View source for Sorghum

{{Short description|Species of grain}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{About|the crop species|the genus|Sorghum (genus)|other uses}}
{{Speciesbox
|italic_title = no
|image = Sorghum bicolor03.jpg
|genus = Sorghum
|species = bicolor
|authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Conrad Moench|Moench]]
|synonyms = 
  {{collapsible list |
    {{plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
* ''Agrostis nigricans'' (Ruiz & Pav.) Poir.
* ''Andropogon besseri'' Kunth
* ''Andropogon bicolor'' (L.) Roxb.
* ''Andropogon caffrorum'' (Thunb.) Kunth
* ''Andropogon compactus'' Brot.
* ''Andropogon dulcis'' Burm.f.
* ''Andropogon niger'' (Ard.) Kunth
* ''Andropogon saccharatrus'' Kunth
* ''Andropogon saccharatus'' (L.) Raspail
* ''Andropogon sorghum'' (L.) Brot.
* ''Andropogon subglabrescens'' Steud.
* ''Andropogon truchmenorum'' Walp.
* ''Andropogon usorum'' Steud.
* ''Andropogon vulgare'' (Pers.) Balansa
* ''Andropogon vulgaris'' Raspail
* ''Holcus arduinii'' J.F.Gmel.
* ''Holcus bicolor'' L.
* ''Holcus cafer'' Ard.
* ''Holcus caffrorum'' (Retz.) Thunb.
* ''Holcus cernuus'' Ard.
* ''Holcus cernuus'' Muhl. nom. illeg.
* ''Holcus cernuus'' Willd. nom. illeg.
* ''Holcus compactus'' Lam.
* ''Holcus dochna'' Forssk.
* ''Holcus dora'' Mieg
* ''Holcus duna'' J.F.Gmel.
* ''Holcus durra'' Forssk.
* ''Holcus niger'' Ard.
* ''Holcus nigerrimus'' Ard.
* ''Holcus rubens'' Gaertn.
* ''Holcus saccharatus'' var. ''technicus'' (Körn.) Farw.
* ''Holcus sorghum'' L.
* ''Holcus sorghum'' Brot. nom. illeg.
* ''Milium bicolor'' (L.) Cav.
* ''Milium compactum'' (Lam.) Cav.
* ''Milium maximum'' Cav.
* ''Milium nigricans'' Ruiz & Pav.
* ''Milium sorghum'' (L.) Cav.
* ''Panicum caffrorum'' Retz.
* ''Panicum frumentaceum'' Salisb. nom. illeg.
* ''Rhaphis sorghum'' (L.) Roberty
* ''Sorghum abyssinicum'' (Hack.) Chiov. nom. illeg.
* ''Sorghum ankolib'' (Hack.) Stapf
* ''Sorghum anomalum'' Desv.
* ''Sorghum arduinii'' (Gmel.) J.Jacq.
* ''Sorghum basiplicatum'' Chiov.
* ''Sorghum basutorum'' Snowden
* ''Sorghum caffrorum'' (Retz.) P.Beauv.
* ''Sorghum campanum'' Ten. & Guss.
* ''Sorghum caudatum'' (Hack.) Stapf
* ''Sorghum centroplicatum'' Chiov.
* ''Sorghum cernuum'' (Ard.) Host
* ''Sorghum compactum'' Lag.
* ''Sorghum conspicuum'' Snowden
* ''Sorghum coriaceum'' Snowden
* ''Sorghum dochna'' (Forssk.) Snowden
* ''Sorghum dora'' (Mieg) Cuoco
* ''Sorghum dulcicaule'' Snowden
* ''Sorghum dura'' Griseb.
* ''Sorghum durra'' (Forssk.) Batt. & Trab.
* ''Sorghum elegans'' (Körn.) Snowden
* ''Sorghum eplicatum'' Chiov.
* ''Sorghum exsertum'' Snowden
* ''Sorghum gambicum'' Snowden
* ''Sorghum giganteum'' Edgew.
* ''Sorghum glabrescens'' (Steud.) Schweinf. & Asch.
* ''Sorghum glycychylum'' Pass.
* ''Sorghum guineense'' Stapf
* ''Sorghum japonicum'' (Hack.) Roshev.
* ''Sorghum margaritiferum'' Stapf
* ''Sorghum medioplicatum'' Chiov.
* ''Sorghum melaleucum'' Stapf
* ''Sorghum melanocarpum'' Huber
* ''Sorghum mellitum'' Snowden
* ''Sorghum membranaceum'' Chiov.
* ''Sorghum miliiforme'' (Hack.) Snowden
* ''Sorghum nankinense'' Huber
* ''Sorghum nervosum'' Besser ex Schult. & Schult.f.
* ''Sorghum nervosum'' Chiov. nom. illeg.
* ''Sorghum nigricans'' (Ruiz & Pav.) Snowden
* ''Sorghum nigrum'' (Ard.) Roem. & Schult.
* ''Sorghum notabile'' Snowden
* ''Sorghum pallidum'' Chiov. nom. illeg.
* ''Sorghum papyrascens'' Stapf
* ''Sorghum rigidum'' Snowden
* ''Sorghum rollii'' Chiov.
* ''Sorghum roxburghii'' var. ''hians'' (Hook.f.) Stapf
* ''Sorghum saccharatum'' Host nom. illeg.
* ''Sorghum saccharatum'' (L.) Pers. nom. illeg.
* ''Sorghum sativum'' (Hack.) Batt. & Trab.
* ''Sorghum schimperi'' (Hack.) Chiov. nom. illeg.
* ''Sorghum simulans'' Snowden
* ''Sorghum splendidum'' (Hack.) Snowden
* ''Sorghum subglabrescens'' (Steud.) Schweinf. & Asch.
* ''Sorghum tataricum'' Huber
* ''Sorghum technicum'' (Körn.) Batt. & Trab.
* ''Sorghum technicum'' (Körn.) Roshev.
* ''Sorghum truchmenorum'' K.Koch
* ''Sorghum usorum'' Nees
* ''Sorghum vulgare'' Pers. nom. illeg.
    }}
  }}
|synonyms_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench — The Plant List |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-443283 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241227164910/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-443283 |url-status=live |archive-date=2024-12-27 |website=www.theplantlist.org}}</ref>
}}

'''''Sorghum bicolor''''', commonly called '''sorghum'''<ref>{{PLANTS|id=SOBI2|taxon=Sorghum bicolor|access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɔr|ɡ|ə|m}}) and also known as '''great millet''',<ref name=BSBI07>{{BSBI 2007 |access-date=14 December 2021 }}</ref> '''broomcorn''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Broomcorn |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/broomcorn |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=www.merriam-webster.com}}</ref> '''guinea corn''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Guinea corn |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Guinea+corn |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=www.merriam-webster.com}}</ref> '''durra''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Durra |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/durra |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=www.merriam-webster.com}}</ref> '''imphee''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Imphee |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/imphee |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=www.merriam-webster.com}}</ref> '''jowar''',<ref>{{cite web |title=jowar |url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/jowar |work=The Free Dictionary |access-date=14 December 2021}}</ref> or '''milo''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Milo |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/milo|access-date=14 December 2021 |website=www.merriam-webster.com}}</ref> is a species in the [[Poaceae|grass]] genus ''[[Sorghum (genus)|Sorghum]]'' cultivated for its [[grain]]. The grain is used as food by humans, while the plant is used for animal feed and ethanol production. Sorghum originated in Africa, and is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions.

Sorghum is the world's fifth-most important [[cereal]] crop after [[rice]], [[wheat]], [[maize]], and [[barley]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Major Cereal Grains Production and Use around the World|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/bk-2011-1089.ch001|access-date=13 October 2024|website=pubs.acs.org|series=ACS Symposium Series |date=2011 |doi=10.1021/bk-2011-1089.ch001 |last1=Awika |first1=Joseph M. |volume=1089 |pages=1–13 |isbn=978-0-8412-2636-4 }}</ref> Sorghum is typically an annual, but some cultivars are perennial. It grows in clumps that may reach over {{convert|4|m}} high. The grain is small, {{convert|2 to 4|mm|sigfig=1}} in diameter. [[Sweet sorghum]]s are cultivars grown for forage, syrup production, and ethanol. They are taller than those grown for grain.

== Description ==

{{see also|Sorghum (genus)}}

Sorghum is a large stout grass that grows up to {{convert |2.4 |m |ft}} tall. It has large bushy flowerheads or [[panicle]]s that provide an edible starchy grain with up to 3,000 seeds in each flowerhead. It grows in warm climates worldwide for food and forage.<ref>{{BONAP |ref |genus=Sorghum |access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |title=sorghum: grain |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/sorghum-grain |publisher=Britannica |access-date=6 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10722-009-9466-7 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=243–253 |last1=Mutegi |first1=Evans |first2=Fabrice |last2=Sagnard |first3=Moses |last3=Muraya |first4=Ben |last4=Kanyenji |first5=Bernard |last5=Rono |first6=Caroline |last6=Mwongera |first7=Charles |last7=Marangu |first8=Joseph |last8=Kamau |first9=Heiko |last9=Parzies |first10=Santie |last10=de Villiers |first11=Kassa |last11=Semagn |first12=Pierre |last12=Traoré |first13=Maryke |last13=Labuschagne |title=Ecogeographical distribution of wild, weedy and cultivated ''Sorghum bicolor'' (L.) Moench in Kenya: implications for conservation and crop-to-wild gene flow |journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |date=2010-02-01 |bibcode=2010GRCEv..57..243M |s2cid=28318220 |display-authors=5 |url=http://oar.icrisat.org/2032/1/GRCE57_243-253__2010.pdf }}</ref> Sorghum is native to Africa with many cultivated forms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sorghum- and millet-legume cropping systems |url=http://africasoilhealth.cabi.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/392-ASHC-English-Sorghum-BW-A4-lowres.pdf |last1=Hauser |first1=Stefan |last2=Wairegi |first2=Lydia |last3=Asadu |first3=Charles L.A. |last4=Asawalam |first4=Damian O. |last5=Jokthan |first5=Grace |last6=Ugbe |first6=Utiang |publisher=Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International and Africa Soil Health Consortium |access-date=7 October 2018 |date=2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dillon |first1=Sally L. |last2=Shapter |first2=Frances M. |last3=Henry |first3=Robert J. |last4=Izquierdo |first4=Liz |last5=Lee |first5=L. Slade |title=Domestication to Crop Improvement: Genetic Resources for ''Sorghum'' and ''Saccharum'' (Andropogoneae) |journal=[[Annals of Botany]] |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=975–989 |date=1 September 2007 |pmc=2759214 |display-authors=3 |pmid=17766842 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcm192}}</ref> Most production uses annual cultivars, but some wild species of ''Sorghum'' are perennial, which may enable [[the Land Institute]] to develop a perennial cultivar for "repeated, sufficient grain harvests without resowing."<ref name="Land Institute">{{cite web |title=Perennial Sorghum |url=https://landinstitute.org/our-work/perennial-crops/perennial-sorghum/ |publisher=[[The Land Institute]] |access-date=7 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sorghum Moench |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331290-2 |access-date=2024-05-10 |website=Plants of the World Online }}</ref> The name sorghum derives from Italian ''sorgo'', which in turn most likely comes from 12th century [[Medieval Latin]] ''surgum'' or ''suricum''. This in turn may be from Latin ''syricum'', meaning "[grass] of Syria".<ref name="Online Etym">{{cite web |title=sorghum (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/sorghum |publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date=7 May 2024}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
File:Flore médicale des Antilles, ou, Traité des plantes usuelles (10559146133) (cropped).jpg |Botanical illustration
File:Sorghum bicolor.JPG |Maturing crop, Germany
File:दगडी ज्वारी, आटपाडी Dagadi Jowar, Aatpadi (Sorghum bicolor).jpg |Ripe [[panicle]], India
File:Sorghum bicolor (s. lat.) p. p. sl32.jpg |alt=Grains |Branch of panicle with [[spikelet]]s
</gallery>

== Evolution ==

=== Phylogeny ===

Sorghum is closely related to [[maize]] and the [[millet]]s within the [[PACMAD clade]] of grasses, and more distantly to the [[cereal]]s of the [[BOP clade]] such as [[wheat]] and [[barley]].<ref name="Escobar Scornavacca Cenci Guilhaumon 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Escobar |first1=Juan S |last2=Scornavacca |first2=Céline |last3=Cenci |first3=Alberto |last4=Guilhaumon |first4=Claire |last5=Santoni |first5=Sylvain |last6=Douzery |first6=Emmanuel J. P. |last7=Ranwez |first7=Vincent |last8=Glémin |first8=Sylvain |last9=David |first9=Jacques |display-authors=5 |title=Multigenic phylogeny and analysis of tree incongruences in Triticeae (Poaceae) |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=2011 |page=181 |pmid=21702931 |pmc=3142523 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-181 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2011BMCEE..11..181E }}</ref>

{{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%
|label1=(Part of [[Poaceae]])
|1={{clade
   |label1= [[BOP clade]]
   |1={{clade
      |1=[[Bambusoideae]] (bamboos)
      |2={{clade
         |label1=[[Pooideae]]
         |1={{clade
            |label1=other grasses
            |1=([[fescue]], [[ryegrass]])
            |label2=[[Triticeae]]
            |2={{clade
               |1=''[[Hordeum]]'' (barley)
               |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Triticum]]'' (wheat)
                  |2=''[[Secale]]'' (rye)
                  }}
               }}
            }}
         |2=''[[Oryza]]'' (rice)
         }}
      }}
   |label2= [[PACMAD clade]] 
   |2={{clade
      |1=''[[Pennisetum]]'' (fountaingrasses, [[pearl millet]])
      |2={{clade
         |1=[[Millet]]s
         |2={{clade
            |1='''''Sorghum''''' (sorghum)
            |2=''[[Zea (plant)|Zea]]'' (maize)
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}

== History ==

=== Domestication ===

{{further|Domestication of plants}}

[[File:Piece of sorghum bread contained in basket S - Museo Egizio, Turin S 285 p09.jpg|thumb|Piece of sorghum bread contained in basket, [[Predynastic Egypt]], {{circa}} 3100 BC (5,100 years ago). [[Museo Egizio|Egyptian Museum, Turin]]<ref name="Museo Egizio">{{cite web |title=Pane di sorgo contenuto nel cesto S. 283; fa parte del corredo funerario infantile della mummia S. 278 |url=https://collezioni.museoegizio.it/it-IT/material/S_285 |publisher=Egyptian Museum, Turin |access-date=6 May 2024 |quote=S. 285, la 15 Vetrina 02}}</ref>]]

''S. bicolor'' was [[domesticated]] from its wild ancestor more than 5,000 years ago in Eastern [[Sudan]] in the area of the Rivers [[Atbarah River|Atbara]] and [[Gash River|Gash]].<ref name="Fuller Stevens 2018"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Carney |first=Judith |title=In the Shadow of Slavery |publisher=University of California Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-5202-6996-5 |page=16}}</ref> It has been found at an archaeological site near [[Kassala]] in eastern Sudan, dating from 3500 to 3000 BC, and is associated with the Neolithic [[Butana Group]] culture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Winchell |first1=Frank |last2=Stevens |first2=Chris J. |last3=Murphy |first3=Charlene |last4=Champion |first4=Louis |last5=Fuller |first5=Dorian Q. |title=Evidence for sorghum domestication in fourth millennium BC eastern Sudan: Spikelet morphology from ceramic impressions of the Butana Group |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=58 |issue=5 |year=2017 |pages=673–683 |doi=10.1086/693898 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1574602/7/Fuller_693898.pdf}}</ref> Sorghum bread from graves in [[Predynastic Egypt]], some 5,100 years ago, is displayed in the [[Museo Egizio|Egyptian Museum, Turin]], Italy.<ref name="Museo Egizio"/>

The first race to be domesticated was ''bicolor''; it had tight husks that had to be removed forcibly. Around 4,000 years ago<!--2000 BC-->, this spread to the Indian subcontinent; around 3,000 years ago it reached West Africa.<ref name="Fuller Stevens 2018"/> Four other races evolved through cultivation to have larger grains and to become free-threshing, making harvests easier and more productive. These were ''caudatum'' in the [[Sahel]]; ''durra'', most likely in India; ''guinea'' in West Africa (later reaching India), and from that race ''mageritiferum'' that gave rise to the varieties of Southern Africa.<ref name="Fuller Stevens 2018">{{cite book |last1=Fuller |first1=Dorian Q. |last2=Stevens |first2=Chris J. |title=Plants and People in the African Past |chapter=Sorghum Domestication and Diversification: A Current Archaeobotanical Perspective |publisher=Springer International Publishing |date=2018 |isbn=978-3-319-89838-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-89839-1_19 |pages=427–452}}</ref> 

[[File:Domestication and races of Sorghum.svg|thumb|center|upright=1.5|Domestication and the five major races of sorghum<ref name="Fuller Stevens 2018"/>]]

=== Spread ===

[[File:"Another view of the making of sorghum molasses on the Fred Hatmaker farm in the Norris Dam reservoir area." - NARA - 532657.tif|thumb|Making sweet sorghum [[molasses]] in rural [[Tennessee]], 1933]]

In the Middle Ages, the [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]] spread sorghum and other crops from Africa and Asia across the Arab world as far as [[Al-Andalus]] in Spain.<ref name="Watson 1974">{{cite journal |last=Watson |first=Andrew M. |year=1974 |title=The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=8–35 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700079602 |jstor=2116954|s2cid=154359726 }}</ref> Sorghum remained the staple food of the medieval kingdom of [[Alodia]] and most Sub-Saharan cultures prior to European colonialism.<ref>Welsby, Derek (2002). "The Economy", in ''The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile''. [[British Museum]]. {{ISBN|978-0-7141-1947-2}}.</ref>

Tall varieties of sorghum with a high sugar content are called sweet sorghum; these are useful for producing a sugar-rich syrup and as forage.<ref name="FAO">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000319.htm |title=Grassland Index: ''Sorghum bicolor'' (L.) Moench|access-date=2006-08-24|archive-date=2017-11-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119193819/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/Gbase/DATA/pf000319.HTM|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sweet Sorghum |url=http://sseassociation.org/SweetSorghum/default.aspx |publisher=Sweet Sorghum Ethanol Producers |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116075700/http://sseassociation.org/SweetSorghum/default.aspx |archive-date=16 November 2012 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Sweet sorghum was important to the [[sugar]] trade in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hyde |first=James F.C. |title=The Chinese Sugar-Cane: Its History, Mode of Culture, Manufacture of the Sugar, Etc. with Reports of Its Success in Different Portions of the United States, and Letters from Distinguished Men |publisher=J. P. Jewett |date=1857 |location=[[Boston]]  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fA_tOyZnXyUC&q=sorghum+sugar+syrup+china}}</ref> The price of sugar was rising because of decreased production in the British [[West Indies]] and more demand for [[confectionery]] and [[fruit preserves]], and the United States was actively searching for a sugar plant that could be produced in northern states. The "Chinese sugar-cane", sweet sorghum, was viewed as a plant that would be productive in the West Indies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hyde |first=James F.C. |title=The Chinese Sugar-Cane: Its History, Mode of Culture, Manufacture of the Sugar, Etc. with Reports of Its Success in Different Portions of the United States, and Letters from Distinguished Men |publisher=J. P. Jewett |date=1857 |location=[[Boston]]  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fA_tOyZnXyUC&q=sorghum+sugar+syrup+china |page=11}}</ref>

== Cultivation ==
=== Agronomy ===
Most varieties of sorghum are [[xerophyte|drought]]- and heat-tolerant, [[nitrogen cycle|nitrogen]]-efficient,<ref>{{cite news |last=Mulhollem |first=Jeff |title=Flavonoids' presence in sorghum roots may lead to frost-resistant crop |date=10 August 2020 |publisher=Pennsylvania State University |quote=sorghum is a crop that can respond to climate change because of its high water- and nitrogen-use efficiency|url=https://news.psu.edu/story/627935/2020/08/10/research/flavonoids-presence-sorghum-roots-may-lead-frost-resistant-crop}}</ref> and are grown particularly in [[arid]] and [[semi-arid]] regions where the grain is one of the [[staple food|staples]] for poor and rural people. These varieties provide [[forage]] in many tropical regions. ''S.&nbsp;bicolor'' is a [[food crop]] in Africa, [[Central America]], and [[South Asia]], and is the fifth most common cereal crop grown in the world.<!--<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.grains.org/index.ww |title=Welcome to the U.S. Grains Council |access-date=2007-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070406200054/http://www.grains.org/index.ww |archive-date=2007-04-06 |url-status=dead}}</ref>--><ref>{{cite news |last=Danovich |first=Tove |title=Move over, quinoa: sorghum is the new 'wonder grain' |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=15 December 2015 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/dec/15/sorghum-wonder-grain-american-food-quinoa |access-date=31 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production |volume=II |chapter=Growth and Production of Sorghum and Millets |editor-last=Verheye |editor-first=Willy H. |date=2010 |publisher=EOLSS Publishers |isbn=978-1-84826-368-0 |url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx}}</ref>  It is usually grown without fertilizers or other inputs by small-holder farmers in developing countries.<ref name=fao1>{{cite web |title=Sorghum and millet in human nutrition |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=1995 |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818E/T0818E00.htm}}</ref> They benefit from sorghum's ability to compete effectively with weeds, especially when planted in narrow rows. Sorghum [[Allelopathy|actively suppresses weeds]] by producing sorgoleone, an [[alkylresorcinols|alkylresorcinol]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Tapping into Sorghum's Weed Fighting Capabilities to Give Growers More Options |website=[[USDA ARS]] |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2010/tapping-into-sorghums-weed-fighting-capabilities-to-give-growers-more-options/ |access-date=27 July 2021}}</ref>

Sorghum grows in a wide range of temperatures. It can tolerate high altitude and toxic soils, and can recover growth after some drought.<ref name="FAO"/> Optimum growth temperature range is {{convert|12-34|C}}, and the growing season lasts for around 115–140 days.<ref name="GRDC Grownotes">{{cite web |title=Sorghum – Section 4: Plant Growth and Physiology |url=https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grownotes/crop-agronomy/sorghumgrownotes/GrowNote-Sorghum-North-04-Physiology.pdf |website=Grain Research & Development Corporation |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111230932/https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grownotes/crop-agronomy/sorghumgrownotes/GrowNote-Sorghum-North-04-Physiology.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> It can grow in a wide range of soils, such as heavy clay to sandy soils with the pH tolerance ranging from 5.0 to 8.5.<ref name="Smith">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7vxU44v794C&q=sorghum+verticilliform&pg=PA91 |title=Sorghum: Origin, History, Technology, and Production |first1=C. Wayne |last1=Smith |first2=Richard A. |last2=Frederiksen |date=2000 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-4712-4237-6}}</ref> It requires an arable field that has been left fallow for at least two years or where [[crop rotation]] with legumes has taken place in the previous year.<ref name="Sorghum Handbook">{{cite book |last1=Ajeigbe |first1=Hakeem A. |title=Handbook on improved agronomic practices of sorghum production in north east Nigeria |date=2020 |publisher=[[ICRISAT]]|location=[[Patancheru]]}}</ref> Diversified 2- or 4-year crop rotation can improve sorghum yield, making it more resilient to inconsistent growth conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sindelar |first1=Aaron J. |last2=Schmer |first2=Marty R. |last3=Jin |first3=Virginia L. |last4=Wienhold |first4=Brian J. |last5=Varvel |first5=Gary E. |title=Crop Rotation Affects Corn, Grain Sorghum, and Soybean Yields and Nitrogen Recovery |journal=[[Agronomy Journal]]|date=2016 |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=1592–1602 |doi=10.2134/agronj2016.01.0005 |bibcode=2016AgrJ..108.1592S }}</ref> Nutrients required by sorghum are comparable to other cereal grain crops with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium needed for growth.<ref name="Rooney">{{cite journal |last=Rooney |first=W.L. |title=Sorghum |journal=[[Reference Module in Food Science]] |date=2016 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.02986-3 |isbn=9780081005965 }}</ref>

The [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics]] has improved sorghum using traditional genetic improvement and integrated genetic and natural resources management practices.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rajulapudi |first=Srinivas |title=India beats China in sorghum production |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/india-beats-china-in-sorghum-production/article5791021.ece |work=[[The Hindu]]|date=16 March 2014 |access-date=17 March 2014}}</ref> Some 194 improved cultivars are planted worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reddy |first1=B. V. S. |last2=Ramesh |first2=S. |last3=Reddy |first3=P. S. |year=2004 |title=Sorghum breeding research at ICRISAT-goals, strategies, methods and accomplishments |journal=International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter |issue=45 |pages=5–12 |url=https://oar.icrisat.org/1292/1/ISMN-45_5-12__2004.pdf |id=oai:icrisat:1292}}<!--also at https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/211009633.pdf--></ref> In [[India]], increases in sorghum productivity resulting from improved cultivars have freed up {{convert|7|e6ha|abbr=off}} of land, enabling farmers to diversify into high-income cash crops and boost their livelihoods.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://resourcespace.icrisat.ac.in/filestore/1/0/3/7_7f0990ec0622d50/1037_94e3244b87cb47b.pdf |title=Sorghum, a crop of substance |access-date=2014-03-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120043052/http://resourcespace.icrisat.ac.in/filestore/1/0/3/7_7f0990ec0622d50/1037_94e3244b87cb47b.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-20}}</ref> Sorghum is used primarily as poultry feed, and also as cattle feed and in brewing.<ref>{{cite web |title=General Sorghum |year=2011 |publisher=[[Agricultural Resource Marketing Center]] – partially funded by U.S. Department of Agriculture Rural Development Program |url=http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/sorghum/general_sorghum.cfm |access-date=2012-06-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725192243/http://agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/sorghum/general_sorghum.cfm |archive-date=2012-07-25 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
File:Sorghum harvest at the shore of Lake Hayq Ethiopia.jpg|Sorghum harvest at the shore of [[Lake Hayq]], Ethiopia, 2012
File:Sorghum Harvest.jpg|Harvesting sorghum in Oklahoma, USA, with a combine harvester
File:Sun drying Sorghum in Rhino Camp.jpg|Drying sorghum in the open air, Uganda, 2020
File:Women fanning Sorghum seeds.png|Women drying sorghum seeds by tossing them in trays, 2022
</gallery>

=== Pests and diseases ===
{{further|List of sorghum diseases}}

Insect damage is a major threat to sorghum plants. Over 150 species damage crop plants at different stages of development, resulting in significant biomass loss.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Chunshan |last2=Cui |first2=Wei |last3=Feng |first3=Xue |last4=Zhao |first4=Jianzhou |last5=Lu |first5=Guihua |title=Sorghum insect problems and management |journal=[[Journal of Integrative Plant Biology]]|date=2011 |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=178–192 |doi=10.1111/J.1744-7909.2010.01019.X|pmid=21205185 }}</ref> Stored sorghum grain is attacked by insect pests such as the [[lesser grain borer]] beetle.<ref name="Edde 2012">{{cite journal |last=Edde |first=Peter A. |title=A review of the biology and control of ''Rhyzopertha dominica'' (F.) the lesser grain borer |journal=[[Journal of Stored Products Research]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=48 |number=1 |year=2012 |doi=10.1016/j.jspr.2011.08.007 |pages=1–18 |s2cid=84377289}}</ref> 
Sorghum is a host of the parasitic plant ''[[Striga hermonthica]]'', purple witchweed; that can reduce production.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yoshida, Satoko |author2=Maruyama, Shinichiro |author3=Nozaki, Hisayoshi |author4=Shirasu, Ken |date=28 May 2010 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=328 |pages=1128 |doi=10.1126/science.1187145 |issue=5982 |pmid=20508124 |title=Horizontal Gene Transfer by the Parasitic Plant ''Stiga hermanthica'' |bibcode= 2010Sci...328.1128Y |s2cid=39376164 }}</ref> 
Sorghum is subject to a variety of [[plant pathogen]]s. The fungus ''[[Colletotrichum sublineolum]]'' causes [[anthracnose]].<ref name="Ero Hirpa Seid 2018">{{cite report |last1=Ero |first1=T. |last2=Hirpa |first2=D. |last3=Seid |first3=A. |title=Anthracnose of sorghum-Ethiopia: Colletotrichum sublineolum (C. graminicola); yemashila michi |publisher=Plantwiseplus Knowledge Bank |date=2018 |doi=10.1079/pwkb.20157800477 |series=Pest Management Decision Guides |s2cid=253929998 |doi-access=free}}</ref> 
The toxic [[ergot]] fungus attacks the grain, risking harm to humans and livestock.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bandyopadhyay |first1=Ranajit |last2=Frederickson |first2=Debra E. |last3=McLaren |first3=Neal W. |last4=Odvody |first4=Gary N. |last5=Ryley |first5=Malcolm J. |title=Ergot: A New Disease Threat to Sorghum in the Americas and Australia |journal=Plant Disease |date=April 1998 |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=356–367 |doi=10.1094/PDIS.1998.82.4.356 |pmid=30856881 |doi-access=free |bibcode=1998PlDis..82..356B }}</ref> 
Sorghum produces [[chitinase]]s as [[plant disease resistance|defensive compounds]] against [[fungal diseases of sorghum|fungal diseases]]. [[Transgenesis]] of additional [[chitinase]]s increases the crop's disease resistance.<ref name="Waniska Venkatesha Chandrashekar Krishnaveni 2001">{{cite journal |last1=Waniska |first1=R. D. |last2=Venkatesha |first2=R. T. |last3=Chandrashekar |first3=A. |last4=Krishnaveni |first4=S. |last5=Bejosano |first5=F. P. |last6=Jeoung |first6=J. |last7=Jayaraj |first7=J. |last8=Muthukrishnan |first8=S. |last9=Liang |first9=G. H. |title=Antifungal Proteins and Other Mechanisms in the Control of Sorghum Stalk Rot and Grain Mold |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=49 |issue=10 |date=1 October 2001 |doi=10.1021/jf010007f |pages=4732–4742|pmid=11600015 |bibcode=2001JAFC...49.4732W }}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
File:CSIRO ScienceImage 10792 Rhyzopertha dominica Lesser Grain Borer.jpg|The [[lesser grain borer]] is a serious pest of sorghum.
File:Acervuli of Colletotrichum sublineolum on Sweet sorghum.jpg|Acervuli of ''[[Colletotrichum sublineolum]]'', the cause of [[anthracnose]], on sweet sorghum
File:Anthracnose on Sweet sorghum.jpg|Sorghum leaves showing anthracnose damage
</gallery>

{{anchor|Genetics|Genomics}}

=== Genetics and genomics ===
The genome of ''S. bicolor'' was sequenced between 2005 and 2007.<ref name="nature-genome">{{Cite journal |pmid= 19189423 |volume= 457 |issue= 7229 |pages= 551–556 |last= Paterson |first= Andrew H. |author2= John E. Bowers |author3=Remy Bruggmann |author4=Inna Dubchak |author5=Jane Grimwood |author6=Heidrun Gundlach |author7=Georg Haberer |author8=Uffe Hellsten |author9=Therese Mitros |author10=Alexander Poliakov |author11=Jeremy Schmutz |author12=Manuel Spannagl |author13=Haibao Tang |author14=Xiyin Wang |author15=Thomas Wicker |author16=Arvind K. Bharti |author17=Jarrod Chapman |author18=F. Alex Feltus |author19=Udo Gowik |author20=Igor V. Grigoriev |author21=Eric Lyons |author22=Christopher A. Maher |author23=Mihaela Martis |author24=Apurva Narechania |author25=Robert P. Otillar |author26=Bryan W. Penning |author27=Asaf A. Salamov |author28=Yu Wang |author29=Lifang Zhang |author30=Nicholas C. Carpita |author31=Michael Freeling |author32=Alan R. Gingle |author33=C. Thomas Hash |author34=Beat Keller |author35=Patricia Klein |author36=Stephen Kresovich |author37=Maureen C. McCann |author38=Ray Ming |author39=Daniel G. Peterson |author40=Mehboob-ur-Rahman |author41=Doreen Ware |author42=Peter Westhoff |author43=Klaus F. X. Mayer |author44=Joachim Messing |author45=Daniel S. Rokhsar |display-authors=6 |title=The ''Sorghum bicolor'' genome and the diversification of grasses |journal=[[Nature (journal) |Nature]] |date= 2009-01-29 |bibcode= 2009Natur.457..551P |doi= 10.1038/nature07723 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://phytozome.jgi.doe.gov/pz/portal.html#!info?alias=Org_Sbicolor |title=Phytozome |website=US DOE JGI [[Phytozome]]}}</ref> It is generally considered diploid and contains 20 chromosomes,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Price |first1=H. J. |last2=Dillon |first2=S. L. |last3=Hodnett |first3=G. |last4=Rooney |first4=W. L. |last5=Ross |first5=L. |last6=Johnston |first6=J. S. |date=2005 |title=Genome evolution in the genus ''Sorghum'' (Poaceae) |journal=[[Annals of Botany]] |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=219–227 |doi=10.1093/aob/mci015 |pmid=15596469 |pmc=4246720}}</ref> however, there is evidence to suggest a tetraploid origin for ''S. bicolor''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gomez |first1=M. I. |last2=Islam-Faridi |first2=M. N. |last3=Zwick |first3=M. S. |last4=Czeschin Jr |first4=D. G. |last5=Hart |first5=G. E. |last6=Wing |first6=R. A. |last7=Stelly |first7=D. M. |last8=Price |first8=H. J. |date=1998 |title=Brief communication. Tetraploid nature of ''Sorghum bicolor'' (L.) Moench |journal=[[Journal of Heredity]] |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=188–190 |doi=10.1093/jhered/89.2.188 |url=https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/89/2/188/2186640?login=true |doi-access=free|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The genome size is approximately 800 [[Base_pair|Mbp]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McCormick |first1=Ryan F. |last2=Truong |first2=Sandra K. |last3=Sreedasyam |first3=Avinash |last4=Jenkins |first4=Jerry |last5=Shu |first5=Shengqiang |last6=Sims |first6=David |last7=Kennedy |first7=Megan |last8=Amirebrahimi |first8=Mojgan |last9=Weers |first9=Brock D. |last10=McKinley |first10=Brian |last11=Mattison |first11=Ashley |date=2018 |title=The ''Sorghum bicolor'' reference genome: improved assembly, gene annotations, a transcriptome atlas, and signatures of genome organization |journal=[[The Plant Journal]] |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=338–354 |doi=10.1111/tpj.13781 |pmid=29161754 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018PlJ....93..338M }}</ref>

Paterson ''et al.'', 2009 provides a [[genome assembly]] of 739 [[megabase]]. The most commonly used genome database is {{ Visible anchor |SorGSD}} maintained by Luo ''et al.'', 2016. A gene expression atlas is available from Shakoor ''et al.'', 2014 with 27,577 [[gene]]s. For [[molecular breeding]] (or other purposes) an [[SNP array]] has been created by Bekele ''et al.'', 2013, a 3K SNP Infinium from [[Illumina, Inc.]]<ref name="Varshney Bohra Yu Graner 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Varshney |first1=Rajeev K. |last2=Bohra |first2=Abhishek |last3=Yu |first3=Jianming |last4=Graner |first4=Andreas |last5=Zhang |first5=Qifa |last6=Sorrells |first6=Mark E. |title=Designing Future Crops: Genomics-Assisted Breeding Comes of Age |journal=Trends in Plant Science |volume=26 |issue=6 |date=2021 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2021.03.010 |pages=631–649 |pmid=33893045 |bibcode=2021TPS....26..631V |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Agrobacterium transformation |''Agrobacterium'' transformation]] can be used on sorghum, as shown in a 2018 report of such a transformation system.<ref name="Guo Ye Gao Xu 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Minliang |last2=Ye |first2=Jingyang |last3=Gao |first3=Dawei |last4=Xu |first4=Nan |last5=Yang |first5=Jing |title=Agrobacterium-mediated horizontal gene transfer: Mechanism, biotechnological application, potential risk and forestalling strategy |journal=Biotechnology Advances |volume=37 |issue=1 |date=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2018.12.008 |pages=259–270 |pmid=30579929 }}</ref> A 2013 study developed and validated an [[SNP array]] for [[molecular breeding]].<ref name="Varshney Bohra Yu Graner 2021"/><ref name="Bekele Wieckhorst Friedt Snowdon 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Bekele |first1=Wubishet A. |last2=Wieckhorst |first2=Silke |last3=Friedt |first3=Wolfgang |last4=Snowdon |first4=Rod J. |title=High-throughput genomics in sorghum: from whole-genome resequencing to a SNP screening array |journal=Plant Biotechnology Journal |volume=11 |issue=9 |date=2013 |doi=10.1111/pbi.12106 |pages=1112–1125 |pmid=23919585 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Production ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:14em; text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan=2|Sorghum production – 2021
|-
!  style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country
!  style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"| <small>(Millions of [[tonne]]s)</small>
|-
| {{USA}} ||11.4
|-
| {{IND}} ||4.8
|-
| {{ETH}} ||4.4
|-
| {{MEX}} ||4.4
|-
| {{ARG}} ||3.3
|-
| {{CHN}} ||3.0
|-
| '''World''' || '''61.4'''
|-
|colspan=2|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the United Nations</small><ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title= Production of sorghum in 2021, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|year=2023|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=30 September 2023}}</ref>
|}

In 2021, world production of sorghum was 61 million [[tonne]]s, led by the United States with 19% of the total (table). India, [[Ethiopia]], and Mexico were the largest secondary producers.<ref name="faostat"/>

[[File:2019 Sorghum map US.pdf|thumb|center|upright=1.5|Sorghum-growing areas of the US, the world's largest producer]]

=== International trade ===

In 2013, [[China]] began purchasing American sorghum as a complementary livestock feed to its domestically grown maize. It imported around $1 billion worth per year until April 2018, when it imposed retaliatory [[tariff]]s as part of [[China–United States trade war (2018–present)|a trade war]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-sorghum-china-20180418-story.html |title=Sorghum, targeted by tariffs, is a U.S. crop China started buying only five years ago |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=Apr 18, 2018 |access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref> By 2020, the tariffs had been waived, and trade volumes increased <ref name="usda"/> before declining again as China began buying sorghum from other countries.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Sorghum Exports Dwindle on "Near-Evaporation" of Chinese Demand, as China Looks to Brazilian Corn |url=https://farmpolicynews.illinois.edu/2023/01/u-s-sorghum-exports-dwindle-on-near-evaporation-of-chinese-demand-as-china-looks-to-brazilian-corn/ |access-date=18 March 2024 |work=Farm Policy News |publisher=University of Illinois |date=22 January 2023}}</ref> As of 2020, China is the world's largest sorghum importer, importing more than all other countries combined.<ref name="usda">{{cite web |title=U.S. Sorghum Prices Rally with China's Return to the Market |url=https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/us-sorghum-prices-rally-china-s-return-market |website=fas.usda.gov |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |date=28 July 2020}}</ref> Mexico also accounts for 7% of global sorghum production.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sorghum {{!}} USDA Foreign Agricultural Service |url=https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/production/commodity/0459200 |access-date=2024-10-08 |website=fas.usda.gov}}</ref>

== Nutrition ==

{{nutritional value
| name = Sorghum grain
| kJ = 1380
| water = 12.4 g
| protein = 10.6 g
| fat = 3.46 g
| satfat = 0.61 g
| monofat = 1.13 g
| polyfat = 1.56 g
| carbs = 72.1 g
| fiber = 6.7 g
| sugars = 2.53 g
| calcium_mg = 13
| iron_mg = 3.36
| magnesium_mg = 165
| phosphorus_mg = 289
| potassium_mg = 363
| sodium_mg = 2
| copper_mg = 0.284
| selenium_ug = 12.2
| zinc_mg = 1.67
| manganese_mg = 1.6
| vitC_mg = 0
| thiamin_mg = 0.332
| riboflavin_mg = 0.096
| niacin_mg = 3.69
| pantothenic_mg = 0.367
| vitB6_mg = 0.443
| folate_ug = 20
| vitA_ug = 0
| vitE_mg = 0.5
| source_usda = 1
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/169716/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
| kcal = 329
}}

The grain is edible and nutritious. It can be eaten raw when young and milky, but has to be boiled or [[mill (grinding)|ground]] into [[flour]] when mature.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/277203364 |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing, United States Department of the Army |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60239-692-0 |location=New York] |pages=94 |oclc=277203364}}</ref>

Sorghum grain is 72% [[carbohydrate]]s including 7% dietary fiber, 11% protein, 3% [[fat]], and 12% water (table). In a reference amount of {{convert|100|g}}, sorghum grain supplies 79 [[calorie]]s and rich contents (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of several B vitamins and dietary minerals (table).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/169716/nutrients |title=Link to USDA Database entry |access-date=7 May 2024 |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403171801/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169716/nutrients |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the early stages of plant growth, some sorghum species may contain levels of [[hydrogen cyanide]], [[hordenine]], and [[nitrate]]s lethal to grazing animals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sorghum |url=http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/livestock/beef/feeding-and-nutrition/sorghum |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002184304/http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/livestock/beef/feeding-and-nutrition/sorghum |archive-date=2019-10-02 |access-date=2018-10-15 |publisher=Agriculture Victoria|location=Victoria, Australia}}</ref> Plants stressed by drought or heat can also contain toxic levels of cyanide and nitrates at later stages in growth.<ref>{{cite web |date=7 November 2018 |title=Cyanide (prussic acid) and nitrate in sorghum crops |url=https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/land-management/health-pests-weeds-diseases/livestock/cyanide-nitrate-sorghum |access-date=2021-05-13 |publisher=Queensland Government, Primary Industries and Fisheries}}</ref>

== Use ==

=== Food and drink ===

Sorghum is widely used for food and animal fodder. It is also used to make [[alcoholic beverage]]s.<ref name="Britannica"/> It can be made into [[couscous]], porridge, or flatbreads such as Indian ''[[Jōḷada roṭṭi]]'' or tortillas; and it can be burst in hot oil to make a [[popcorn]], smaller than that of maize. Since it does not contain gluten, it can be used in [[gluten-free diet]]s.<ref name="Saner 2021">{{cite news |last1=Saner |first1=Emine |title=From porridge to popcorn: how to cook with the ancient grain sorghum |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2021/may/24/how-to-cook-with-ancient-grain-sorghum-porridge-popcorn |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=24 May 2021}}</ref>

In South Africa, characteristically sour [[Millet beer|malwa beer]] is made from sorghum or millet. The process involves souring the [[Mashing|mashed grain]] with [[lactic acid bacteria]], followed by fermenting by the [[Wild yeast (wine)|wild yeasts]] that were on the grain.<ref name="Van Der Walt 1956">{{cite journal |last=Van Der Walt |first=J. P. |title=Kaffircorn malting and brewing studies. II.—Studies on the microbiology of Kaffir beer |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=7 |issue=2 |date=1956 |issn=0022-5142 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.2740070203 |pages=105–113|bibcode=1956JSFA....7..105V }}</ref> 
In China and Taiwan, sorghum is one of the main materials of [[Kaoliang liquor]], a type of the colourless distilled alcoholic drink [[baijiu]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xing-Lin |first1=Han |last2=De-Liang |first2=Wang |last3=Wu-Jiu |first3=Zhang |last4=Shi-Ru |first4=Jia |title=The production of the Chinese baijiu from sorghum and other cereals: The production of the Chinese baijiu from sorghum and other cereals |journal=Journal of the Institute of Brewing |volume=123 |issue=4 |date=2017 |doi=10.1002/jib.450 |pages=600–604}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=10&post=114854 |title=Kaoliang bottlings from Taiwan bag international awards |publisher=Taiwan Today |date=4 May 2017}}</ref>

In countries including the US<!--and India, ...-->, the stalks of [[sweet sorghum]] varieties are crushed in a cane juicer to extract the sweet [[molasses]]-like juice. The juice is sold as syrup,<ref name="NPR1">{{cite news |last=Rapuano |first=Rina |title=Sorghum Travels From The South To The Mainstream |url=https://www.npr.org/2012/09/12/160946531/sorghum-travels-from-the-south-to-the-mainstream |website=NPR.org |date=12 September 2012}}</ref><ref>Bitzer, Morris. Sweet Sorghum for Syrup. Publication. N.p.: U of Kentucky, 2002. Web. 22 May 2014. <http://www.uky.edu/Ag/CCD/introsheets/swsorghumintro.pdf></ref><ref>Curtin, Leo V. MOLASSES – GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Publication. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences and University of Florida, n.d. Web. 22 May 2014. <http://rcrec-ona.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf/publications/molasses-general-considerations..pdf {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921180627/http://rcrec-ona.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf/publications/molasses-general-considerations..pdf |date=21 September 2018}}</ref> and used as a [[feedstock]] to make biofuel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agribusinessweek.com/sweet-sorghum-a-new-smart-biofuel-crop/|title=Sweet Sorghum : A New "Smart Biofuel Crop |publisher=agribusinessweek.com|date=30 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801020522/http://www.agribusinessweek.com/sweet-sorghum-a-new-smart-biofuel-crop/ |archive-date=1 August 2008}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=95 heights=155>
File:Sorghum beer or Omalovu giilya.jpg|[[Kaffir beer|Sorghum beer]], ''Omalovu giilya'', fermenting in [[gourd]]s, Namibia
File:Kaoliang.jpg|A bottle of [[Kaoliang liquor]]
File:Sorghum cane juicer.jpg|A horse-driven sorghum cane juicer at work in [[North Carolina]]
File:Sorghum jar.jpg|A jar of [[sweet sorghum]] syrup
File:Simple turkey tail brooms (cropped).png|Brooms made of panicle stalks
</gallery>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=155 heights=120>
File:Sorghum food in locally made plate.jpg|Sorghum dough in a [[gourd]] bowl of the [[Didinga people]] of South Sudan
File:ಜೋಳದ ರೊಟ್ಟಿ Jōḷada roṭṭi.jpg|''[[Jōḷada roṭṭi]]'' flatbread, [[Karnataka]], India
File:Popcorn and pop sorghum.jpg|Maize [[popcorn]] and popped sorghum
File:Sorghum forage (kadba).jpg|Sorghum [[forage]], [[Maharashtra]], India
</gallery>

=== Biofuel ===

Sorghum can be used to produce [[ethanol fuel|fuel ethanol]] as an alternative to [[maize]]. The energy ratio for the production of ethanol is similar to that of [[sugarcane]], and much higher than that of maize.<ref name="Briand Geleta 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Briand |first1=C.H. |last2=Geleta |first2=S.B. |last3=Kratochvil |first3=R.J. |title=Sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) a potential biofuel feedstock: Analysis of cultivar performance in the Mid-Atlantic |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=129 |date=2018 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2018.06.004 |pages=328–333|bibcode=2018REne..129..328B }}</ref> Extracted carbohydrates can readily be [[Fermentation|fermented]] into ethanol because of their simple sugar structure. Residuals contain enough energy to power the ethanol processing facilities used to produce the fuel.<ref name="Bennett Anex 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Bennett |first1=Albert S. |last2=Anex |first2=Robert P. |title=Farm-Gate Production Costs of Sweet Sorghum as a Bioethanol Feedstock |journal=Transactions of the ASABE |volume=51 |issue=2 |date=2008 |doi=10.13031/2013.24360 |pages=603–613}}</ref> As of 2018, production costs (including price of produce,<ref>ESS: 4. Concepts on price data. (n.d.). https://www.fao.org/economic/the-statistics-division-ess/methodology/methodology-systems/price-statistics-and-index-numbers-of-agricultural-production-and-prices/4-concepts-on-price-data/en/#:~:text=The%20farm%20gate%20prices%20are,in%20the%20farm%20gate%20prices</ref> transport and processing costs) are competitive with maize,<ref name="Bennett Anex 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Bennett |first1=Albert S. |last2=Anex |first2=Robert P. |title=Production, transportation and milling costs of sweet sorghum as a feedstock for centralized bioethanol production in the upper Midwest |journal=Bioresource Technology |volume=100 |issue=4 |date=2009 |doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2008.09.023 |pages=1595–1607|pmid=18951018 |bibcode=2009BiTec.100.1595B }}</ref> while sorghum has a lower nitrogen [[fertilizer]] requirement than maize.<ref name="Geng Hills Johnson 1989">{{cite journal |last1=Geng |first1=S. |last2=Hills |first2=F. J. |last3=Johnson |first3=S. S. |last4=Sah |first4=R. N. |title=Potential Yields and On-Farm Ethanol Production Cost of Corn, Sweet Sorghum, Fodderbeet, and Sugarbeet |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |volume=162 |issue=1 |date=1989 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.1989.tb00683.x |pages=21–29|bibcode=1989JAgCS.162...21G }}</ref>
To turn it into fuel ethanol, sorghum juice is concentrated into syrup for long term storage, then fermented in a batch fermentation process.<ref name="Li Dong Chang 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xinzhe |last2=Dong |first2=Yufeng |last3=Chang |first3=Lu |last4=Chen |first4=Lifan |last5=Wang |first5=Guan |last6=Zhuang |first6=Yingping |last7=Yan |first7=Xuefeng |title=Develop Dynamic Hybrid Modeling of Fuel Ethanol Fermentation Process by Integrating Biomass Concentration XGBoost Model and Kinetic Parameters Artificial Neural Network Model into Mechanism Model |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |date=2022 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.4181174 |page=}}</ref>

=== Other uses ===

In [[Nigeria]], the pulverized red leaf-sheaths of sorghum have been used to dye leather, while in [[Algeria]], sorghum has been used to dye wool.<ref name="Dye">{{cite journal |last=Dalziel |first=J.M. |title=African Leather Dyes |journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information |volume=6 |date=1926 |issue=6 |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]|page=230 |doi=10.2307/4118651 |jstor=4118651 }}</ref>

In India, the panicle stalks are used as bristles for [[broom]]s.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Hariprasanna |first1=K. |title=Sorghum: Origin, Classification, Biology and Improvement |date=2015 |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-81-322-2422-8_1 |work=Sorghum Molecular Breeding |pages=3–20 |editor-last=Madhusudhana |editor-first=R. |place=New Delhi |publisher=Springer India |doi=10.1007/978-81-322-2422-8_1 |isbn=978-81-322-2421-1 |last2=Patil |first2=J. V. |editor2-last=Rajendrakumar |editor2-first=P. |editor3-last=Patil |editor3-first=J.V.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

<!--Sorghum can be fermented by bacteria to produce  [[biohydrogen]]. It serves as an effective carbon source for lipid-rich organisms, such as ''[[Auxenochlorella protothecoides]]''. Other compounds of interest include [[antioxidant]]s.<ref>Industrial crops. (2015). Handbook of Plant Breeding. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1447-0{{pn|date=December 2024}}</ref>-->
Sorghum seeds and bagasse have the potential to produce [[Lactic acid fermentation|lactic acid]] via fermentation which can be used to make [[polylactic acid]], a biodegradable thermoplastic resin.<ref name="Wee Kim Ryu 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Wee |first1=Y. |last2=Kim |first2=J. |last3=Ryu |first3=H. |year=2006 |title=Biotechnological production of lactic acid and its recent applications |journal=Food Technology and Biotechnology |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=163–172 |url=https://doaj.org/article/206aab8f95184a818e1f54fcb9c05d17}}</ref>

== In human culture ==

In Australia, sorghum is personified as a spirit among the [[Dagoman]] people of [[Northern Territory]], as well as being used for food; the local species are ''[[Sorghum intrans|S. intrans]]'' and ''[[Sorghum plumosum|S. plumosum]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Arndt |first=W. |title=Indigenous Sorghum as Food and in Myth: The Tagoman Tribe |journal=[[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |volume=32 |issue=2 |year=1961 |pages=109–112 |doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1961.tb01745.x |jstor=40329309 }}</ref> 

In Korea, the origin tale "[[Brother and sister who became the Sun and Moon]]" is also called "The reason sorghum is red".<ref name="EKC">{{cite encyclopedia |title=해와 달이 된 오누이 |language=Korean |trans-title=Brother and sister who became the Sun and Moon |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |year=1996 |last=최 |first=인학 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |location=성남  |url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0062663 |access-date= 2022-11-30}}</ref> In the tale, a tiger who is chasing a brother and sister follows them up a rotten rope as they climb into the sky, and become the sun and moon. The rope breaks, and the tiger falls to its death, impaling itself on a sorghum stalk, which becomes red with its blood.<ref name="EKFC">{{cite encyclopedia |title= 해와 달이 된 오누이 |encyclopedia= 한국민속문학사전 (Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture) |year=1996 |last= 조 |first= 현설 |publisher=[[National Folk Museum of Korea]] |location= 서울 |url=https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/6006 |access-date= 2022-11-30}}</ref>

In Northeastern Italy in the [[early modern period]], sticks of sorghum were used by ''[[Benandanti]]'' visionaries of the [[Friuli]] district to fight off witches who were thought to threaten crops and people.<ref name="Klaniczay 1990">{{cite book |last=Klaniczay |first=Gábor |title=The Uses of Supernatural Power: The Transformation of Popular Religion in Medieval and Early-Modern Europe |translator-first=Susan |translator-last=Singerman |year=1990 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-6910-7377-4 |pages=129–130}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[3-Deoxyanthocyanidin]]
* [[Apigeninidin]] 
* [[List of antioxidants in food]]

== References ==

{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category}}
{{cookbook|Sorghum}}

* [http://www.cwrdiversity.org/checklist/genepool-details.php?id%5b%5d=21 Crop Wild Relatives Inventory]{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}: reliable information source on where and what to conserve ''ex-situ'', regarding '''''Sorghum''''' genepool
* [https://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?454806 Taxon: ''Sorghum bicolor'' (L.) Moench subsp. ''bicolor'' – information from National Plant Germplasm System/GRIN]

{{WestAfricanPlants|Sorghum bicolor}}
{{Cereals}}
{{Bioenergy}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q332062|from2=Q15637225|from3=Q39584634}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sorghum|bicolor]]
[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Africa]]
[[Category:Grasses of Africa]]
[[Category:Energy crops]]
[[Category:Plant dyes]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]