View source for Spring (hydrology)

{{Short description|Point at which water emerges from an aquifer to the surface}}
{{Other uses|Spring (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
[[Image:Big Spring Missouri 1-02Aug08.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|On an average day nearly {{convert|303|e6USgal|m3}} of water flow from [[Big Spring (Missouri)|Big Spring]] in [[Missouri]] at a rate of {{convert|469|cuft/s|m3/s}}.]]
[[File:Grand Prismatic Spring.jpg|thumb|[[Grand Prismatic Spring]], Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming]]

A '''spring''' is a natural exit point at which [[groundwater]] emerges from an [[aquifer]] and flows across the ground surface as [[surface water]]. It is a component of the [[hydrosphere]], as well as a part of the [[water cycle]]. Springs have long been important for [[humans]] as a source of [[fresh water]], especially in [[arid]] regions which have relatively little annual [[rainfall]].

Springs are driven out onto the surface by various natural forces, such as [[gravity]] and [[Hydrostatics#Hydrostatic pressure|hydrostatic pressure]]. A spring produced by the emergence of [[Geothermal activity|geothermally heated]] groundwater is known as a [[hot spring]]. The [[yield (hydrology)|yield]] of spring water varies widely from a [[volumetric flow rate]] of nearly zero to more than {{convert|14000|L/s|cuft/s}} for the biggest springs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/nelson-tasman/places/takaka-area/te-waikoropupu-springs/?tab-id=50578|title=Te Waikoropupū Springs|publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation|access-date=6 February 2022}}</ref>

== Formation ==
[[Image:Nacentemackinac.jpg|thumb|upright|A natural spring on [[Mackinac Island]] in [[Michigan]]]]
Springs are formed when [[groundwater]] flows onto the surface. This typically happens when the water table reaches above the surface level, or if the terrain [[depression (geology)|depress]]es sharply. Springs may also be formed as a result of [[karst topography]], aquifers or [[volcanic activity]]. Springs have also been observed on the [[ocean floor]], spewing warmer, low-[[salinity]] water directly into the ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Springs and the Water Cycle|url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/springs-and-water-cycle|access-date=2021-11-14|website=www.usgs.gov}}</ref>

Springs formed as a result of karst topography create [[karst spring]]s, in which ground water travels through a network of cracks and fissures—openings ranging from intergranular spaces to large [[cave]]s, later emerging in a spring.

The forcing of the spring to the surface can be the result of a confined aquifer in which the recharge area of the spring water table rests at a higher elevation than that of the outlet. Spring water forced to the surface by elevated sources are [[artesian aquifer|artesian wells]]. This is possible even if the outlet is in the form of a {{convert|300|ft|m|adj=mid|-deep}} cave. In this case the cave is used like a hose by the higher elevated recharge area of groundwater to exit through the lower elevation opening.

Non-artesian springs may simply flow from a higher elevation through the earth to a lower elevation and exit in the form of a spring, using the ground like a drainage pipe. Still other springs are the result of pressure from an underground source in the earth, in the form of [[volcanic]] or [[magma]] activity. The result can be water at elevated temperature and pressure, i.e. [[hot spring]]s and [[geyser]]s.

[[Image:MiddleSpring.JPG|thumb|Sunrise at Middle Spring, [[Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge]], Utah]]
The action of the groundwater continually dissolves permeable bedrock such as [[limestone]] and [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]], creating vast cave systems.<ref name=USGS>{{cite web|url=http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclesprings.html|title=Springs - The Water Cycle, from USGS Water-Science School|website=ga.water.usgs.gov|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090509022203/http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclesprings.html|archive-date=9 May 2009}}</ref>

=== Types ===
[[File:Red-coloured spring below Cascada de los Colores, La Palma.jpg|thumb|[[Chalybeate]] spring below Cascada de los Colores, [[La Palma]]]]
* Depression springs occur along a depression, such as the bottom of [[Alluvium|alluvial valleys]], basins, or [[valley]]s made of highly permeable materials.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |chapter=Well Design and Spring Development|title=National Engineering Handbook|date=January 2010|chapter-url=https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=26985.wba |archive-date=21 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021075954/https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=26985.wba|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Contact springs, which occur along the side of a hill or mountain, are created when the [[groundwater]] is underlaid by an impermeable layer of rock or soil known as an aquiclude or aquifuge<ref name=":0" />
* Fracture, or joint occur when groundwater running along an impermeable layer of rock meets a crack (fracture) or joint in the rock.<ref name=":0" />
* Tubular springs occur when groundwater flows from circular fissures such as those found in caverns (solution tubular springs) or lava tubular springs found in [[lava tube]] caves.<ref name="Classification" /><ref name="Dictionary of Hydrogeology" />
* [[Artesian spring]]s typically occur at the lowest point in a given area. An artesian spring is created when the pressure for the groundwater becomes greater than the pressure from the atmosphere. In this case the water is pushed straight up out of the ground.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Westbrook |first=Cherie J.|date=2017 |title=Heads Above Water: The Inside Story of the Edwards Aquifer Recovery Implementation Program by Robert L. Gulley |journal=Great Plains Research |volume=27 |issue=2 |page=143 |doi=10.1353/gpr.2017.0022 |s2cid=133972692 |issn=2334-2463}}</ref>
* [[Wonky hole]]s are freshwater submarine exit points for coral and sediment-covered, sediment-filled old river channels.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1640764.htm |title=Wonky Holes |work=Catalyst transcript |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=18 May 2006 |first=Mark |last=Horstman |access-date=17 April 2019 |archive-date=19 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419044122/https://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1640764.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Karst spring]]s occur as outflows of [[groundwater]] that are part of a [[karst]] hydrological system.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whittow |first=John |year=1984 |title=Dictionary of Physical Geography |place=London |publisher=Penguin |page=291 |isbn=0-14-051094-X}}</ref>
* [[Thermal spring]]s are heated by [[geothermal activity]]; they have a water temperature significantly higher than the mean air temperature of the surrounding area.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Britannica |article=Spring {{!}} water |article-url=https://www.britannica.com/science/spring-water |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725124220/https://www.britannica.com/science/spring-water |archive-date=25 July 2020 }}</ref> Geysers are a type of hot spring where steam is created underground by trapped superheated groundwater resulting in recurring eruptions of hot water and steam.<ref name="Dictionary of Hydrogeology">{{cite book |last1=Poehls |first1=D.J. |last2=Smith |first2=Gregory J. |title=Encyclopedic Dictionary of Hydrogeology |date=2011 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=9780080925271 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rtjtazovs9AC |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>
* Carbonated springs, such as [[Soda Springs Geyser]], are springs that emit naturally occurring carbonated water, due to dissolved carbon dioxide in the water content. They are sometimes called boiling springs or bubbling springs.<ref name="Carbonated">{{cite journal |last1=Cinta Pinzaru |first1=Simona |last2=Ardeleanu |first2=Mircea |last3=Brezestean |first3=Ioana |last4=Nekvapil |first4=Fran |last5=Venter |first5=Monica M. |title=Biogeochemical specificity of adjacent natural carbonated spring waters from Swiss Alps promptly revealed by SERS and Raman technology |journal=Analytical Methods; Royal Society of Chemistry |date=2019 |volume=11 |issue=6 |url=http://explore.bl.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/display.do?tabs=detailsTab&gathStatTab=true&ct=display&fn=search&doc=ETOCvdc_100076586933.0x000001&indx=1&recIds=ETOCvdc_100076586933.0x000001 |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>
* "Gushette springs pour from cliff faces"<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Springs of New Jersey |url=https://www.nj.gov/dep/njgs/pricelst/ofreport/ofr21-3.pdf}}</ref>
* Helocrene springs are diffuse that sustain marshlands with groundwater.<ref name=":2" />

== Flow ==
[[File:Aegviidu siniallikad (Aegviidu blue springs).ogv|thumb|Drone video of Aegviidu blue springs in Estonia]]
Spring discharge, or '''resurgence''', is determined by the spring's recharge basin. Factors that affect the recharge include the size of the area in which groundwater is captured, the amount of precipitation, the size of capture points, and the size of the spring outlet. Water may leak into the underground system from many sources including permeable earth, sinkholes, and [[losing stream]]s. In some cases entire [[Stream|creek]]s seemingly disappear as the water sinks into the ground via the stream bed. [[Grand Gulf State Park (Missouri)|Grand Gulf State Park]] in [[Missouri]] is an example of an entire creek vanishing into the groundwater system. The water emerges {{convert|9|mi|km}} away, forming some of the discharge of [[Mammoth Spring]] in [[Arkansas]]. Human activity may also affect a spring's discharge—withdrawal of groundwater reduces the water pressure in an aquifer, decreasing the volume of flow.<ref name="waterdata.usgs.gov">{{cite web|url=http://waterdata.usgs.gov/mo/nwis/sw|title=USGS Surface-Water Data for Missouri|website=waterdata.usgs.gov|access-date=3 July 2011|archive-date=4 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304113202/https://waterdata.usgs.gov/mo/nwis/sw|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Classification ===
[[Image:La Sorgue, Fontaine-de-Vaucluse.JPG|thumb|[[Fontaine de Vaucluse (spring)|Fontaine de Vaucluse]] or Spring of Vaucluse in France discharges about {{convert|470|e6USgal|m3}} of water per day at a rate of {{convert|727|ft3|m3|abbr=on}} per second.]]

Springs fall into three general classifications: perennial (springs that flow constantly during the year); intermittent (temporary springs that are active after rainfall, or during certain seasonal changes); and periodic (as in geysers that vent and erupt at regular or irregular intervals).<ref name="Classification">{{cite journal |last1=Bryan |first1=Kirk |title=Classification of Springs |journal=The Journal of Geology |date=November 1919 |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=522–561 |doi=10.1086/622677 |jstor=30058415 |bibcode=1919JG.....27..522B |s2cid=129936821 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30058415 |access-date=14 November 2021}}</ref>

Springs are often classified by the volume of the water they discharge. The largest springs are called "first-magnitude", defined as springs that discharge water at a rate of at least 2800 liters or {{convert|100|cuft|m3}} of water per second. Some locations contain many first-magnitude springs, such as [[Florida]] where there are at least 27 known to be that size; the [[Missouri]] and [[Arkansas]] [[Ozarks]], which contain 10<ref>Vineyard and Fender, 1982. p. 12</ref><ref name="waterdata.usgs.gov"/> known of first-magnitude; and 11<ref name=ui>{{cite web |url=http://www.if.uidaho.edu/~johnson/ifiwrri/1000spgs.html |title=Thousand Springs Research Project |date=9 May 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212171529/http://www.if.uidaho.edu/~johnson/ifiwrri/1000spgs.html |archive-date=12 December 2012 |via=University of Idaho }}</ref> more in the [[Thousand Springs State Park|Thousand Springs]] area along the [[Snake River]] in [[Idaho]]. The scale for spring flow is as follows:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Magnitude !! Flow (ft<sup>3</sup>/s, gal/min, pint/min) !! Flow (L/s)
|-
| 1st magnitude  ||  > 100&nbsp;ft<sup>3</sup>/s || 2800 L/s
|-
| 2nd magnitude  || 10 to 100&nbsp;ft<sup>3</sup>/s || 280 to 2800 L/s
|-
| 3rd magnitude  || 1 to 10&nbsp;ft<sup>3</sup>/s || 28 to 280 L/s
|-
| 4th magnitude  || 100 US gal/min to 1&nbsp;ft<sup>3</sup>/s (448 US gal/min) || 6.3 to 28 L/s
|-
| 5th magnitude  || 10 to 100 gal/min || 0.63 to 6.3 L/s
|-
| 6th magnitude  || 1 to 10 gal/min || 63 to 630 mL/s
|-
| 7th magnitude  || 1 pint to 1 gal/min || 8 to 63 mL/s
|-
| 8th magnitude  || Less than 1 pint/min || 8 mL/s
|-
| 0 magnitude  || no flow (sites of past/historic flow) || 
|}

==Water content==
{{Main|Mineral spring}}
[[File:PruessLake.JPG|thumb|[[Pruess Lake]] is spring-fed in the arid [[Snake Valley (Great Basin)|Snake Valley]] of [[Utah]].]]
[[Mineral]]s become dissolved in the water as it moves through the underground [[rock (geology)|rocks]]. This mineral content is measured as [[total dissolved solids]] (TDS). This may give the water flavor and even [[carbon dioxide]] bubbles, depending on the nature of the [[geology]] through which it passes. This is why spring water is often bottled and sold as [[mineral water]], although the term is often the subject of [[deception|deceptive]] [[advertising]]. Mineral water contains no less than 250 parts per million (ppm) of tds. Springs that contain significant amounts of minerals are sometimes called '[[mineral springs]]'. (Springs without such mineral content, meanwhile, are sometimes distinguished as 'sweet springs'.) Springs that contain large amounts of dissolved [[sodium]] [[salts]], mostly [[sodium carbonate]], are called 'soda springs'. Many resorts have developed around mineral springs and are known as [[spa towns]]. Mineral springs are alleged to have healing properties. Soaking in them is said to result in the absorption of the minerals from the water. Some springs contain [[arsenic]] levels that exceed the 10 ppb [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) standard for [[drinking water]].<ref name=likang /> Where such springs feed rivers they can also raise the arsenic levels in the rivers above WHO limits.<ref name=likang>{{cite journal |last1= Li|first1= Chaoliu|last2= Kang|first2= Shichang|last3= Chen|first3= Pengfei|last4= Zhang|first4= Qianggong|last5= Mi|first5= Jue|last6= Gao|first6= Shaopeng|last7= Sillanpää|first7= Mika|title=Geothermal spring causes arsenic contamination in river waters of the southern Tibetan Plateau, China|url= |journal= Environmental Earth Sciences|year= 2014|volume= 71|issue= 9|pages= 4143–4148|doi=10.1007/s12665-013-2804-2|bibcode= 2014EES....71.4143L|s2cid= 128479153|access-date=}}</ref>

Water from springs is usually clear. However, some springs may be colored by the minerals that are dissolved in the water. For instance, water heavy with iron or [[tannins]] will have an orange color.<ref name="USGS"/>

In parts of the United States a [[stream]] carrying the outflow of a spring to a nearby primary stream may be called a '''spring branch''', [[spring creek]], or run. Groundwater tends to maintain a relatively long-term average temperature of its aquifer; so flow from a spring may be cooler than other sources on a summer day, but remain unfrozen in the winter. The cool water of a spring and its branch may harbor species such as certain [[trout]] that are otherwise ill-suited to a warmer local [[climate]].

===Types of mineral springs===
[[File:Natural iron hot spring.jpg|thumb|upright|Natural iron hot spring in [[Beppu Onsen|Beppu]], Japan]]
* Sulfur springs contain a high level of dissolved [[sulfur]] or hydrogen sulfide in the water. Historically they have been used to alleviate the symptoms of arthritis and other inflammatory diseases.<ref name="CGS">{{cite journal |last1=Pearl |first1=Richard Howard |last2=Ringrose |first2=Charles D. |last3=Zacharakis |first3=Ted G. |title=Geothermal Resource Assessment of Hot Sulphur Springs, Colorado |journal=Colorado Geological Survey |date=1982 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5F9OAQAAIAAJ |access-date=14 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="EIW">{{cite web |last1=Gemici |first1=Burcu |last2=Wallace |first2=John L. |title=Encyclopedia of Inland Waters |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/sulfur-springs |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>
* Borax springs<ref name="ISB">{{cite book |last1=Zakrajsek |first1=John R. |title=Identifying Systematic Behaviors in Borax Lake Geothermal Springs, Southeast Oregon |date=2006 |publisher=University of Idaho |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wrmYPgAACAAJ |access-date=14 November 2021}}</ref> 
* Gypsum springs<ref name="Classification" />
* Saline springs<ref name="TCN">{{cite book |last1=Bischoff |first1=Matt C. |title=Touring California and Nevada hot springs |date=2018 |publisher=Falcon Guides |location=Guilford, Connecticut |isbn=9781493029112 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2tMDwAAQBAJ |access-date=14 November 2021}}</ref>
* [[chalybeate|Iron springs (chalybeate spring)]]<ref name="Classification" />
* Radium springs (or radioactive springs) have a detectable level of radiation produced by the natural radioactive decay process<ref name="NatRad">{{cite journal |last1=Leonard |first1=Robert B. |last2=Janzer |first2=Victor J. |title=Natural radioactivity in geothermal waters, Alhambra Hot Springs and nearby areas, Jefferson County, Montana |journal=Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey |date=July–August 1978 |volume=6 |issue=4 |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/journal/1978/vol6issue4/report.pdf |access-date=14 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="Dictionary of Hydrogeology" />

== Uses ==
[[Image:Maramec Spring fishing ls.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Trout fishing]] on [[Maramec Spring]] in [[Missouri]]]]
Springs have been used for a variety of human needs - including drinking water, domestic water supply, irrigation, [[Watermill|mill]]s, navigation, and [[hydroelectricity|electricity generation]]. Modern uses include recreational activities such as fishing, swimming, and floating; [[hot springs|therapy]]; water for livestock; fish hatcheries; and supply for bottled [[mineral water]] or bottled spring water. Springs have taken on a kind of mythic quality in that some people falsely believe that springs are always healthy sources of drinking water. They may or may not be. One must take a comprehensive water quality test to know how to use a spring appropriately, whether for a mineral bath or drinking water. Springs that are managed as spas will already have such a test.

===Drinking water===
Springs are often used as sources for bottled water.<ref name="Bottlemania">{{cite book |last1=Royte |first1=Elizabeth |title=Bottlemania: Big Business, Local Springs, and the Battle Over America's Drinking Water |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1596913721 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yIz0BsS5l80C |access-date=14 November 2021}}</ref> When purchasing bottled water labeled as spring water one can often find the water test for that spring on the website of the company selling it.

===Irrigation===
Springs have been used as sources of water for gravity-fed irrigation of crops.<ref name="irrigation">{{cite journal |last1=Clement |first1=Christopher Ohm |last2=Moseley |first2=Michael E. |title=The Spring-Fed Irrigation System of Carrizal, Peru: A Case Study of the Hypothesis of Agrarian Collapse |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |date=1991 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=425–443 |doi=10.1179/009346991791549059 }}</ref> Indigenous people of the [[Southwestern United States|American Southwest]] built spring-fed [[acequia]]s that directed water to fields through canals. The Spanish missionaries later used this method.<ref name="acequias">{{cite web |title=Acequias and River Systems |url=https://www.worldheritagesa.com/Missions/The-Acequias |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="NYT acequia">{{cite news |last1=Romero |first1=Simon |title=Drought Hits the Southwest, and New Mexico's Canals Run Dry |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/13/us/acequias-drought-new-mexico-southwest.html |access-date=15 November 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=13 July 2021}}</ref>

=== Sacred springs ===
{{main|Holy well}}
[[File:La Reana2.jpg|thumb|''[[Fontes Tamarici]]'', in [[Spain]]]]
A sacred spring, or holy well, is a small body of water emerging from underground and revered in some religious context: [[Christianity|Christian]] and/or [[Paganism|pagan]] and/or other.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ray |first=Celeste |date=2011 |title=The Sacred and the Body Politic at Ireland's Holy Wells |journal=International Social Science Journal |volume=62 |issue=205/206 |pages=271–85 |doi=10.1111/issj.12000}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Byrne |first=Garreth |date=2002 |title=Holy Wells in Britain and Ireland |journal=Contemporary Review |volume=280 |issue=1636 |page=295 |via=[[EBSCOhost]]}}</ref> The lore and mythology of [[ancient Greece]] was replete with sacred and storied springs—notably, the [[Corycian nymphs|Corycian]], [[Pierian Spring|Pierian]] and [[Castalian Spring|Castalian]] springs. In medieval Europe, pagan sacred sites frequently became [[Christianization|Christianized]] as holy wells. The term "holy well" is commonly employed to refer to any water source of limited size (i.e., not a lake or river, but including pools and natural springs and seeps), which has some significance in local [[folklore]]. This can take the form of a particular name, an associated [[legend]], the attribution of [[healing]] qualities to the water through the [[numen|numinous]] presence of its guardian spirit or of a [[Christian saint]], or a ceremony or [[ritual]] centered on the well site. [[Christian legend]]s often recount how the action of a saint caused a spring's water to flow - a familiar theme, especially in the [[hagiography]] of [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic]] saints.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

===Thermal springs===
[[File:The Mother Spring - Pagosa Hot Springs, Colorado.jpg|thumb|''The Mother Spring'', Pagosa Hot Springs, Colorado]]
{{main|Hot spring}}

The geothermally heated groundwater that flows from thermal springs is greater than human body temperature, usually in the range of {{convert|45|–|50|C|F}}, but they can be hotter.<ref name="Dictionary of Hydrogeology" /> Those springs with water cooler than body temperature but warmer than air temperature are sometimes referred to as warm springs.<ref name="Canadian Journal of ES">{{cite journal |last1=Pentecost |first1=Allan |last2=Jones |first2=B. |last3=Renault |first3=R.W. |title=What is a hot spring? |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=2003 |volume=40 |issue=11 |pages=1443–1446 |doi=10.1139/e03-083 |bibcode=2003CaJES..40.1443P |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/e03-083 |access-date=15 November 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

====Bathing and balneotherapy====
Hot springs or geothermal springs have been used for [[balneotherapy]], bathing, and relaxation for thousands of years. Because of the folklore surrounding hot springs and their claimed medical value, some have become tourist destinations and locations of [[Physical therapy|physical rehabilitation]] centers.<ref name="ARD">{{cite journal |last1=van Tubergen |first1=A |title=A brief history of spa therapy |journal=Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases |date=1 March 2002 |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=273–275 |doi=10.1136/ard.61.3.273|pmid=11830439 |pmc=1754027 }}</ref><ref name="DOE">{{cite web |title=A History of Geothermal Energy in America |url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/history-geothermal-energy-america |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy |access-date=30 October 2020}}</ref>
[[File:Spring flowing through grass.jpg|thumb|Natural spring in Pennsylvania where runoff flows from above down through grass and rocks]]

====Geothermal energy====
Hot springs have been used as a heat source for thousands of years. In the 20th century, they became a renewable resource of geothermal energy for heating homes and buildings.<ref name="ARD" /> The city of [[Beppu|Beppu, Japan]] contains 2,217 hot spring well heads that provide the city with hot water.<ref name="CSM">{{cite news |last1=Holtz |first1=Michael |title=Japan builds a head of steam for an alternative to nuclear |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2018/0309/Japan-builds-a-head-of-steam-for-an-alternative-to-nuclear |access-date=17 November 2021 |publisher=Christian Science Monitor |date=9 March 2018}}</ref> Hot springs have also been used as a source of sustainable energy for greenhouse cultivation and the growing of crops and flowers.<ref name="sustain energy">{{cite web |title=Case Studies in Hot Spring Use for Sustainable Energy |url=https://www.pref.oita.jp/uploaded/attachment/2049215.pdf |publisher=Oita Prefectural Government |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref>

==Terminology==
* Spring boil<ref name=":1">{{cite web | url=https://www.sjrwmd.com/waterways/springs/characteristics/ | title=Springs characteristics }}</ref>
* Spring pool<ref name=":1" />
* Spring runs<ref name=":1" /> also called rheocrene springs<ref name=":2" />
* Spring vent<ref name=":1" />

==Cultural representations==
Springs have been represented in culture through art, mythology, and folklore throughout history. The [[Fountain of Youth]] is a mythical spring which was said to restore youth to anyone who drank from it.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sowers|first=Lloyd|date=2021-10-25|title=Water from St. Pete's famed Fountain of Youth contained high levels of lithium|url=https://www.fox13news.com/news/water-from-st-petes-famed-fountain-of-youth-contained-high-levels-of-lithium|access-date=2021-11-11|website=FOX 13 News|language=en-US}}</ref> It has been claimed that the fountain is located in [[St. Augustine, Florida]], and was discovered by [[Juan Ponce de León]] in 1513. However, it has not demonstrated the power to restore youth, and most historians dispute the veracity of Ponce de León's discovery.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Connolly|first=Patrick|date=November 5, 2020|title=St. Augustine Fountain of Youth may be Florida's oldest attraction|url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/central-florida-explorer/os-et-st-augustine-fountain-of-youth-florida-oldest-attraction-20201105-lwfpn6j3orbopfsgbi3cctzkha-story.html|access-date=2021-11-11|website=orlandosentinel.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Shaer|first=Matthew|date=June 2013|title=Ponce De Leon Never Searched for the Fountain of Youth|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/ponce-de-leon-never-searched-for-the-fountain-of-youth-72629888/|access-date=2021-11-11|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref>

Pythia, also known as the [[Oracle at Delphi]] was the high priestess of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]]. She delivered prophesies in a frenzied state of divine possession that were "induced by vapours rising from a chasm in the rock". It is believed that the vapors were emitted from the Kerna spring at Delphi.<ref name="NYT-Delphi">{{cite news |last1=Broad |first1=William J. |title=For Delphic Oracle, Fumes and Visions |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/03/19/science/for-delphic-oracle-fumes-and-visions.html |access-date=13 November 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=19 March 2002}}</ref><ref name="SciAm-delphi">{{cite journal |last1=Hale |first1=John R. |last2=de Boer |first2=Jelle Zeilinga |last3=Chanton |first3=Jeffrey P. |last4=Spiller |first4=Henry A. |title=Questioning the Delphic Oracle |journal=Scientific American |date=August 2003 |volume=289 |issue=2 |pages=66–73 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0803-66 |jstor=26060404 |pmid=12884540 |bibcode=2003SciAm.289b..66H |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26060404 |access-date=13 November 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The Greek myth of [[Narcissus (mythology)|Narcissus]] describes a young man who fell in love with his reflection in the still pool of a spring. Narcissus gazed into "an unmuddied spring, silvery from its glittering waters, which neither shepherds nor she-goats grazing on the mountain nor any other cattle had touched, which neither bird nor beast nor branch fallen from a tree had disturbed." (Ovid)<ref name="Narcissus">{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Max |title=Narcissus: Myth and Magic |journal=The Classical Journal |date=April–May 2000 |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=363–389 |jstor=3298150 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3298150 |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref>

The early 20th century American photographer, [[James Reuel Smith]] created a comprehensive series of photographs documenting the historical springs of New York City before they were capped by the city after the advent of the municipal water system.<ref name="NYHS - brooklyn">{{cite web |title=James Reuel Smith springs and wells photograph collection 1893–1902 – Brooklyn collection |url=https://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3Ajrsmith?f%5B0%5D=mods_subject_geographic_ms%3A%22Brooklyn%5C%20%5C%28New%5C%20York%2C%5C%20N.Y.%5C%29%5C-%5C-Photographs%22 |publisher=New York Historical Society digital collection |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref> Smith later photographed springs in Europe leading to his book, ''Springs and Wells in Greek and Roman Literature, Their Legends and Locations'' (1922).<ref name="SWGRL">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=James Reuel |title=Springs and Wells in Greek and Roman Literature |date=1922 |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |location=New York and London |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924075437420 |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref>

The 19th century Japanese artists [[Utagawa Hiroshige]] and [[Utagawa Toyokuni III]] created a series of [[Woodblock printing in Japan|wood-block prints]], ''Two Artists Tour the Seven Hot Springs (Sōhitsu shichitō meguri)'' in 1854.<ref name="FAMSF">{{cite web |title=Sokokura, from the series Two Artists Tour the Seven Hot Springs (Sōhitsu shichitō meguri) |url=https://art.famsf.org/utagawa-hiroshige/sokokura-series-two-artists-tour-seven-hot-springs-sōhitsu-shichitō-meguri |publisher=Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref>

The Chinese city [[Jinan]] is known as "a City of Springs" (Chinese: 泉城), because of its 72 spring attractions and numerous micro spring holes spread over the city centre.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview - Jinan, a City of Springs |url=http://english.jinan.gov.cn/col/col29554/index.html |access-date=2022-07-20 |website=english.jinan.gov.cn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jinan: a City of Springs |url=https://www.theworldofchinese.com/2020/04/jinan-a-city-of-springs/ |access-date=2022-07-20 |website=The World of Chinese |language=en}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120">
File:John William Waterhouse Echo And Narcissus.jpg|John William Waterhouse Echo And Narcissus, 1903
File:Lucas Cranach - Der Jungbrunnen (Gemäldegalerie Berlin).jpg|Lucas Cranach, ''Der Jungbrunnen (Fountain of Youth)'', 1546
File:Sokokura by Hiroshige2.jpg|''Sokokura, ''from the series'' Two Artists Tour the Seven Hot Springs (Sōhitsu shichitō meguri)'' by [[Utagawa Toyokuni III]] and [[Utagawa Hiroshige]], 1854
File:Oracle of Delphi, red-figure kylix, 440-430 BC, Kodros Painter, Berlin F 2538, 141668.jpg|Oracle of Delphi, red-figure kylix, Kodros Painter, depicting Pythia with a cup presumably holding water from a spring, 440–430 BC
File:A Woman Drinks at the Carmen Spring - James Reuel Smith.jpg|''A Woman Drinks at the Carmen Spring, on West 175th Street and Amsterdam Avenue, New York City'', by James Reuel Smith, {{Circa}} 1897–1902
File:چشمه بلقیس.png|[[Cheshme Belghais Garden|Belqais Spring Garden]], [[Charam, Iran]], is a [[Persian gardens|Persian garden]] where all the water sources are springs located within it.
</gallery>
[[File:2a Zhao Mengfu Autumn Colors on the Qiao and Hua Mountains (central part)Handscroll, ink and colors on paper, 28.4 x 93.2 cm National Palace Museum, Taipei.jpg|1000px|''Que Hua Qiu Se Tu,'' depicting the view of springs and mountains in Jinan, by [[Zhao Mengfu]], Song Dynasty (Chinese:鹊华秋色图)|alt=A Song Dynasty painting depicts the view of springs and mountains in Jinan by Zhao Mengfu(Chinese:鹊华秋色图）|center|thumb]]

== See also ==
{{Portal|Water}}
* [[Fountain]]
* [[List of spa towns]]
*[[Oasis]]
* [[Petroleum seep]]
* [[Soakage (source of water)|Soakage]]
* [[Spring line settlement]]
* [[Spring supply]]
* [[Water cycle]]
* [[Well]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{citation|year=2001 |editor=LaMoreaux, Philip E. |editor2=Tanner, Judy T |title=Springs and bottled water of the world: Ancient history, source, occurrence, quality and use |place=Berlin, Heidelberg, New York |publisher=Springer-Verlag |isbn=3-540-61841-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sjEoBmfUka0C}}
* ''Springs of Missouri'', Vineyard and Feder, [[Missouri Department of Natural Resources]], Division of Geology and Land Survey in cooperation with [[United States Geological Survey|U.S. Geological Survey]] and Missouri Department of Conservation, 1982
* Cohen, Stan (Revised 1981 edition), ''Springs of the Virginias: A Pictorial History'', [[Charleston, West Virginia]]: Quarrier Press.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Springs}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20021121180111/http://www.rps.psu.edu/0201/water.html "The Science of Springs"]
*[http://www.srwmd.state.fl.us/index.aspx?NID=56 "What Is a Spring?"]
*[http://www.findaspring.com/ Find a spring]

{{Rivers, streams and springs}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Spring (Hydrosphere)}}
[[Category:Springs (hydrology)| ]]
[[Category:Drinking water]]
[[Category:Freshwater ecology]]
[[Category:Geomorphology]]
[[Category:Hydrology]]
[[Category:Subterranean rivers| ]]
[[Category:Bodies of water]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]