of Saxon expansion, starting with the capture of [[Old Sarum|Searoburh]] in 552 by the dynasty that later ruled [[Wessex]], and including entry into the [[Cotswolds]] area after the [[Battle of Deorham]] (577), though the accuracy of the entries in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' for this period has been questioned. These conquests are often said by modern writers, on no clear evidence, to have separated the Britons of [[South West England]] (known later as the West Welsh) from those of Wales. (Just after the period being discussed, the [[Battle of Chester]] in 611 might have separated the latter from those of the north of England.) Until the 570s, Britons were still in control of about half of England and Wales.

==Kingdoms==
[[File:Britain.circa.540.jpg|thumb|341px|alt=|Britain {{circa|540}}, in the time of [[Gildas]]]]
Various Celtic kingdoms existed at some point in the period. Some changed their names and some were absorbed by others. Not all of their names, especially in the southeast, are known, nor are the details of their political development; some authority structures left from the Roman period may have continued in charge of some areas for some time. At times some of the kingdoms were united by a ruler who was an overlord, while wars occurred between others. During the period the boundaries are likely to have changed. The major ones were:
* [[Bernicia|Bryneich]]&nbsp;– [[Northumberland]]; eventually taken by the Angles of [[Bernicia]]
* [[Dumnonia]]&nbsp;– south west England, [[Cornwall]] and much of [[Devon]]
* [[Kingdom of Dyfed|Dyfed]]&nbsp;– south west Wales
* [[Ergyng]]&nbsp;– south west [[Herefordshire]], northern [[Monmouthshire]] and the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire
* [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]], [[Brycheiniog]] and [[Glywysing]]&nbsp;– south Wales
* [[Kingdom of Powys|Powys]]&nbsp;– mid Wales
* [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwynedd]]&nbsp;– north Wales
* [[Elmet]]&nbsp;– south west Yorkshire
* [[Rheged]]&nbsp;– Cumbria and Lancashire
* [[Ebrauc]]&nbsp;– around York and northern Yorkshire
* [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]]&nbsp;– ({{circa|900}}&nbsp;– {{circa|1100}}) in south west Scotland, Cumberland, Westmorland
* [[Gododdin]]&nbsp;– centred on [[Traprain Law]] in [[Lothian]]

Some areas fell under the domination of Anglian or Saxon chieftains, later kingdoms:
* [[Bernicia]]&nbsp;– the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia before joining with Deira to become Northumbria
* [[Deira]]&nbsp;– the Anglian kingdom of Deira before joining with Bernicia to become Northumbria (East Yorkshire)
* [[Kingdom of Lindsey|Lindsey]] – the Anglian kingdom of Lindsey before joined with Northumbria and Mercia
* [[Kingdom of the East Angles|East Anglia]]&nbsp;– including Suffolk and Norfolk
* [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]]
* [[Hwicce]]&nbsp;– most of Gloucestershire except the [[Forest of Dean]] and western [[Oxfordshire]].
* [[Kingdom of Sussex|Sussex]]&nbsp;– including the settlement of [[Haestingas]], containing people of possibly Jutish origin
* [[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]]&nbsp;– including [[Middle Saxons|Middlesex]] and Surrey
* [[Wessex]]&nbsp;– formed from areas in the upper [[Thames Valley]] and later incorporating an area of Jutish settlement in the Meon Valley and around Southampton (including the Isle of Wight)
* [[Mercia]]&nbsp;– centred on [[Repton]]
* [[Middle Anglia]]&nbsp;– east Midlands, later joined with Mercia
* [[Northumbria]]&nbsp;– formed from Bernicia and Deira
* [[Wihtwara]]

== Religion ==
Officially the Roman Empire was Christian at the start of the 5th century, but there is evidence of rural pagan temples being refurbished at the start of this period in western England. However, most temples seem to have been replaced eventually by Christian churches on the same site or nearby. [[Celtic Christianity|"Celtic" churches]] or monasteries seem to have flourished during this period in the British areas, such as that at [[Glastonbury]], though mostly not until the 6th century; but the Saxons were pagan. This reinforced a great antipathy between the peoples. Many Roman cemeteries continued into much later times, such as that at [[Cannington, Somerset]]. In the east, there was a gradual transition among the pagan Saxons from cremation to [[inhumation]]. Although the arrival of Saint Augustine is traditionally seen as the significant Christianising event for the Saxons, a bishop had already arrived in Kent with the king's [[Merovingian]] wife. Other Saxons remained pagan after this time.

In 429 British Deacon [[Palladius (bishop of Ireland)|Palladius]] had requested support from the pope in Rome to combat [[Pelagianism]]. Bishops [[Germanus of Auxerre|Germanus]] and [[Lupus of Troyes]] were sent. Germanus, a former military commander, is reported to have led the British to the "Hallelujah" victory, possibly in Wales or Herefordshire. Germanus is said<ref name="Thompson">Thompson, E. A. (1984) ''Saint Germanus of Auxerre and the End of Roman Britain''. Woodbridge: Boydell</ref><ref name="Wood">Wood, I. N. (1984) "The End of Roman Britain: Continental evidence and parallels", in M. Lapidge & D. Dumville (eds.) ''Gildas: New Approaches''. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell; pp.&nbsp;1 – 25.</ref> to have made a second visit to England later. Participation by a British bishop at a synod in Gaul demonstrates that at least some British churches were in full administrative and doctrinal touch with Gaul as late as 455.<ref>[[H. R. Loyn]], ''Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquest'', 2nd ed. 1991:3.</ref>

In the north, [[Whithorn]] is said to be the earliest church in Scotland, being founded in 397 by Saint [[Ninian]].<ref name=Williams>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannia.com/history/nararthist.html|title=Williams, Peter N., "Arthurian Britain", Narrative History of Britain|website=britannia.com|access-date=3 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606221649/http://www.britannia.com/history/nararthist.html|archive-date=6 June 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Ceretic Guletic|Coroticus (or Ceretic)]] was an apostate Pict king who was the recipient of the letter from Saint Patrick. His base may have been Dumbarton Rock on the River Clyde, and his descendant [[Rhydderch Hael]] is named in the ''Life of Saint Columba''. Rhydderch was a contemporary of [[Áedán mac Gabráin]] of [[Dal Riata]] and [[Urien]] of [[Rheged]] in the late 6th century, as well as of [[Æthelfrith]] of Bernicia. Unlike Columba, [[Saint Mungo|Kentigern]], the supposed apostle to the Britons of the Clyde and alleged founder of [[Glasgow]], is a shadowy figure.

==Anglo-Saxon migration==
[[File:Sutton Hoo helmet 2016.png|thumb|150px|The famous [[Sutton Hoo helmet]], 7th century|alt=]]{{Main|Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain}}

===Linguistic evidence===
{{main|Celtic language decline in England}}
Linguistics is useful in the analysis of culture and to an extent political associations. Bede in ''Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum'' (completed in 731) wrote that "currently, [there are in Britain] the languages of five peoples, namely that of the Angles ([[Old English|English]]), the Britons ([[Common Brittonic|Brittonic]]), the Scots ([[Old Gaelic|Gaelic]]), the [[Pictish language|Picts]] and the [[Medieval Latin|Latins]]" (''HE'' 1.1).<ref>''in praesenti ... quinque gentium linguis, ... Anglorum uidelicet, Brettonum, Scottorum, Pictorum et Latinorum''</ref> A review of the changes in the [[British language (Celtic)|Brythonic language]] during this period is given by [[Kenneth H. Jackson]].<ref>See Kenneth Jackson, ''Language and History in Early Britain: A Chronological Survey of the Brittonic Languages'', (Edinburgh, 1953) for a traditional introduction</ref> Studies of [[Old English]], [[Brythonic languages|P-]] and [[Goidelic languages|Q-Celtic]], and Latin have provided evidence for contact among the Britons, the Gaels, and the Anglo-Saxons. The consensus is that Old English has little evidence of linguistic contact. Some scholars have suggested that there is more evidence in the grammar than in the [[lexicon]], though this is challenged by many.<ref name=roberts>{{cite book
  | last = Roberts
  | first = Ian G.
  | title = Verbs and diachronic syntax: a comparative history of English and French Volume 28 of Studies in natural language and linguistic theory Volume 28 of NATO Asi Series. Series C, Mathematical and Physical Science}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.grsampson.net/QBirthOfEng.html|title=Geoffrey Sampson: Birth of English|website=grsampson.net|access-date=8 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122151425/https://www.grsampson.net/QBirthOfEng.html|archive-date=22 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=ecec>{{cite book
  | last = Hickey
  | first = Raymond
  | title = 'Early Contact And Parallels Between English and Celtic.' in 'Vienna English Working Papers'}}
</ref><ref name=Gelderen>{{cite book
  | last = van Gelderen
  | first = Elly
  | title = A History of the English Language}}
</ref> Latin continued to be used for writing but the extent of its use for speech has been much disputed.

Similarly, studies of place names give clues about the linguistic history of an area. England (except [[Cornwall]] and [[Cumbria]]) shows patchy evidence now of [[Celts|Celtic]] in its place names. There are scattered Celtic place names throughout, increasing towards the west. There are also Celtic river names and topographical names. An explanation of the toponymic and linguistic evidence is that Anglo-Saxon language and culture became dominant due to their political and social preeminence in the south and east of Britain. Names with a Latin element may suggest continuity of settlement, while some places are named for pagan Germanic deities. Names of British origin may or may not indicate survival of a British population. Names based on the Anglo-Saxon word for the British, ''wealh'', are also taken as indicating British survival. An example is Walton, meaning settlement of the British<ref name=Hamerow>Hamerow, H. 1993 ''Excavations at Mucking, Volume 2: The Anglo-Saxon Settlement'' (English Heritage Archaeological Report 21)</ref> and this name is found in many parts of England, though it sometimes means ''Wall-town''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.angelfire.com/in2/horton/|title=Horton Genealogy|website=[[Angelfire]]|access-date=18 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310232454/http://www.angelfire.com/in2/horton/|archive-date=10 March 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>

Surviving inscriptions on stones provide another source of information on the settlements of Britons and the Anglo-Saxons. Celtic inscribed stones from this period occur in western England, Wales and southern Scotland. Inscriptions in parts of Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall, are in [[ogham]], some containing forms which scholars have not been able to understand.

===Extent of the migrations===
Two contrasting models of the end of sub-Roman Britain have been described by [[Richard Reece]] as "decline and immigration" and "invasion and displacement".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Reece | year = 1989 | title = Models of continuity| journal = Oxford Journal of Archaeology  | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 231–36 [234] | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0092.1989.tb00203.x}}</ref> It has long been held that the Anglo-Saxons migrated to Britain in large numbers in the 5th and 6th centuries, substantially displacing the British people. The Anglo-Saxon historian [[Frank Stenton]] in 1943, although making considerable allowance for British survival, essentially sums up this view, arguing "that the greater part of southern England was overrun in the first phase of the war".<ref>F.M. Stenton, ''The Anglo-Saxons'', 3rd edition, (Oxford: University Press, 1973), p.30</ref> This interpretation was based on the written sources, particularly [[Gildas]] but also the later sources such as the Anglo-Saxon historian [[Bede]], that cast the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons as a violent event. The toponymic and linguistic evidence was also considered to support this interpretation, as very few British place names survived in eastern Britain, very few [[British language (Celtic)|British Celtic]] words entered the [[Old English]] language and the [[British language (Celtic)|Brythonic language]] and peoples migrated from south-western Britain to [[Armorica]], which eventually became [[Brittany]]. This interpretation particularly appealed to earlier English historians, who wanted to further their view that England had developed differently from mainland Europe, with a limited monarchy and love of liberty. This, it was argued, came from the mass Anglo-Saxon invasions. While this view was never universal&nbsp;– [[Edward Gibbon]] believed that there had been a great deal of British survival&nbsp;– it was the dominant paradigm. Though many scholars would now employ this argument,{{Clarify|date=July 2018}} the traditional view is still held by many other historians, [[Lawrence James]] writing in 2002 that England was "submerged by an Anglo-Saxon current which swept away the Romano-British."<ref>Lawrence James, ''Warrior Race'', (London: Abacus. 2002), p.30</ref>

The traditional view has been partly deconstructed (considerably in some circles) since the 1990s, with a reduction in the numbers of Anglo-Saxons believed to have arrived in Britain. A lower figure is sometimes accepted, which would mean that it is highly unlikely that the existing British population was substantially displaced by the Anglo-Saxons.<ref>Michael Jones, ''The End of Roman Britain'', pp.8–38.</ref> If fewer Anglo-Saxons arrived, it is proposed that they formed a ruling elite, with acculturation of the local population. Thus some "Saxon" graves may be of Britons, though many scholars disagree.<ref name=pmid17002951>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Mark G |last2=Stumpf |first2=Michael P.H |last3=Härke |first3=Heinrich |title=Evidence for an apartheid-like social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=22 October 2006 |volume=273 |issue=1601 |pages=2651–2657 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2006.3627 |pmid=17002951 |pmc=1635457 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vortigernstudies.org.uk/artgue/guestcapps.htm|title=The Anglo-Saxon Settlement of England by David Capps|website=vortigernstudies.org.uk|access-date=27 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091018120033/http://www.vortigernstudies.org.uk/artgue/guestcapps.htm|archive-date=18 October 2009|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/history/Anglo-Saxon/Anglo-SaxonInvasion.html |title=The 5th Century Anglo-Saxon Invasion of England |access-date=2009-08-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227035640/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/history/Anglo-Saxon/Anglo-SaxonInvasion.html |archive-date=27 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dur.ac.uk/anthropology.journal/vol13/iss1/russell/russell.html |title=The Anglo-Saxon Influence on Romano-Britain: Research past and present |access-date=27 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618124633/http://www.dur.ac.uk/anthropology.journal/vol13/iss1/russell/russell.html |archive-date=18 June 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Andrew Tyrrell, ''Corpus Saxon'' in ''Social Identity in Early Medieval Britain'' by Andrew Tyrrell and William O. Frazer (London: Leicester University Press. 2000)</ref>

Two genetic studies published in 2016, using data from ancient burials found in Cambridgeshire, Yorkshire and Durham, found that the ancestry of the modern-day English population contained substantial contributions from the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic peoples.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon genomes from East England reveal British migration history|year=2016|doi=10.1038/ncomms10408|last1=Schiffels|first1=Stephan|last2=Haak|first2=Wolfgang|last3=Paajanen|first3=Pirita|last4=Llamas|first4=Bastien|last5=Popescu|first5=Elizabeth|last6=Loe|first6=Louise|last7=Clarke|first7=Rachel|last8=Lyons|first8=Alice|last9=Mortimer|first9=Richard|last10=Sayer|first10=Duncan|last11=Tyler-Smith|first11=Chris|last12=Cooper|first12=Alan|last13=Durbin|first13=Richard|journal=Nature Communications|volume=7|page=10408|pmid=26783965|pmc=4735688|bibcode=2016NatCo...710408S}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martiniano |first1=Rui |last2=Caffell |first2=Anwen |last3=Holst |first3=Malin |author-link3=Malin Holst |last4=Hunter-Mann |first4=Kurt |last5=Montgomery |first5=Janet |last6=Müldner |first6=Gundula |last7=McLaughlin |first7=Russell L. |last8=Teasdale |first8=Matthew D. |last9=Van Rheenen |first9=Wouter |last10=Veldink |first10=Jan H. |last11=Van Den Berg |first11=Leonard H. |last12=Hardiman |first12=Orla |last13=Carroll |first13=Maureen |last14=Roskams |first14=Steve |last15=Oxley |first15=John |year=2016 |title=Genomic signals of migration and continuity in Britain before the Anglo-Saxons |journal=Nature Communications |volume=7 |page=10326 |bibcode=2016NatCo...710326M |doi=10.1038/ncomms10326 |pmc=4735653 |pmid=26783717 |last16=Morgan |first16=Colleen |last17=Thomas |first17=Mark G. |last18=Barnes |first18=Ian |last19=McDonnell |first19=Christine |last20=Collins |first20=Matthew J. |last21=Bradley |first21=Daniel G.}}</ref>

==End of Roman Britain==
{{Main|End of Roman rule in Britain}}
Various dates have been proposed to mark the end of [[Roman Britain]], including the end of [[Roman currency]] coinage importation in 402, [[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine III]]'s rebellion in 407, the rebellion mentioned by [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] in 409, and the Rescript of [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] in 410.<ref>See for instance E.A. Thompson, 'Britain, AD 406–410', ''Britannia'' 8, (1977), pp.303-18 and P. Bartholomew, 'Fifth-Century Facts', ''Britannia'' 13, (1982), pp.261–270</ref> Unlike modern [[decolonisation]], the dating of the end of Roman Britain is complex, and the exact process is unknown.

There is some controversy as to why Roman rule ended in Britain. The view first advocated by [[Theodor Mommsen]] was that Rome left Britain.<ref>See discussion in Michael Jones, ''The End of Roman Britain'', (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996), pp.256–257</ref> This argument was substantiated over time, most recently by A.S. Esmonde-Cleary.<ref>Esmonde-Cleary, ''The Ending of Roman Britain'', p.161</ref> According to this argument, internal turmoil in the [[Roman Empire]] and the need to withdraw troops to fight off barbarian armies led Rome to abandon Britain. It was the collapse of the imperial system that led to the end of imperial rule in Britain. However, [[Michael Jones (historian)|Michael Jones]] has advanced an alternative thesis that argues that Rome did not leave Britain, but that Britain left Rome.<ref>Michael Jones, ''The End of Roman Britain'', esp. chapters 4 and 7</ref> He highlights the numerous [[usurper]]s who came from Britain in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, and points out that the supply of coinage to Britain had dried up by the early 5th century, so that administrators and troops were not getting paid. All of this, he argues, led the British people to rebel against Rome. These arguments are open to criticism, and the question is still open.

It was a violent period, and there was probably widespread tension, alluded to in all the written sources. This may have led to the deaths of many Britons. There are also references to plagues. Laycock (''Britannia the Failed State'', 2008) suggests tribal conflict, possibly even starting before 410, may have sliced up much of Britain and helped destroy the economy. The evidence from land use suggests a decline in production, which might be a sign of population decline.<ref>Davey, ''The Environs of [[South Cadbury]]'', p50</ref>

It is clear that some British people migrated to elsewhere in Europe, and [[Armorica]] in northwest [[Gaul]] became known as [[Brittany]]. There is also evidence of British migration to [[Gallaecia]], in [[Hispania]]. The dates of these migrations are uncertain, but recent studies suggest that the migration from south western Britain to Brittany may have begun as early as 300 and had largely ended by 500. These settlers, unlikely to be refugees if the date was this early, made their presence felt in the naming of the westernmost, [[Atlantic]]-facing provinces of Armorica, Kerne/Cornouaille ("Kernow/[[Cornwall]]") and Domnonea ("[[Devon]]").<ref>Gwenaël le Duc, "The Colonisation of Brittany from Britain: New Approaches and Questions" in ''Celtic Connections: Proceedings of the Tenth International Congress of Celtic Studies. Volume One''. ed. Black, Gillies and Ó Maolaigh, (East Linton: Tuckwell Press, 1999), {{ISBN|1-898410-77-1}}</ref> However, there is clear linguistic evidence for close contact between the south west of Britain and Brittany across the sub-Roman period.<ref>Wendy Davies, "The Celtic Kingdoms" in ''The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume I, c.500-c.700''. ed. Paul Fouracre, (Cambridge: [[Cambridge University]] Press, 2005), pp255–61</ref>

In [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], in the north west corner of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], another region of traditional [[Celts|Celtic]] culture, the [[Suebian]] ''Parochiale'', drawn up about 580, includes a list of the principal churches of each diocese in the metropolitanate of [[Braga]]: the ''ecclesia Britonensis'', now [[Bretoña]] (north of [[Province of Lugo|Lugo]]), which was the seat of a bishop who ministered to the spiritual needs of the British immigrants to northwestern Spain: in 572 the bishop, Mailoc, had a Celtic name.<ref>Fletcher, ''Saint James's Catapult'', ch. 1, note 61.</ref> The settlers had brought their [[Celtic Christianity]] with them but finally accepted the [[Latin Church]]'s jurisdiction at the [[Fourth Council of Toledo]] in 633. The diocese stretched from [[Ferrol, A Coruña|Ferrol]] to the [[Eo River]]. In Spain, the area has sometimes been dubbed "the third Britain" or "the last Britain".<ref>[http://www.lavozdegalicia.es/monograficos/dumio/noticia.jsp?TEXTO=100000112193 "San Rosendo, bispo dunha Igrexa direfente nunha Galicia distinta"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012132623/http://www.lavozdegalicia.es/monograficos/dumio/noticia.jsp?TEXTO=100000112193 |date=12 October 2007 }} {{in lang|gl}}, ''La Voz de [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]''</ref>

Non-Anglo-Saxon kingdoms began appearing in western Britain, and are first referred to in Gildas' ''De Excidio''. To an extent these kingdoms may have derived from Roman structures.<ref>Ken Dark, ''Britain and the End of the Roman Empire'', pp.150–192</ref> But it is also clear that they drew on a strong influence from [[Hibernia]], which was never part of the Roman Empire. Archaeology has helped further the study of these kingdoms, notably at sites like [[Tintagel]] or the [[hillfort]] at [[South Cadbury]].

In the north there developed the British kingdoms of the [[Hen Ogledd]], the "Old North", comprising [[Ebrauc]] (probable name), [[Bernicia|Bryneich]], [[Rheged]], [[Strathclyde]], [[Elmet]] and [[Gododdin]]. 5th- and 6th-century repairs along [[Hadrian's Wall]] have been uncovered, and at [[Whithorn]] in south western [[Scotland]] (possibly the site of [[Ninian]]'s monastery). Chance discoveries have helped document the continuing urban occupation of some Roman towns such as [[Wroxeter]] and [[Caerwent]].<ref>Roger White and Philip Barker, ''Wroxeter: Life and Death of a Roman City'', (Stroud: Tempus, 1998)</ref><ref>[https://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?t=arch-435-1/dissemination/pdf/PDF_REPORTS_TEXT/SHROPSHIRE/WROXETER_REPORT.pdf "Archaeological assessment of Wroxeter, Shropshire" by Roger White and Hal Dalwood]</ref> Continued urban use might be associated with an [[Christianity|ecclesiastical]] structure.

Western Britain has attracted those archaeologists who wish to place [[King Arthur]] as a historical figure.<ref>Leslie Alcock, ''Arthur's Britain: History and Archaeology AD 367–634'', (Harmondsworth: Allen Lane, 1971), {{ISBN|0-7139-0245-0}}; Francis Pryor, ''Britain AD: A Quest for Arthur, England and the Anglo-Saxons.'' (Harper Collins, 2004), {{ISBN|0-00-718186-8}}</ref> Though there is little contemporary written evidence for this, archaeological evidence does suggest that a [[Romano-British]] king might have wielded considerable power during the sub-Roman period, as demonstrated by the creation of sites such as [[Tintagel]] and earthworks such as the [[Wansdyke (earthwork)|Wansdyke]]. Such interpretations continue to attract the popular imagination and the scepticism of academics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Halsall |first=Guy |title=Worlds of Arthur: facts & fictions of the dark ages |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-870084-5 |edition=First published in paperback |location=Oxford}}</ref>

While pushed back politically and linguistically, British scholars and ecclesiastics had a significant impact on the Anglo-Saxon newcomers through literacy, ecclesiastical social constructs and historical memory of the Roman period in Britain, particularly after the Christianizing of the Anglo-Saxons. Coming from a fully oral cultural background, the Anglo-Saxons were heavily influenced by the more developed Christianized and literate culture of the Britons. British scholars were often employed at Anglo-Saxon courts to assist in the management of the kingdoms. This reintroduced [[Celtic Britons|British culture]] to those parts of Britain lost to the British politically. The epitome of this process is the adoption of the legendary British war leader, [[King Arthur]], as the national hero of the English, due to the literary work of Welsh historians.

==Environmental change effects==
There is evidence for [[Climate change (general concept)|climate change]] in the 5th century, with conditions turning cooler and wetter. This shortened the growing season and made uplands unsuited to growing [[grain]]. [[Dendrochronology]] reveals a particular [[Climate changes of 535–536|climatic event in 540]].<ref>Davey, 'The Environs of South Cadbury', p.50</ref> Michael Jones suggests that declining agricultural production from land that was already fully exploited had considerable demographic consequences.<ref>Jones, ''The End of Roman Britain'', pp.186–243</ref>

==Population fluctuation==

===Theories for reduction===

====Background====
Slaves were important in the economy and the army in the Roman Empire. Estimates for the prevalence of slavery in the Roman Empire vary: some estimate that around 30% of the population of the Empire in the 1st century was enslaved.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=3 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080301174556/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|archive-date=1 March 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> A more recent study suggests 10–15% even for the early empire "as any greater estimate would require implausible levels of transformation in a pre-modern context."<ref name="Harper">{{cite book|title= Slavery in the Later Roman World, CE 275–450 |first= Kyle |last= Harper |date= 2011}}</ref>{{rp|59–60}} The difference the lower percentage {{Clarify|date=July 2018}} in the Later Roman Empire can be attributed to fewer slaves in sub-elite households and agricultural estates<ref name="Harper" />{{rp|66}} (replaced by a great expansion in various types of tenancy).<ref name="Harper" />{{rp|64}} The Germanic region was one of the main sources of slaves. It was mainly wholesale dealers, who followed the Roman armies, who sold slaves. After the Empire expanded, there were fewer places to obtain slaves. Around 210, [[piracy]] increased around the North Sea and boosted the supply, taken from villages in that area, along with those captured for ransom.

Britain was not easily defensible. It did not pay completely the costs of occupation. Nevertheless, the Romans were forced to keep three or four legions, 30,000 to 40,000 men with auxiliary units in place to defend it. They managed fairly well until the collapse of Roman authority after the garrison was reduced in size by [[Magnus Maximus]] in 388 and [[Stilicho]] in 401. It seems that after 350 the Roman government was having more difficulty in recruiting soldiers.

In an effort to remedy the situation it resorted to payment instead of provision of recruit, the ''aurum tironicum''. Landowners could pay a set fee to prevent any of their tenants from being pressed into the army (slaves were rarely resorted to even at critical moments in exchange for their freedom).<ref>A. H. M. Jones, LRE. pp. 184, 363, 64</ref> Not enough men wanted to enter military service. The gold from the tax led to a greater use of Germanic or other tribal groups who did not need to be expensively equipped, housed, and paid pensions, as the tax was used to recruit mercenaries as ''[[foederati]]'', but it also drained the treasury. Previously foreigners were put into units, the ''[[auxilia]]'', officered by Romans. [[Roman army]] units, the smaller Later [[Roman legionary|Roman legions]], continued to exist but gradually disappeared in the 5th century leaving defence of the Empire to hirelings.

After the [[Battle of Adrianople]], the [[Goths|Gothic]] ''foederati'', by the Treaty of 382, were allowed to remain with the Empire intact, which reversed the centuries-old Roman policy of destroying barbarian enemies by killing them all, selling them or incorporating them into the Roman army by scattering them across units. The ''hospitalitas'' system granted a third of the land (or fees) of a region to barbarians who had invaded and occupied those lands assigned to them. In return, these people declared loyalty to the Emperor and provided military support, whilst retaining their independence. If the theory is correct, Germanic peoples may have been resident in Britain before and after these reforms. One thing led to another to create a spiral.

The policy of substituting mercenaries who were paid in gold which should have gone to support the professional standing army and accommodation to their presence spelled the doom of the Western Empire. The ''federates,'' operating from within the boundaries of the Empire, eventually became the new landlords, as there was no professional Roman army to subdue them.

Ancient authors bitterly comment on this series of policy mistakes. The East which relied far less on mercenaries escaped Britain's fate. The Britons in the decades after 410 repeated the mistakes the emperors had done with the [[Visigoths]], [[Burgundians]], [[Suebi|Sueves]], [[Vandals]], and [[Franks]] – they invited mercenaries to protect them, then those same mercenaries subsequently took control over Britain.

====Plague of Justinian====
{{Main|Plague of Justinian}}
The population of Britain may have decreased by between 1.5 and 3 million after the Roman period, perhaps caused by environmental changes (the [[Late Antique Little Ice Age]]) and, subsequently, by [[Plague (disease)|plague]] and [[smallpox]] (around 600, the smallpox spread from India into Europe).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Riedel |first1=Stefan |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |journal=Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings |date=January 2005 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=21–5 |pmid=16200144 |pmc=1200696 |doi=10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028 }}</ref> It is known that the [[Plague of Justinian]] entered the [[Mediterranean]] world in the 6th century and first arrived in the British Isles in 544 or 545, when it reached Ireland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2279/is_n156/ai_20059971/pg_2|title=6th–10th century AD|via=FindArticles|access-date=30 December 2007|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120527081520/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2279/is_n156/ai_20059971/pg_2|archive-date=27 May 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> The later medieval Welsh [[Lludd and Llefelys]] mentions a series of three plagues affecting the British of London.

====Anglo-Saxon settlement====
According to research led by [[University College London]], Anglo-Saxon settlers could have enjoyed a substantial social and economic advantage over the native Celtic Britons<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/2076470.stm|title=English and Welsh are races apart|date=30 June 2002|publisher=BBC News|access-date=30 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228201155/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/2076470.stm|archive-date=28 December 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> who lived in what is now England, for more than 300 years from the middle of the 5th century.<ref name=pmid17002951/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/07/060721-england.html|title=Ancient Britain Had Apartheid-Like Society, Study Suggests|website=nationalgeographic.com|access-date=30 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209001511/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/07/060721-england.html|archive-date=9 December 2007|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9575-apartheid-slashed-celtic-genes-in-early-england/|title='Apartheid' slashed Celtic genes in early England|first=Gaia|last=Vince|website=New Scientist|access-date=8 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122143122/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9575-apartheid-slashed-celtic-genes-in-early-england/|archive-date=22 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> However, this scenario, assuming that the Anglo-Saxons were just Germanic [[Ingaevones]], has been questioned.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml?xml=/earth/2008/04/23/sciinvade123.xml|title=Germanic invaders 'did not bring apartheid' to Anglo-Saxon Britain|date=30 March 2016|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London
}}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13752-germanic-invaders-may-not-have-ruled-by-apartheid/|title=Germanic invaders may not have ruled by apartheid|first=Emma|last=Young|website=New Scientist|access-date=8 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122143633/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13752-germanic-invaders-may-not-have-ruled-by-apartheid/|archive-date=22 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pattison |first1=John E |title=Is it necessary to assume an apartheid-like social structure in Early Anglo-Saxon England? |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=7 November 2008 |volume=275 |issue=1650 |pages=2423–2429 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2008.0352 |pmid=18430641 |pmc=2603190 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pattison |first1=John E. |title=Integration Versus Apartheid in Post-Roman Britain: A Response to Thomas et al. (2008) |journal=Human Biology |date=December 2011 |volume=83 |issue=6 |pages=715–733 |doi=10.3378/027.083.0604 |pmid=22276970 |s2cid=11856539 |url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=humbiol_preprints |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

====Minor migrations theories====
The traditional view about the numbers of Anglo-Saxons arriving in Britain during this period has been deconstructed. Incoming people uniting with the existing population could explain why the island conquest was as slow and incomplete as it was, and why the island was exposed to external attacks by [[Danelaw|Danish pirates]] and [[Normans]], as well as other issues about the population composition.

===Stephen Oppenheimer's theory===
[[Stephen Oppenheimer]], basing his research on the Weale and Capelli studies, maintains that none of the invasions since the Romans have had a significant impact on the gene pool of the British Isles, and that the inhabitants from prehistoric times belong to an [[Iberians|Iberian]] genetic grouping. He says that most people in the British Isles are genetically similar to the [[Basque people]] of northern [[Spain]] and southwestern [[France]], from 90% in [[Wales]] to 66% in [[East Anglia]]. Oppenheimer suggests that the division between the West and the East of England is not due to the Anglo-Saxon invasion but originates with two main routes of genetic flow&nbsp;– one up the Atlantic coast, the other from neighbouring areas of Continental Europe&nbsp;– which occurred just after the [[Last Glacial Maximum]]. He reports work on linguistics by Forster and Toth which suggests that [[Indo-European languages]] began to fragment some 10,000 years ago, at the end of the last Ice Age. He claims that the [[Celtic languages]] split from the Indo-European earlier than previously suspected, some 6000 years ago. He claims that the English language split from the other [[Germanic languages]] before the Roman period, and became the English that was spoken by the [[Belgae]] tribes of what is now southern and eastern [[England]], northeastern France, and [[Belgium]] prior to their conquest by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and long before the arrival of the Anglo-Saxon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/blog/?p=516|title=Origins of the British|last=Simon|date=17 October 2007|website=Omniglot blog|access-date=15 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411223549/http://www.omniglot.com/blog/?p=516|archive-date=11 April 2010|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Oppenheimer, S. (2006). The Origins of the British: A Genetic Detective Story: Constable and Robinson, London. {{ISBN|978-1-84529-158-7}}.</ref> [[Bryan Sykes]] came to fairly similar conclusions as Oppenheimer in his research, which he set forth in his 2006 published book ''Blood of the Isles: Exploring the Genetic Roots of our Tribal History'', published in the United States and Canada as ''Saxons, Vikings and Celts: The Genetic Roots of Britain and Ireland''. In its summary of their article "Who were the Celts?", the [[National Museum Cardiff|National Museum of Wales]] note, "It is possible that future genetic studies of ancient and modern human DNA may help to inform our understanding of the subject. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics and archaeology."<ref name="Amgueddfa 1">{{cite web|title=Who were the Celts? ... Rhagor |url=http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1939/ |access-date=14 October 2009 |publisher=[[National Museum Cardiff|Amgueddfa Cymru&nbsp;– National Museum Wales]] |date=4 May 2007 |work=Amgueddfa Cymru&nbsp;– National Museum Wales website |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917180311/http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1939/ |archive-date=17 September 2009 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[List of legendary kings of Britain|Mythical British kings]]
* [[Groans of the Britons]]
* [[Celtic Christianity]]
* [[King of the Britons|Historical Kings of the Britons]]
* [[Vortigern]]
* [[King Arthur]]
* [[Historicity of King Arthur]]
* [[Matter of Britain]]
* [[Anglo-Saxons]]
* [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain]]
* [[History of the Anglo-Saxons]]
* [[List of Anglo-Welsh wars]]
* [[Wansdyke (earthwork)|Wansdyke]]
* [[England in the Middle Ages]]
* [[Heptarchy]]
* [[Ancient Britain]]
* [[Roman Britain]]
* [[Romano-British]]
* [[History of the British Isles]]
* [[History of Wales]]
* [[History of British society]]
* [[History of England]]
* [[Celt|The Celts]]
* [[Roman Empire]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite web |last=Elton |first=Hugh |date=1999 |title=Constantine III (407–411 A.D.) |url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/westemp5.htm#Note |access-date=17 October 2021 |website=De Imperatoribus Romanis |publisher=Florida International University}}
* [[Stephen Oppenheimer|Oppenheimer, S.]] (2006). ''The Origins of the British: A Genetic Detective Story'': Constable and Robinson, London. {{ISBN|978-1-84529-158-7}}.
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{div col }}
{{Refbegin}}
* Alcock, Leslie (1963). ''Dinas Powys''. Cardiff: University of Wales Press
* Alcock, Leslie (1971). ''Arthur's Britain: History and Archaeology AD 367–634''. Harmondsworth: Allen Lane, The Penguin Press {{ISBN|0-7139-0245-0}}
* Alcock, Leslie (1972). ''By South Cadbury is that Camelot''. London: Thames and Hudson
* Alcock, Leslie et al. (1995). ''Cadbury Castle, Somerset: the early Medieval Archaeology''. Cardiff: University of Wales Press
* Collins, Rob & James Gerrard, eds. (2004). ''Debating Late Antiquity in Britain AD 300–700'', Oxford: British Archaeological Review
* D'Amato, Raffaele & A. Salimbeti (2023). ''Post-Roman kingdoms: 'Dark Ages' Gaul & Britain, AD 450-800''. Oxford: Osprey.
* {{cite journal |last1 = Dark |first1 = Kenneth |year = 1992 |title = A Sub-Roman Redefense of Hadrian's Wall |journal = Britannia |volume = 23 |pages = 111–120 |doi=10.2307/526105|jstor = 526105 |s2cid = 164015470 }}
* Dark, Kenneth (1993) ''Civitas to Kingdom: British Continuity 300–800''. Leicester University Press
* Dark, Kenneth (2000) ''Britain and the End of the Roman Empire'' Stroud: Tempus
* Davies, Wendy (1978) ''An Early Welsh Microcosm: Studies in the Llandaff Charters''. London: Royal Historical Society
* {{cite journal |last1 = Dumville |first1 = David N |year = 1977 |title = Sub-Roman Britain: History and Legend |journal = History |volume = 62 |issue = 205|pages = 173–192 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229x.1977.tb02335.x}}
* Esmonde-Cleary, A. S. (1989) ''The Ending of Roman Britain''. London: Batsford
* Fouracre, Paul (ed.) (2005) ''The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume I, c.500–c.700''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
* Jones, Michael E. (1996) ''The End of Roman Britain'' Ithaca: Cornell University Press
* Halsall, Guy (2013) ''Worlds of Arthur. Facts and Fictions of the Dark Ages''. Oxford: Oxford University Press
* Higham, Nicholas (1992) ''Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons''. London, Seaby
* Higham, Nicholas (1994) ''The English Conquest: Gildas and Britain in the Fifth Century''. Manchester University Press
* Jones, Michael (1996) ''The End of Roman Britain''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press
* Lapidge, Michael & Dumville, David (1984) ''Gildas: New Approaches''. Woodbridge: Boydell
* Marsh, Henry, (1970) ''Dark Age Britain: Some Sources of History''. Newton Abbot: David & Charles
* Morris, John (1973) ''The Age of Arthur: A History of the British Isles 350-650''. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
* Morris, John (1980) ''Nennius: British History and the Welsh Annals''. Chichester: Phillimore
* Morris, John (gen. ed.) ''Arthurian Period Sources'' volumes 1–9, general editor: John Morris, Phillimore & Co, Chichester (includes full text of Gildas & Nennius, Saint Patrick material and various annals and charters)
* {{cite journal |last1 = Myres |first1 = John |year = 1960 |title = ''Pelagius and the End of Roman Rule in Britain''. In |journal = Journal of Roman Studies |volume = 50 |issue = 1–2|pages = 21–36 |doi=10.2307/298284|jstor = 298284 |s2cid = 161885864 }}
* Pryor, Francis (2004) ''Britain AD: a Quest for Arthur, England and the Anglo-Saxons.'' London: HarperCollins {{ISBN|0-00-718186-8}}
* Radford, C. A. Ralegh (1939) ''Tintagel Castle''. London: H.M.S.O. (Reprinted by English Heritage 1985)
* Ridley, Ronald (1982) ''Zosimus: New History''. Sydney
* Snyder, Christopher (1996) ''An Age of Tyrants''. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press
* Thomas, Charles (1993) ''Tintagel: Arthur and Archaeology''. London: English Heritage
* Thompson, E. A. (1984) ''St Germanus of Auxerre and the End of Roman Britain''. Woodbridge: Boydell
* Winterbottom, Michael (ed.) (1978) ''Gildas, The Ruin of Britain and Other Works''. Chichester: Phillimore
* {{cite journal |last1 = Wood |first1 = Ian |year = 1987 |title = The Fall of the Western Empire and the End of Roman Britain |journal = Britannia |volume = 18 |pages = 251–262 |doi=10.2307/526450|jstor = 526450 |s2cid = 162348716 }}
{{Refend}}
{{div col end}}

==External links==
* [https://archive.today/20130221093141/http://www.british-history.net/sub-roman-britain-timeline/ Sub-Roman Britain Timeline] – A timeline landing at A History of Britain blog.
* [http://www.vortigernstudies.org.uk/vortigernhomepage.htm Vortigern Studies website] – while Vortigern-focused, it is an in-depth resource for navigating the issues in sub-Roman British history.
* [http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/index.html The History Files] – An extensive collection of information covering all historical states, including comprehensive features, highly detailed maps, and lists of rulers for each state.
* [http://www.facesofarthur.org.uk/fabio/book7.4.htm Ethnic and cultural consequences of the war between Saxons and romanised Britons]

{{s-start}}
{{Succession box| before=[[Roman Britain|Britannia]] | after=[[The Heptarchy]]<br />[[Wales in the Early Middle Ages|Welsh Kingdoms]]<br />[[Picts]] | title=Sub-Roman Britain | years= 410 – c. 550 }}
{{S-end}}

{{History of the British Isles|bar=yes}}
{{Barbarian kingdoms}}
{{Celts}}

[[Category:Sub-Roman Britain| ]]
[[Category:5th century in England]]
[[Category:6th century in England]]
[[Category:5th century in Great Britain]]
[[Category:6th century in Great Britain]]
[[Category:5th century in Wales]]
[[Category:6th century in Wales]]
[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:British traditional history]]
[[Category:History of England by period]]
[[Category:Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Barbarian kingdoms]]