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{{Short description|Illusions or tricks to change appearance}}
{{Redirect|Creature effects|the company|Creature Effects, Inc.|other uses|Special Effects (disambiguation)}}
{{More footnotes|date=June 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
[[File:Noël-Noël Pigrizia.jpg|thumb|A special effect of a miniature person from the 1952 film ''[[The Seven Deadly Sins (1952 film)|The Seven Deadly Sins]]'']]

'''Special effects''' (often abbreviated as '''F/X''' or simply '''FX''') are illusions or visual tricks used in the [[theater]], [[film]], [[television]], [[video game]], [[amusement park]] and [[Simulation|simulator]] [[Industry (economics)|industries]] to simulate the fictional events in a [[Narrative|story]] or [[virtual world]]. It is sometimes abbreviated as '''SFX''', but this may also refer to ''[[sound effect]]s''.

Special effects are traditionally divided into the categories of '''mechanical effects''' and '''optical effects'''. With the emergence of digital filmmaking a distinction between special effects and [[visual effects]] has grown, with the latter referring to digital [[post-production]] and optical effects, while "special effects" refers to mechanical effects.

Mechanical effects (also called [[Practical effect|practical]] or [[physical effects]]) are usually accomplished during the live-action shooting. This includes the use of mechanised [[Theatrical property|props]], scenery, [[scale model]]s, [[animatronics]], [[pyrotechnics]] and atmospheric effects: creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds, making a car appear to drive by itself and blowing up a building, etc. Mechanical effects are also often incorporated into set design and make-up. For example, [[prosthetic make-up]] can be used to make an actor look like a non-human creature.

Optical effects (also called photographic effects) are the techniques in which images or film frames are created photographically, either "in-camera" using [[multiple exposure]], [[Matte (filmmaking)|mattes]] or the [[Schüfftan process]] or in post-production using an [[optical printer]]. An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background.

Since the 1990s, [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI) has come to the forefront of special effects technologies. It gives filmmakers greater control, and allows many effects to be accomplished more safely and convincingly and—as technology improves—at lower costs. As a result, many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been superseded by CGI.

==Developmental history==

===Early development===
[[File:The Execution of Mary Stuart, 1895.ogv|thumb|''The Execution of Mary Stuart'' (1895)]]

In 1857, [[Oscar Gustave Rejlander|Oscar Rejlander]] created the world's first "special effects" image by combining different sections of 32 negatives into a single image, making a [[Photomontage|montage]]d [[combination print]]. In 1895, [[Alfred Clark (director)|Alfred Clark]] created what is commonly accepted as the first-ever motion picture special effect. While filming a reenactment of the beheading of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], Clark instructed an actor to step up to the block in Mary's costume. As the executioner brought the axe above his head, Clark stopped the camera, had all of the actors freeze, and had the person playing Mary step off the set. He placed a Mary dummy in the actor's place, restarted filming, and allowed the executioner to bring the axe down, severing the dummy's head. Techniques like these would dominate the production of special effects for a century.<ref>Rickitt, 10.</ref>

It wasn't only the first use of trickery in cinema, it was also the first type of photographic trickery that was only possible in a motion picture, and referred to as the "stop trick". [[Georges Méliès]], an early motion picture pioneer, accidentally discovered the same "stop trick." According to Méliès, his camera jammed while filming a street scene in Paris. When he screened the film, he found that the "stop trick" had caused a truck to turn into a hearse, pedestrians to change direction, and men to turn into women. Méliès, the stage manager at the Theatre Robert-Houdin, was inspired to develop a series of more than 500 short films between 1896 and 1914, in the process developing or inventing such techniques as [[multiple exposure]]s, [[time-lapse photography]], [[dissolve (filmmaking)|dissolve]]s, and hand painted colour. Because of his ability to seemingly manipulate and transform reality with the [[cinematograph]], the prolific Méliès is sometimes referred to as the "Cinemagician." His most famous film, ''[[A Trip to the Moon|Le Voyage dans la lune]]'' (1902), a whimsical parody of [[Jules Verne]]'s ''[[From the Earth to the Moon]]'', featured a combination of live action and [[animation]], and also incorporated extensive [[Scale model|miniature]] and [[matte painting]] work.

From 1910 to 1920, the main innovations in special effects were the improvements on the matte shot by [[Norman Dawn]]. With the original matte shot, pieces of cardboard were placed to block the exposure of the film, which would be exposed later. Dawn combined this technique with the "glass shot." Rather than using cardboard to block certain areas of the film exposure, Dawn simply painted certain areas black to prevent any light from exposing the film. From the partially exposed film, a single frame is then projected onto an easel, where the matte is then drawn. By creating the matte from an image directly from the film, it became incredibly easy to paint an image with proper respect to scale and perspective (the main flaw of the glass shot). Dawn's technique became the textbook for matte shots due to the natural images it created.<ref>Baker, 101-4</ref>

During the 1920s and 1930s, special effects techniques were improved and refined by the motion picture industry. Many techniques—such as the [[Schüfftan process]]—were modifications of illusions from the theatre (such as [[pepper's ghost]]) and still photography (such as double exposure and [[Matte (filmmaking)|matte]] compositing). [[Rear projection]] was a refinement of the use of painted backgrounds in the theatre, substituting moving pictures to create moving backgrounds. Lifecasting of faces was imported from traditional maskmaking. Along with make-up advances, fantastic masks could be created which fit the actor perfectly. As material science advanced, horror film maskmaking followed closely.

[[File:King Kong 1933 Promotional Image.png|thumb|Publicity still for the 1933 film ''King Kong'', which used [[stop-motion]] model special effects]]
Many studios established in-house "special effects" departments, which were responsible for nearly all optical and mechanical aspects of motion-picture trickery. Also, the challenge of simulating spectacle in motion encouraged the development of the use of miniatures. [[Animation]], creating the illusion of motion, was accomplished with drawings (most notably by [[Winsor McCay]] in ''[[Gertie the Dinosaur]]'') and with three-dimensional models (most notably by [[Willis O'Brien]] in ''[[The Lost World (1925 film)|The Lost World]]'' and ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]''). Naval battles could be depicted with models in studio. Tanks and aeroplanes could be flown (and crashed) without risk of life and limb. Most impressively, miniatures and [[matte paintings]] could be used to depict worlds that never existed. [[Fritz Lang]]'s film ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' was an early special effects spectacular, with innovative use of miniatures, matte paintings, the Schüfftan process, and complex compositing.

An important innovation in special-effects photography was the development of the [[optical printer]]. Essentially, an optical printer is a projector aiming into a camera lens, and it was developed to make copies of films for distribution. Until [[Linwood G. Dunn]] refined the design and use of the optical printer, effects shots were accomplished as [[in-camera effect]]s. Dunn demonstrating that it could be used to combine images in novel ways and create new illusions. One early showcase for Dunn was [[Orson Welles]]' ''[[Citizen Kane]]'', where such locations as [[Xanadu (Citizen Kane)|Xanadu]] (and some of [[Gregg Toland]]'s famous '[[deep focus]]' shots) were essentially created by Dunn's optical printer.

===Color era===
[[File:Madame Nobel - film set at the Embassy of France in Vienna May 2014 08.jpg|thumb|right|A [[period drama]] set in [[Vienna]] uses a [[Chroma key|green screen]] as a backdrop, to allow a background to be added during [[post-production]].]]

The development of color photography required greater refinement of effects techniques. Color enabled the development of such ''travelling matte'' techniques as [[Chroma key|bluescreen]] and the [[sodium vapour process]]. Many films became landmarks in special-effects accomplishments: ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'' used matte paintings, animation, and miniature work to create spectacular alien environments. In ''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'', Paramount's [[John P. Fulton]], A.S.C., multiplied the crowds of extras in the Exodus scenes with careful compositing, depicted the massive constructions of Rameses with models, and split the [[Red Sea]] in a still-impressive combination of travelling mattes and water tanks. [[Ray Harryhausen]] extended the art of stop-motion animation with his special techniques of compositing to create spectacular fantasy adventures such as [[Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)|''Jason and the Argonauts'']] (whose climax, a sword battle with seven animated skeletons, is considered a landmark in special effects).

===The science fiction boom===
During the 1950s and 1960s numerous new special effects were developed which would dramatically increase the level of realism achievable in [[science fiction film]]s. Sci-fi special effects milestones in the 1950s included the [[Godzilla (franchise)|''Godzilla'' films]], ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]]'' (featuring [[Klaatu (The Day the Earth Stood Still)|Klaatu]]), and [[3-D films]].<ref name="Tron">{{cite magazine |title=The Making of Tron |magazine=Video Games Player |date=September 1982 |volume=1 |issue=1 |publisher=Carnegie Publications |pages=50–5 |url=https://archive.org/details/Video_Games_Player_Vol_1_No_1_1982-09_Carnegie_Publications_US/page/n49/mode/2up}}</ref>
[[File:Eiji Tsuburaya - AP 1961.jpg|thumb|[[Godzilla]] co-creator [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] is one of the most influential individuals in the history of special effects.]]
The ''[[tokusatsu]]'' genre of [[Japanese science fiction]] film and television, which includes the ''[[kaiju]]'' sub-genre of [[Monster movie|monster films]], rose to prominence in the 1950s. The special-effects director [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] and the director [[Ishirō Honda]] became the driving forces behind the [[Godzilla (1954 film)|original ''Godzilla'']] (1954). Taking inspiration from ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933), Tsuburaya formulated many of the techniques that would become staples of the ''tokusatsu'' genre, such as so-called [[suitmation]]—the use of a human actor in a costume to play a giant monster—combined with the use of miniatures and scaled-down city sets. ''Godzilla'' changed the landscape of [[Japanese cinema]], science fiction and fantasy,<ref>''Millennial Monsters: Japanese Toys and the Global Imagination'', pp. 47–8. {{ISBN|0-520-24565-2}}</ref> and kickstarted the ''kaiju'' genre in Japan called the "Monster Boom", which remained extremely popular for several decades, with characters such as the aforementioned [[Godzilla]], [[Gamera]] and [[King Ghidorah]] leading the market. Tokusatsu films, notably ''[[Warning from Space]]'' (1956), sparked [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s interest in science fiction films; according to his biographer [[John Baxter (author)|John Baxter]], despite their "clumsy model sequences, the films were often well-photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well-designed and well-lit sets."<ref>{{cite book|last=Baxter|first=John|date=1997|title=Stanley Kubrick: A Biography|page=[https://archive.org/details/stanleykubrickbi00baxt/page/200 200]|location=New York|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0786704853|url=https://archive.org/details/stanleykubrickbi00baxt/page/200}}</ref>
 
In 1968, Stanley Kubrick assembled his own effects team ([[Douglas Trumbull]], [[Tom Howard (special effects)|Tom Howard]], Con Pederson and Wally Veevers) rather than use an in-house effects unit for ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]''. In this film, the spaceship miniatures were highly detailed and carefully photographed for a realistic [[depth of field]]. The shots of spaceships were combined through hand-drawn [[rotoscoping]] and careful motion-control work, ensuring that the elements were precisely combined in the camera—a surprising throwback to the silent era, but with spectacular results. Backgrounds of the African vistas in the "Dawn of Man" sequence were combined with soundstage photography via the then-new [[front projection]] technique. Scenes set in zero-gravity environments were staged with hidden wires, mirror shots, and large-scale rotating sets. The finale, a voyage through hallucinogenic scenery, was created by Douglas Trumbull using a new technique termed [[slit-scan]].

The 1970s provided two profound changes in the special effects trade. The first was economic: during the industry's recession in the late 1960s and early 1970s, many studios closed down their in-house effects houses. Technicians became freelancers or founded their own effects companies, sometimes specialising on particular techniques (opticals, animation, etc.).

The second was precipitated by the blockbuster success of two science-fiction and fantasy films in 1977. [[George Lucas]]'s ''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]'' ushered in an era of science-fiction films with expensive and impressive special effects. Effects supervisor [[John Dykstra]], A.S.C. and crew developed many improvements in existing effects technology. They created a computer-controlled camera rig called the "Dykstraflex" that allowed precise repetition of camera motion, greatly facilitating travelling-matte compositing. Degradation of film images during compositing was minimised by other innovations: the Dykstraflex used [[VistaVision]] cameras that photographed [[widescreen]] images horizontally along stock, using far more of the film per frame, and thinner-emulsion filmstocks were used in the compositing process. The effects crew assembled by Lucas was dubbed [[Industrial Light & Magic]], and since 1977 has spearheaded many effects innovations.

That same year, [[Steven Spielberg]]'s film ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'' boasted a finale with impressive special effects by ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001]]'' veteran Douglas Trumbull. In addition to developing his own motion-control system, Trumbull also developed techniques for creating intentional "[[lens flare]]" (the shapes created by light reflecting in camera lenses) to provide the film's undefinable shapes of flying saucers.

The success of these films, and others since, has prompted massive studio investment in effects-heavy science-fiction films. This has fuelled the establishment of many independent effects houses, a tremendous degree of refinement of existing techniques, and the development of new techniques such as [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI). It has also encouraged within the industry a greater distinction between special effects and [[visual effects]]; the latter is used to characterise post-production and optical work, while "special effects" refers more often to on-set and mechanical effects.

===Introduction of computer-generated imagery (CGI)===
The use of [[computer animation]] in film dates back to the early 1980s, with the films ''[[Tron]]'' (1982)<ref name="Tron"/> and ''[[Golgo 13: The Professional]]'' (1983).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Beck|first1=Jerry|title=The Animated Movie Guide|date=2005|publisher=[[Chicago Review Press]]|isbn=1569762228|page=216|url=https://archive.org/details/animatedmoviegui0000beck/page/216|url-access=registration}}</ref> Since the 1990s, a profound innovation in special effects has been the development of [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI), which has changed nearly every aspect of motion picture special effects. Digital compositing allows far more control and creative freedom than optical compositing, and does not degrade the image as with analogue (optical) processes. Digital imagery has enabled technicians to create detailed models, matte "paintings," and even fully realised characters with the malleability of computer software.

Arguably the biggest and most "spectacular" use of CGI is in the creation of photo-realistic images of science-fiction/fantasy characters, settings and objects. Images can be created in a computer using the techniques of animated cartoons and model animation. ''[[The Last Starfighter]]'' (1984) used computer generated spaceships instead of physical [[scale model]]s. In 1993, stop-motion animators working on the realistic dinosaurs of [[Steven Spielberg]]'s ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]'' were retrained in the use of computer input devices. By 1995, films such as ''[[Toy Story]]'' underscored the fact that the distinction between live-action films and animated films was no longer clear. Other landmark examples include a character made up of broken pieces of a stained-glass window in ''[[Young Sherlock Holmes]]'', a shape-shifting character in ''[[Willow (1988 film)|Willow]]'', a tentacle formed from water in ''[[The Abyss]]'', the T-1000 Terminator in ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'', hordes and armies of robots and fantastic creatures in the ''[[Star Wars prequel trilogy|Star Wars (prequel)]]'' and ''[[The Lord of the Rings (film series)|The Lord of the Rings]]'' trilogies, and the planet, Pandora, in ''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]''.

In 2025, [[Christian Clavier]] compared [[Georges Méliès|Méliès]]’ early trick effects to the current use of [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] in visual effects<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vertigo |first=Léa |date=2025-07-06 |title=When Méliès meets AI |url=https://www.duanju.fr/en/post/when-melies-meets-ai |access-date=2025-08-07 |website=Duanju |language=en}}</ref>.

==Planning and use==
Although most visual effects work is completed during [[post-production]], it must be carefully planned and choreographed in [[pre-production]] and [[film production|production]]. A [[visual effects supervisor]] is usually involved with the production from an early stage to work closely with the Director and all related personnel to achieve the desired effects.

Practical effects also require significant pre-planning and co-ordination with performers and production teams. The live nature of the effects can result in situations where resetting due to an error, mistake, or safety concern incurs significant expense, or is impossible due to the destructive nature of the effect.

==Live special effects==
Live special effects are effects that are used in front of a live audience, such as in theatre, sporting generation genre, concerts and corporate shows. Types of effects that are commonly used include: flying effects, [[laser lighting display|laser lighting]], [[theatrical smoke and fog]], [[Theatrical smoke and fog#Carbon dioxide and dry ice|CO<sub>2</sub> effects]], and [[pyrotechnics]]. Other atmospheric effects can include flame, [[confetti]], bubbles, and snow.<ref name="Hammelef2015">{{cite book|author=Danielle S. Hammelef|title=Explosive Scenes: Fireballs, Furious Storms, and More Live Special Effects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TFrmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|year=2015|publisher=Capstone|isbn=978-1-4914-2003-4|page=18}}</ref>

One notable example of live special effects in theatre production is in the [[Bregenzer Festspiele|Bregenz Festival]] with its use of a large, intricate stage that moves to supplement what's being acted on stage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bregenz Festival's most spectacular water stages |url=https://www.cinemalive.com/blog/bregenz-festival-spectacular-water-stages |access-date=2022-03-06 |website=CinemaLive |language=en}}</ref>

==Mechanical effects==
[[File:Rig & Gimbal Mechanical Special Effects.gif|thumb|Rig & Gimbal Mechanical Special Effects]]

[[Mechanical effects]] encompass the use of [[mechanical engineering]] to a greater degree. Cars being flipped and hauled over buildings are usually an effect built on specialised [[rig (stage lighting)|rigs]] and [[gimbal|gimbals]]. Usually a team of engineers or freelance film companies provide these effects to [[Production company|producers]]. Camera workers, stunt artists or doubles, directors and engineers collaborate to produce the proper effect as the action is recorded against a green screen. It is then edited and reviewed before final release to the public.

==Visual special effects techniques==

[[File:Exploded_bullet_hit_squibs_on_an_actor_wearing_scrubs_(cropped).jpg|thumb|An actor behind-the-scenes with pre-scored "bullet holes" on his [[dead-character costume|costume]] and [[bullet hit squib|squibs]] blowing open [[fake blood]] packets for a [[gunshot wound]] stunt.]]

{{Div col|colwidth=27em}}
* [[Bullet hit squibs]]
* [[Bullet time]]
* [[Computer-generated imagery]] (often using [[Shader]]s)
* [[Digital compositing]]
* [[Dolly zoom]]
* [[In-camera effect]]s
* [[Match moving]]
* [[Matte (filmmaking)]] and [[Matte painting]]
* [[Video matting]]
* [[Miniature effect]]s
* [[Morphing]]
* [[Motion control photography]]
* [[Optical effect]]s
* [[Optical printer|Optical printing]]
* [[Practical effect]]s
* [[Prosthetic make-up]] effects
* [[Rotoscoping]]
* [[Reverse motion]]
* [[Stop motion]]
* [[Go motion]]
* [[Schüfftan process]]
* [[Splash of color|Splash of colour]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peshin |first1=Akash |title=How Are Black And White Films Colorized? |url=https://www.scienceabc.com/innovation/how-are-black-and-white-films-colorized.html |website=Science ABC |publisher=Wattcon Technologies Private Limited |access-date=14 October 2023 |date=4 December 2017}}</ref>
* [[Travelling matte]]
* [[Virtual cinematography]]
* [[Wire removal]]
{{Div col end}}

==Noted special effects companies==
{{Div col|colwidth=27em}}
* [[Adobe Systems Incorporated]] (San Jose, USA)
* [[Animal Logic]] (Sydney, Australia; Venice, USA)
* [[Bird Studios]] (London, UK)
* [[BUF Compagnie]] (Paris, France)
* [[Scanline VFX|CA Scanline]] (Munich, Germany)
* [[Cinema Research Corporation]], defunct (Hollywood, USA)
* [[Cinesite]] (London, UK; Hollywood, USA)
* [[Mark Rappaport (creature effects artist)|Creature Effects, Inc.]] (Los Angeles, USA)
* [[Digital Domain]] (Playa Vista,  USA)
* [[DNEG]] (London, UK)
* [[DreamWorks Pictures|DreamWorks]] (Los Angeles, USA)
* [[Flash Film Works]] (Los Angeles, USA)
* [[Fireark Special Effects]] (Brisbane, Australia)
* [[Framestore]] (London, UK)
* [[Hydraulx]] (Santa Monica, USA)
* [[Image Engine]] (Vancouver, Canada)
* [[Industrial Light & Magic]] (San Francisco, USA), founded by [[George Lucas]]
* [[Intelligent Creatures]] (Toronto, Canada)
* [[Jim Henson's Creature Shop]], (Los Angeles; Hollywood; Camden Town, London)
* [[Legacy Effects]], (Los Angeles, USA)
* [[Look Effects]], (Culver City, USA)
* [[M5 Industries]] (San Francisco, USA) home of ''[[MythBusters]]''
* [[Mac Guff]] (Los Angeles, USA; Paris, France)
* Machine Shop (London, UK)
* [[Makuta VFX]] (Universal City, USA; Hyderabad, India)
* [[Matte World Digital]] (Novato, USA)
* [[Method Studios]] (Los Angeles, USA; New York, USA; Vancouver, Canada)
* [[The Mill (post-production)|The Mill]] (London, UK; New York, USA; Los Angeles, USA)
* [[Modus FX]] (Montreal, Canada)
* [[Moving Picture Company]] (Soho, London, UK)
* [[Pixomondo]] (Frankfurt; Munich; Stuttgart; Los Angeles; Beijing; Toronto; Baton Rouge, LA)
* [[Rainmaker Digital Effects]] (Vancouver, Canada)
* [[Rhythm and Hues Studios]] (Los Angeles, USA)
* [[Rise FX]] (Berlin, Germany)
* [[Rising Sun Pictures]] (Adelaide, Australia)
* [[Rodeo FX]] (Montreal; Munich; Los Angeles)
* [[Snowmasters]] (Lexington, AL, USA)
* [[Sony Pictures Imageworks]] (Culver City, USA)
* [[Strictly FX]], live special effects company
* [[Surreal World]] (Melbourne, Australia)
* Super FX, Special Effects Company (Italy)
* [[Tippett Studio]] (Berkeley, USA)
* [[Tsuburaya Productions]] (Hachimanyama, Setagaya, Tokyo)
* [[Vision Crew Unlimited]], defunct (Los Angeles, USA)
* [[Wētā FX]], (Wellington, New Zealand)
* [[Zoic Studios]] (Culver City, USA)
* [[ZFX Inc]] a flying effects company (Louisville, USA; Utrecht, the Netherlands)
{{Div col end}}

==Noted special effects directors==
* [[Eiji Tsuburaya]], the "Father of [[Tokusatsu]]"
* [[Tom Howard (special effects)|Tom Howard]]
* [[John P. Fulton]]
* [[Gordon Jennings]]
* [[Douglas Trumbull]]
* [[Ken Pepiot]]
* [[Stan Winston]]
* [[John Dykstra]]
* [[Koichi Kawakita]]
* [[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
* [[Yonesaburo Tsukiji]]
* [[Yoshiyuki Kuroda]]
* [[Yoshihiro Nishimura]]
* [[Akira Watanabe (art director)|Akira Watanabe]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* [http://www.cinefex.com/ ''Cinefex''] magazine
* [http://www.ascmag.com/magazine_includes/index.php ''American Cinematographer''] magazine
* Richard Rickitt: ''Special Effects: The History and Technique'', [[Billboard Books]]; 2nd edition, 2007; {{ISBN|0-8230-8408-6}}
* ''Movie Magic: The History of Special Effects in the Cinema'' by [[John Brosnan]] (1974)
*''Techniques of Special Effects Cinematography'' by [[Raymond Fielding]] (For many years, the standard technical reference. Current edition 1985)
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/specialfx2/ Special Effects: Titanic and Beyond] The online companion site to the NOVA documentary (See especially the [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/specialfx2/timeline.html timeline] and [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/specialfx2/glossary.html glossary])
* T. Porter and T. Duff, "Compositing Digital Images", Proceedings of SIGGRAPH '84, 18 (1984).
* The Art and Science of Digital Compositing ({{ISBN|0-12-133960-2}})
* {{cite book |first=Shilo T.|last=McClean| title=Digital Storytelling: The Narrative Power of Visual Effects in Film | year=2007 | publisher=[[The MIT Press]] | isbn=978-0-262-13465-1}}
* [[Mark Cotta Vaz]]; [[Craig Barron]]: ''The Invisible Art: The Legends of Movie Matte Painting'', Chronicle Books, 2004; {{ISBN|0-8118-4515-X}}
* Larry Nile Baker, A History of Special Effects Cinematography in the United States, 1895–1914'', Larry Nile Baker, 1969.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links| wikt=no | commons=no | b=no | n=no | q=Special effect | s=no | v=no | voy=no | species=no | d=no}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0BYovvLhy7A Video (03:04) – Evolution of Special Effects since 1878.]
* [https://chinesefilmclassics.org/special-effects-%e7%89%b9%e6%8a%80/ Chinese Film Classics: Special effects in early Chinese cinema]: clips and discussion of special effects in Chinese films from before 1949, on scholarly website chinesefilmclassics.org

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{{Special Effects}}
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