View source for Stokoe notation

{{Short description|Phonemic script for sign languages}}
{{Infobox Writing system
|type = alphabet
|name = Stokoe notation
|languages = [[ASL]]
|time = 1960 to present
|children = [[ASL-phabet]]
|sample = Stokoe passage.gif
|imagesize=250px
}}
'''Stokoe notation''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|t|oʊ|k|i}} {{respell|STOH|kee}}) is the first{{sfn|Kyle|Woll|Pullen|Maddix|1985|p=88}} [[phonemic]] script used for [[sign language]]s. It was created by [[William Stokoe]] for [[American Sign Language]] (ASL), with Latin letters and numerals used for the shapes they have in [[fingerspelling]], and iconic glyphs to transcribe the position, movement, and orientation of the hands. It was first published as the organizing principle of ''Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf'' (1960),{{sfn|Stokoe|1960}} and later also used in ''[[A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles]],'' by Stokoe, Casterline, and Croneberg '' '' (1965).{{sfn|Stokoe|Casterline|Croneberg|1965}} In the 1965 dictionary, signs are themselves arranged alphabetically, according to their Stokoe transcription, rather than being ordered by their English [[gloss (annotation)|glosses]] as in other sign-language dictionaries. This made it the only ASL dictionary where the reader could look up a sign without first knowing how to translate it into English. The Stokoe notation was later adapted to [[British Sign Language]] (BSL) in Kyle et al. (1985){{sfn|Kyle|Woll|Pullen|Maddix|1985}} and to [[Australian Aboriginal sign languages]] in Kendon (1988).{{sfn|Kendon|1988}} In each case the researchers modified the alphabet to accommodate phonemes not found in ASL.

The Stokoe notation is mostly restricted to linguists and academics. The notation is arranged linearly on the page and can be written with a typewriter that has the proper font installed. Unlike [[SignWriting]] or the [[Hamburg Notation System]], it is based on the [[Latin alphabet]] and is [[phoneme|phonemic]], being restricted to the symbols needed to meet the requirements of ASL (or extended to BSL, etc.) rather than accommodating all possible signs. For example, there is a single symbol for circling movement, regardless of whether the plane of the movement is horizontal or vertical.

==Writing direction==

Stokoe notation is written horizontally left to right like the Latin alphabet (plus limited vertical stacking of movement symbols, and some diacritical marks written above or below other symbols). This contrasts with [[SignWriting]], which is written vertically from top to bottom (plus partially free two-dimensional placement of components within the writing of a single sign).

==Symbol usage==

Stokoe coined the terms ''[[location (sign language)|tab]]'' ("tabula" or sign location), ''[[Handshape|dez]]'' ("designator" or handshape & orientation), and ''[[movement (sign language)|sig]]'' ("signation" or motion & action).  These are used to categorize features of sign-language [[phoneme]]s, somewhat like the distinction between [[consonant]], [[vowel]], and [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] is used in the description of oral languages. A sign is written in the order ''tab-dez-sig:'' TD<sup>s</sup>. Compound signs are separated with a double dashed pipe, approximately TD<sup>s</sup>¦¦TD<sup>s</sup>.

A serious deficiency of the system is that it does not provide for facial expression, [[mouthing]], eye gaze, and body posture, as Stokoe had not worked out their phonemics in ASL.{{sfn|Kyle|Woll|Pullen|Maddix|1985|p=29}} Verbal inflection and non-lexical movement is awkward to notate, and more recent analyses such as those of [[Ted Supalla]] have contradicted Stokoe's set of motion phonemes.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} There is also no provision for representing the relationship between signs in their natural context, which restricts the usefulness of the notation to the lexical or dictionary level. Nonetheless, Stokoe demonstrated for the first time that a sign language can be written phonemically just like any other language.

In the tables below, the first column is a web-based approximation of the Stokoe symbol using the inventory available in [[Unicode]], and the second is an [[ASCII]] substitution for the purpose of citing examples in this article. Proper display of the third column requires the Stokoe font available at the external link below; without that font, you will see the corresponding ASCII character, as used in Mandel (1993).

===''Tab'' (Location)===

The ''tab'' symbols are a null sign for a neutral location and iconic symbols for parts of the head, arm, and torso. In addition, the ''dez'' (handshape) symbols below may be used to indicate that the location is the passive hand in a specific shape.

{| class="wikitable"
! Unicode<br/>approximation
! ASCII<br/>approximation
! Stokoe{{efn|Proper display requires installation of the Stokoe font available at the external link below.}}
! Description
|-
|Ø ||0 ||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">0</span> || neutral location
|-
|⩇ ||Q ||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">h</span> || face, or whole head (symbol is superimposed ᴖ and ᴗ)
|-
|∩ ||P
|<span style="font-family:Stokoe">u</span>
| forehead, brow, or upper face
|-
|⊔ ||T
|<span style="font-family:Stokoe">m</span>
| eyes, nose, or mid face
|-
|∪ ||U
|<span style="font-family:Stokoe">l</span>
| lips, chin, or lower face
|-
|Ȝ||} ||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">c</span>
| cheek, temple, ear, or side face
|-
|Π ||N
|<span style="font-family:Stokoe">k</span> || neck
|-
|[ ] ||[ ] ||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">[]</span>
|torso, shoulders, chest, trunk
|-
|Ƨ ||7 ||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">i</span>
|non-dominant upper arm
|-
|√ ||J ||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">j</span>
|non-dominant elbow, forearm
|-
|ɑ ||9 ||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">a</span> ||inside of wrist
|-
|<big>ɒ</big> ||6 ||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">b</span> ||back of wrist
|}

Given a handshape ''(dez)'' {{angbr|D}},{{efn|"D" is not used for a specific handshape, but is a stand-in here for whichever ''dez'' is used.}} {{angbr|QD}} would be D signed at the face, {{angbr|JD}} the same handshape signed at the elbow, and {{angbr|9D}} on the inside of the wrist.

{{notelist}}

===''Dez'' (Handshape)===

The symbols for handshapes are taken from the ASL manual alphabet: {{angbr|A}} represents a fist, the handshape used for fingerspelling "A" (and also "S" and "T", since the difference is not significant outside fingerspelling and initialisms); {{angbr|B}} represents a flat hand, the handshape used for fingerspelling "B" and "4", ''etc.'' When a ''dez'' involves two hands, two letters are used.

''Dez'' symbols may also be used as ''tabs.'' For example, {{angbr|QB}} represents a flat hand, B, located at the face, Q, and <BB> represents a dominant flat hand B acting on a passive flat hand B. The latter is disambiguated from two B hands acting together by using another letter for the ''tab,'' such as {{angbr|ØBB}} for two B hands acting in neutral space, or {{angbr|QBB}} for both hands at the face.

Besides the shape of the hands, the ''dez'' includes their orientation. This is indicated, when necessary, with subscripts, which are introduced in the next section.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
|A||fist (as ASL 'a', 's', or 't')
|-
|B||flat hand (as ASL 'b' or '4')
|-
|5||spread hand (as ASL '5')
|-
|C||cupped hand (as ASL 'c', or more open)
|-
|E||claw hand (as ASL 'e', or more clawlike)
|-
|F||okay hand (as ASL 'f'; thumb & index touch or cross)
|-
|G||pointing hand (as ASL 'g' 'd' or '1')
|-
|H||index + middle fingers together (as ASL 'h,' 'n' or 'u')
|-
|I||pinkie (as ASL 'i')
|-
|K||thumb touches middle finger of V (as ASL 'k' or 'p')
|-
|L||angle hand, thumb + index (as ASL 'l')
|-
|3||vehicle classifier hand, thumb + index + middle fingers (as ASL '3')
|-
|O||tapered hand, fingers curved to touch thumbtip (as ASL 'o')
|-
|R||crossed fingers (as ASL 'r')
|-
|V||spread index + middle fingers (as ASL 'v' or '2')
|-
|W||thumb touches pinkie (as ASL 'w')
|-
|X||hook (as ASL 'x')
|-
|Y||horns (as ASL 'y', or as index + pinkie)
|-
|8||bent middle finger; may touch thumb (as ASL '8', this is a common allophone of Y)
|}

There are three diacritics that modify the shape of the ''dez.'' A dot placed above it shows that a finger not normally seen is prominent, usually because it is involved in the production of the sign. For example, {{angbr|Ȧ}} ({{sm|ascii}} 'A) is a fist with the thumb extended, as in {{angbr|UȦᶠ}} {{sm|not}}. Three dots or ticks over a letter shows the fingers are flexed, so that {{angbr|B⃛}} ({{sm|ascii}} ;B) is a flexed flat hand, and {{angbr|V⃛}} (;V) is two flexed fingers. The forearm ''tab'' sign prefixed to the ''dez'' ({{sm|ascii}} j) shows that the forearms are prominent in the production of the sign, as in {{angbr|{{overline|B}}<sub>ɑ</sub> jB<sub>^</sub><sup>ω</sup>}} {{sm|tree}}.

===''Sig'' (movement) and ''dez'' orientation===

The movement of the hand, or ''sig,'' is written with superscripted letters after the ''dez,'' as D<sup>#</sup> (any ''dez'' D which closes). Multiple movement ''sigs'' are arranged linearly when the movements are sequential, as in TD<sup>×∨×</sup> (any ''dez'' D which touches a ''tab'' T, moves down, and touches again),<sup>1</sup> but stacked one above the other when signed simultaneously, as in TD×ͮ (a ''dez'' which moves down while in contact with the ''tab'').<sup>2</sup>

A dot placed above the ''sig'' indicates that the motion is sharp, as in TD<sup>×̇</sup> (sharp contact by the ''dez'' D),<sup>3</sup> while a dot placed after the ''sig'' indicates that the motion is repeated, as in TD<sup>×·</sup> (repeated contact by the ''dez''; TDx" in ASCII).

A tilde with a two-hand ''dez,'' TDD<sup>s~</sup>, indicates that first one hand performs the ''sig,'' then the other. Without the tilde, both hands are understood to act together.

A subset of the ''sig'' symbols used for motion are also used to indicate the orientation of the hand. In this use they are subscripted after the ''dez'' instead of superscripted, as in D<sub>#</sub> (any ''dez'' D which starts off closed).<sup>4</sup> Stokoe analyzed the orientation of the hand as part of the ''tab,'' the handshape.

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=4|Movement ''(sig)''
!colspan=4|Orientation ''(dez)''
|-
!Unicode!!ASCII!!Stokoe*!!Description
!Unicode!!ASCII!!Stokoe*!!Description
|-
|D<sup>{{IPA|ʌ}}</sup>||D^||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>^</sup></span>|| moving upward
|D<sub>{{IPA|ʌ}}</sub>||^D||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>^</sub></span>|| facing or pointing upward
|-
|D<sup>v</sup>||Dv||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>v</sup></span>|| moving downward
|D<sub>v</sub>||vD||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>v</sub></span>|| facing or pointing downward
|-
|D<sup>{{IPA|ɴ}}</sup>||Dw||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">Dʳ</span>|| moving up and down
|colspan=4|—
|-
|D<sup><nowiki>></nowiki></sup>||D>||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>></sup></span>|| to the dominant side
|D<sub><nowiki>></nowiki></sub>||>D||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>></sub></span>|| facing the dominant side
|-
|D<sup><nowiki><</nowiki></sup>||D<||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup><</sup></span>|| to the center or non-dominant side
|D<sub><nowiki><</nowiki></sub>||<D||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub><</sub></span>|| facing the center or non-dominant side
|-
|D<sup>≷</sup>||Dz||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">Dᶻ</span>|| side to side
|colspan=4|—
|-
|D<sup>⊤</sup>||Dt||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">Dᵗ</span>|| toward signer
|D<sub>⊤</sub>||tD||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>t</sub></span>|| facing signer
|-
|D<sup>⊥</sup>||Df||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>f</sup></span>|| away from signer
|D<sub>⊥</sub>||fD||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>f</sub></span>|| facing away from signer
|-
|Dᶦ||Dm||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>=</sup></span>|| to and from
|colspan=4|—
|-
|D<sup>{{IPA|ɑ}}</sup>||Da||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>a</sup></span>|| supinate (turn palm up)
|D<sub>{{IPA|ɑ}}</sub>||aD||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>a</sub></span>|| supine (palm facing up)
|-
|D<sup>{{IPA|ɒ}}</sup>||Db||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">Dᵇ</span>|| pronate (turn palm down)
|D<sub>{{IPA|ɒ}}</sub>||bD||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>b</sub></span>|| prone (palm facing down)
|-
|D<sup>ω</sup>||Dg||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>w</sup></span>|| twist wrist back & forth
|colspan=4|—
|-
|Dᵑ||Dr||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">Dⁿ</span>|| nod hand, bend wrist
|D<sub>ŋ</sub>||rD||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>n</sub></span>|| bent wrist
|-
|D<sup>◽</sup>[D′]||D*[D′]||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>]</sup></span>[D′]|| open up (resulting ''Dez'' D’ shown in brackets)
|D<sub>◽</sub>||*D||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>]</sub></span>|| open
|-
|D<sup>#</sup>[D′]||D#[D′]||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>#</sup></span>[D′]|| close (resulting ''Dez'' D’ shown in brackets)
|D<sub>#</sub>||#D||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>#</sub></span>|| closed
|-
|D<sup>ᴥ</sup>||De||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>e</sup></span>|| wriggle fingers<br/>(symbol looks like a cursive ''e'')
|colspan=4|—
|-
|D<sup>@</sup>||D@||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>@</sup></span>|| circle<br/>(symbol is a spiral)
|colspan=4|—
|-
|D⁾⁽||D)(||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>)</sup></span>|| approach, move together
|D₎₍||)(D||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>)</sub></span>|| near
|-
|D<sup>×</sup>||Dx||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>x</sup></span>|| contact, touch
|D<sub>×</sub>||xD||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>x</sub></span>|| touching
|-
|D<sup>≬</sup>||D$||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>g</sup></span>|| link, grasp
|D<sub>≬</sub>||$D||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>g</sub></span>|| linked
|-
|D<sup>‡</sup>||D+||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>+</sup></span>|| cross
|D<sub>‡</sub>||+D||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>+</sub></span>|| crossed
|-
|D<sup>ʘ</sup>||Do||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>o</sup></span>|| enter
|D<sub>ʘ</sub>||oD||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sub>o</sub></span>|| inside
|-
|D<sup>÷</sup>||D%||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>:</sup></span>|| separate
|colspan=4|—
|-
|D<big>{{IPA|ʻʼ}}</big>||D§&nbsp;<small>''or''</small>&nbsp;D&||<span style="font-family:Stokoe">D<sup>(</sup></span>|| exchange positions
|colspan=4|—
|}

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Proper display requires installation of the Stokoe font available at the external link below.
:<sup>1</sup> TDx-v-x in ASCII
:<sup>2</sup> TDxv in ASCII
:<sup>3</sup> TDx! in ASCII
:<sup>4</sup> Closing hand and closed hand would be D# and #D in the ASCII system.

Several linguists, including Kyle & Woll, state that Stokoe's ''tab'' conflates two parameters, handshape and orientation, and split off ''ori'' (orientation of the hand) as a fourth parameter. Kendon, however, notes how this greatly complicates the phonological description of signs, and prefers to retain orientation as an aspect of the handshape, with changes of orientation analysed as other changes in the hands, rather than as changes in an independent parameter.

===Relative location===

When the ''tab'' is a hand shape, or the ''dez'' consists of two hands, a symbol may be placed between the two letters to indicate their relative position. These include a few of the movement/orientation letters above. In addition, there are symbols to indicate ''position'' above, below, next to, and behind: the underscore on the B in {{nowrap|<u>B</u> L}} shows that the L hand is placed under a B hand, with or without contact, ''etc.''

{| class="wikitable"
! Unicode
! ASCII{{efn|The free font does not cover these symbols}}
! Description
|-
| B̲ A ||<u>B</u> A || (underline) A under B
|-
| B̅ A || {{overline|B}} A || (overline) A over B
|-
| {{IPA|BˡB}} || B<nowiki>|</nowiki>B || B next to B
|-
| A<sub>⌕</sub>A || A\A || A behind A
|-
| B<sup>‡</sup>B || B+B || B hands or forearms cross
|-
| F<sup>≬</sup>F|| F$F || F hands (fingers) clasped or linked
|-
| 5<sup>ʘ</sup>G||5oG|| G hand (finger) within 5 hand (between fingers)
|}
{{notelist}}

==Example==
This is the ASL word “Snake” in Stokoe notation:

[[File:Stokoe SNAKE.gif|left|The ASL word SNAKE in Stokoe notation|class=skin-invert-image]]
{{Clear}}

The first letter, ᴗ (like a U), shows that the word is signed at the lower face (mouth or chin). The second, V⃛<sub>ɒ</sub>, shows that the hand has the shape of a fingerspelled "V". The V has two diacritics: the three dots <sup>'''...'''</sup> above it show that the fingers are bent (curled), while the subscript {{IPA|ɒ}} shows that the hand is held with the back of the hand facing up. The last letters, <span style="display:inline-block; vertical-align: -0.4em; line-height:1.1em; font-size: 60%;">@<br/>⊥</span>, are a compound ''sig'': the spiral shows a circular motion, and the tack '''{{IPA|˔}}''' underneath shows that the motion proceeds outward. This is a mimetic sign for 'snake', mimicking the motion of a fanged snake.{{sfn|Stokoe|Casterline|Croneberg|1965|p=168}} It is alphabetized under to the ''tab'' U, then by the ''dez'' V, then by the ''sig'' @; the searcher does not need to know what it means or that it is glossed with the English word {{sm|snake}} in order to look it up.

Following is a passage from ''[[Goldilocks]]'':

[[File:Stokoe passage.gif|left|A passage from Goldilocks in ASL, transcribed in Stokoe notation|class=skin-invert-image]]
{{Clear}}

<div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 1em;">
<div><div>B<sub>ɑ</sub>B<sub>ɑ</sub><sup>z~</sup></div>{{sm|story}}(?)</div>
<div><div>√V⃛√V⃛ <sup>ɑ̇•</sup></div>{{sm|quote}}</div>
<div><div>Ʒ<sup>⊥</sup></div>{{sm|three}}</div>
<div><div>[]√C<sup>‡</sup>√C<span style="display:inline-block; vertical-align: -0.4em; text-align: center; line-height:1em; font-size: 80%;">v<br/>×</span><sup>•</sup></div>{{sm|bear(s)}}</div>
<div><div>ȜY<span style="display:inline-block; vertical-align: -0.4em; text-align: center; line-height:1.1em; font-size: 80%;">@<br/>v</span></div>{{sm|Goldilocks}}</div>
<div><div>√G<sub>ʌ</sub><sup><v<</sup></div>{{sm|way.in}}</div>
<div><div>{{overline|B}}<sub>ɑ</sub>√B<sub>ʌ</sub><span style="display:inline-block; vertical-align: -0.4em; line-height:1em; font-size: 80%;">ω<br/></span></div>{{sm|woods}}</div>
<div><div>G<sup>⊥</sup></div>{{sm|up}}</div>
<div><div>B<sub>ʌ</sub>ˡB<sub>ʌ</sub><span style="display:inline-block; vertical-align: -0.4em; text-align: center; line-height:1em; font-size: 80%;">÷<br/>v</span></div>{{sm|house}}</div>
<div><div>ⱰȦ{{smallsup|@×}}</div>{{sm|sitting.there}}</div>
<div><div><u>B</u><sub>ɒ</sub>B<sub>ɒ</sub><sup>⊥</sup></div>{{sm|enter}}</div>
<div><div>G<sup>></sup></div>{{sm|that.there}}</div>
<div><div>ᴖ5<sup>×</sup></div>{{sm|father}}</div>
<div><div>[]√C<sup>‡</sup>√C<span style="display:inline-block; text-align: center; vertical-align: -0.4em; line-height:1em; font-size: 80%;">v<br/>×</span><sup>•</sup></div>{{sm|bear}}</div>
<div><div>X<sub>⊥</sub>X<sub>⊥</sub><span style="display:inline-block; text-align: center; vertical-align: -0.4em; line-height:1em; font-size: 80%;">÷<br/>ɑ</span></div>{{sm|open.paper}}</div>
<div><div>B<sub>⊤</sub>V<sub>ɒ</sub><sup>v•</sup></div>{{sm|read}}</div>
<div><div>{{overline|B}}<sub>ɑ</sub>L<sup>#•</sup></div>{{sm|newspaper}}</div>
<div><div>X<sub>⊥</sub>X<sub>⊥</sub><span style="display:inline-block; text-align: center; vertical-align: -0.4em; line-height:1em; font-size: 80%;">÷<br/>ɑ</span></div>{{sm|open.paper}}</div>
</div>
: The story "Goldilocks and the Three Bears". Deep in the woods, there is a house sitting on a hill. (If you) go in, (you will see) there Papa Bear reading the paper.

==Published use of Stokoe notation==

The first use of Stokoe notation appeared in the ASL Dictionary compiled by Stokoe, Casterline, and Croneberg, for which it was devised. Other indigenous sign language dictionary projects, for example the ''Dictionary of British Sign Language/English'', ed. David Brien, pub. Faber and Faber 1992, and ''[[Signs of a Sexual Nature]]''{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} have included Stokoe notation. The notation has also been used to analyze Australian Aboriginal sign languages. These non-ASL projects have had to extend the notation to cover phonemes not found in ASL.

==See also==
* [[ASL-phabet]], a simplified notation used in ASL-English dictionaries for Deaf children and Deaf education
* [[HamNoSys]], a phonetic notational system used primarily for linguistic research
* [[SignWriting]], a popular system that arranges symbols in a two-dimensional space rather than in a line
* [[si5s]]

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

; Sources
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book
 |first= Adam |last= Kendon
 |year= 1988
 |title= Sign Languages of Aboriginal Australia: Cultural, Semiotic and Communication Perspectives
 |publisher= Cambridge University Press
}}
* {{cite book
 |first1=Jim G. |last1=Kyle
 |first2=Bencie |last2=Woll |author2-link=Bencie Woll
 |first3=Gloria |last3=Pullen
 |first4=Frank |last4=Maddix
 |year= 1985
 |title= Sign Language: The Study of Deaf People and Their Language
 |publisher= Cambridge University Press
}}
* {{cite book
 |first1=William C. |last1=Stokoe
 |first2=Dorothy C. |last2=Casterline |author2-link=Dorothy Casterline
 |first3=Carl G. |last3=Croneberg |author3-link=Carl Croneberg
 |year= 1965
 |title= A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles
 |location= Washington, DC
 |publisher= Gallaudet College Press
}}
* {{cite book
 |first=William C. |last=Stokoe
 |year=1960
 |title=Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf
 |series=Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8)
 |location=Buffalo
 |publisher=Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo
}}
*David Brien, editor, (1992) ''Dictionary of British Sign Language/English'', Faber and Faber
*{{cite web 
 |last = Mandel |first = Mark A.
 |year = 1993
 |title = ASCII-Stokoe Notation: A Computer-Writeable Transliteration System for Stokoe Notation of American Sign Language
 |website = Cracks and Shards
 |url = http://mark.cracksandshards.com/ASCII-Stokoe.html
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110807080004/http://www.speakeasy.org/~mamandel/ASCII-Stokoe.html
 |archive-date = 2011-08-07
 |url-status = dead
 |access-date =  2016-04-29
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.panix.com/~grvsmth/stokoe/ Free Stokoe font]
*[https://www.signwriting.org/forums/linguistics/ling006.html Description on the SignWriting site]
*[https://www.musslap.zcu.cz/en/about-project/ The MUSSLAP Project] Multimodal Human Speech and Sign Language Processing for Human-Machine Communication.
<!-- *[http://mark.cracksandshards.com/ASCII-Stokoe.html ASCII-Stokoe Notation] Method for writing Stokoe in [[ASCII]] by Mark A. Mandel -->
*[https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12133-toward-stokoe.pdf Towards a Unicode encoding of Stokoe Notation]

{{Sign language writing systems}}
{{list of writing systems}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Stokoe Notation}}
[[Category:American Sign Language]]
[[Category:Sign language notation]]
[[Category:Alphabets]]
[[Category:Writing systems introduced in 1960]]