View source for Somali Salvation Democratic Front

{{Short description|Paramilitary organization, 1978 to 2001}}
{{Infobox war faction
| name             = Somali Salvation Democratic Front
| native_name      = Jabhadda Badbaadinta Dimuqraadiyada Soomaaliya
| native_name_lang = so
| war              = [[Somali Civil War]]
| image            = File:Logo of the Somali Salvation Democratic Front.png
| caption          = Emblem
| active           = 1978–2001
| ideology         = Anti-[[Siad Barre|Barre]]<br>[[Somali nationalism]]<br>[[Socialism]]<br>[[Majeerteen]] interests
| leaders          = [[Mohamed Abshir Muse]] (1991–1998)<br> [[Muuse Islan Farah]] (1987–1988), <br>[[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]] (1978–1986, 1991–1998)<br>Mohamed Abshir Waldo (1984–1986)<br> [[Hassan Ali Mire]] (1986–1988)
| leader1_name     = 
| clans            = [[Majeerteen]] (1978–2001)<ref>{{cite book|last=U.S. Army|first=Center of Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qK4boefnq9oC|title=United States forces, Somalia after action report and historical overview : the United States Army in Somalia, 1992–1994|year=2003|publisher=Center of Military History, U.S. Army|isbn=9781462053940|page=67|language=en}}</ref>
| headquarters     = 
| area             = [[Somali Democratic Republic]]
| size             = 
| partof           = 
| predecessor      = Somali Salvation Front, Somali Workers Party, Democratic Front for the Liberation of Somalia
| successor        = [[Puntland]]
| allies           = {{flagicon|Somalia}} [[United Somali Congress]] (USC)<br/> {{flagicon|Somalia}} [[United Somali Party]]<br/> {{flagicon|Somalia}} Somali National Democratic Union <br/> {{flagicon| South Yemen}} [[South Yemen]] <br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of Ethiopia (1975-1987).svg}}  [[Derg|Ethiopia]] <br/> {{Flagdeco|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} [[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi|Libyan Jamahiriya]]
| opponents        = {{flagicon|Somalia}} [[Somali Democratic Republic]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Western Somali Liberation Front.svg}} [[Western Somali Liberation Front|WSLF]]<ref name="Hughes 28">{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=Geraint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNXFEAAAQBAJ |title=My Enemy's Enemy: Proxy Warfare in International Politics |date=2012-03-13 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-1-83764-186-4 |pages=28 |language=en}}</ref>
| battles          = 
| url              = 
| status           = 
}}

'''Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF)''' ({{langx|so|Jabhadda Diimuqraadiga Badbaadinta Soomaaliyeed}}), initially known as the '''Democratic Front for Salvation of Somalia''', was a political and paramilitary umbrella organization in [[Somalia]]. Founded in 1978 by several army officers, it was the first of several opposition groups dedicated to ousting the authoritarian regime of [[Mohamed Siad Barre]].<ref name="Fitzgerald">Nina J. Fitzgerald, ''Somalia: issues, history, and bibliography'', (Nova Publishers: 2002), p.25.</ref> With its power base mainly within the [[Majeerteen]] clan,<ref name="Fitzgerald"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bongartz |first=Maria |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Anai%3Adiva-841 |title=The Civil War in Somalia: Its Genesis and Dynamics |date=1991 |publisher=Nordiska Afrikainstitutet |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Craig|first=Dylan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXCfDwAAQBAJ|title=Sovereignty, War, and the Global State|date=2019-06-26|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-030-19886-2|language=en}}</ref> SSDF played a significant role in the country's complex political landscape under the leadership of [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed|Abdullahi Yusuf]] during the late 1970s and 2000s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Yuusuf|first=Muuse|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzwoEAAAQBAJ|title=The Genesis of the Civil War in Somalia: The Impact of Foreign Military Intervention on the Conflict|date=2021-05-20|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-0-7556-2711-0|language=en}}</ref>

In 1982, it participated in [[1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War|attempted invasion of Somalia]] aimed at [[regime change]] with the support of [[Derg|Ethiopia]]. The joint 1982 offensive backfired as it ultimately consolidated Barre’s control. Amnesty and financial incentives prompted the majority of SSDF fighters to surrender and rejoin the regime in 1983. The organization fragmented under government pressure.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

The SSDF would go on to have disputes with the [[Derg]], particularly over the Ethiopian government's claims of sovereignty over several Somali-inhabited areas such as the [[Balanbale district|Balanbale]] and [[Galdogob District|Galdogob]] districts.<ref name="gabrewold-tochalo 2009" /> This would culminate in the arrest of the groups leader Abdullahi Yusuf in 1985. The SSDF later re-emerged in the 1990s during the [[Somali Civil War]], actively participating in reconciliation efforts. It helped to establish the autonomous [[Puntland]] state in northeastern Somalia in 1998.<ref name=":2" />    

==Early history==
On October 15, 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of [[Las Anod]], Somalia's then President [[Abdirashid Ali Shermarke]] was shot dead by a policeman in his security team. His assassination was quickly followed by a military [[coup d'état]] on October 21, 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somali Army and police force seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General [[Siad Barre|Mohamed Siad Barre]], who at the time commanded the army.<ref>Moshe Y. Sachs, ''Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations'', (Worldmark Press: 1988), p.290</ref> For refusing to support Barre's seizure of power, numerous political figures were imprisoned. Among these was [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]], Somalia's former [[military attaché]] to [[Moscow]],<ref name="Npmc"/> who was imprisoned for several years by the new military regime.<ref name="Npmc">New People Media Centre (Nairobi, Kenya), ''New people'', Issues 94–105, (New People Media Centre: Comboni Missionaries, 2005).</ref>

The defeat of the [[Somali Armed Forces|Somali military]] at the hands of Cuban/Ethiopian forces during the [[Ogaden War]] of 1977–78 brought to the surface opposition elements within the armed forces.<ref name="farah 20202">{{Cite book |last=Farah |first=Ibrahim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLeczQEACAAJ |title=Somali Foreign Policy, 1960 – 1990: An Analysis of Thirty Years of Diplomatic History |date=2020 |publisher=Adonis & Abbey Publishers |isbn=978-1-909112-77-3 |pages=85–88 |language=en}}</ref> Another significant consequence of the war was the massive influx of refugees from the [[Ogaden]] into Somalia, estimated at over a million.{{Sfn|Issa-Salwe|1996|pp=126–127}}

=== Post-April 1978 coup and SSDF formation ===
The first serious postwar challenge to the regime came during an [[1978 Somali coup attempt|attempted coup in April 1978]]. The officers were primarily from the [[Majeerteen]] clan, and many of the coup plotters fled to [[Ethiopia]] after the Somali government had put down the insurrection.<ref name="farah 2020">{{Cite book |last=Farah |first=Ibrahim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLeczQEACAAJ |title=Somali Foreign Policy, 1960 – 1990: An Analysis of Thirty Years of Diplomatic History |date=2020 |publisher=Adonis & Abbey Publishers |isbn=978-1-909112-77-3 |pages=85–88 |language=en}}</ref> During the Ogaden War, Colonel [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed|Abdullahi Yusuf]] had served as a commander in the [[Somali National Army]]. After the war he deserted the army,<ref name="gabrewold-tochalo 2009">{{Cite book |last=Gebrewold-Tochalo |first=Belachew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COOdPffopS0C |title=Anatomy of Violence: Understanding the Systems of Conflict and Violence in Africa |date=2009 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7546-7528-0 |pages=193 |language=en}}</ref> and helped lead the failed 1978 coup attempt following which he had immediately fled to Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/isbn_9780932415967 |title=Eritrea and Ethiopia : from conflict to cooperation |date=1994 |publisher=Red Sea |isbn=978-0-932415-96-7 |editor=Amare Tekle |place=Trenton, N.J. |pages=149}}</ref> In response to the coup, harsh reprisals were carried out by the government on the Majeerteen clan.{{Sfn|Issa-Salwe|1996|pp=128–129}} 

In Ethiopia, [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed|Abdullahi Yusuf]] setup base for a new rebel organization called the Somali Salvation Democratic Front which he led and soon after began fighting with Ethiopian forces against the Somali army.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gebrewold-Tochalo |first=Belachew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COOdPffopS0C |title=Anatomy of Violence: Understanding the Systems of Conflict and Violence in Africa |date=2009 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7546-7528-0 |pages=193 |language=en |quote=In 1982 SSDF was commanded by Colonel Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, who was commander of the SNA (Somali National Army) during the Ethiopian-Somali War. After deserting the Somali Army, he began to fight together with Ethiopia against the Somali army.}}</ref> The SSDF possessed little autonomy over Ethiopian security forces,<ref name="clapham 1998">{{Cite book |title=African guerrillas |date=1998 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-85255-816-4 |editor-last=Clapham |editor-first=Christopher |pages=75–77}}</ref> as it was 'created, organized, trained and financed by Ethiopia'.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QAOAQAAMAAJ |title=Northeast African Studies |date=1989 |publisher=African Studies Center, [[Michigan State University]] |volume=11 |pages=92 |language=en}}</ref> With the formation of the SSDF in Ethiopia, the era of armed opposition against the [[Siad Barre|Barre]] regime had begun.{{Sfn|Issa-Salwe|1996|pp=128–129}} The SSDF was formally created in [[Aden]], [[South Yemen]] in October 1981 through the merger of three groups, Somali Salvation Front, Somali Workers Party and the [[Democratic Front for the Liberation of Somalia]]. The SSF had previously absorbed its predecessor the [[Somali Democratic Action Front]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Somalia: a country study |date=1993 |publisher=Federal Research Divsion, Library of Congress : For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O |isbn=978-0-8444-0775-3 |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |series=Area handbook series |location=Washington, D.C |pages=190 |editor-last2=Library of Congress |editor-last3=Thomas Leiper Kane Collection (Library of Congress. Hebraic Section)}}</ref> An 11-member Central Committee was constituted and some former members of the [[Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party]] were part of the leadership of the new group. A military structure was built up, supported by [[Ethiopia]] and [[Libya]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0m9yAAAAMAAJ|title=Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century|last1=Adam|first1=Hussein Mohamed|last2=Ford|first2=Richard|date=1997|publisher=Red Sea Press|isbn=9781569020739|pages=547|language=en}}</ref>  

=== Proxy operations and 1982-83 invasion ===
The Ethiopian government began using the Somali Salvation Democratic Front as a [[Proxy war|proxy]] to help hunt down [[Western Somali Liberation Front]] (WSLF) fighters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tareke |first=Gebru |date=2002 |title=From Lash to Red Star: The Pitfalls of Counter-Insurgency in Ethiopia, 1980–82 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3876045 |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=465–498 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X02003981 |issn=0022-278X |jstor=3876045 |quote=The SSDF, which drew its support almost exclusively from the Mijerteen, the major clan in the northeast of Somalia, began hitting at strategic installations and military posts, as it aided the Ethiopian army in hunting down the WSLF.|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vries |first1=Lotje de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ol5qDwAAQBAJ |title=Secessionism in African Politics: Aspiration, Grievance, Performance, Disenchantment |last2=Englebert |first2=Pierre |last3=Schomerus |first3=Mareike |date=2018-08-20 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-90206-7 |pages=105 |language=en}}</ref> In August 1980, the [[Derg]] regime launched a massive anti-insurgency campaign known as "Operation Lash" to clear the Ogaden of insurgents. <ref name="archive.org">{{cite book |last1=Tareke |first1=Gebru |url=https://archive.org/details/ethiopianrevolut0000gebr/page/n229/mode/2up?q= |title=The Ethiopian revolution: War in the Horn of Africa |date=2009 |isbn=9780300156157}}</ref> During these operations the Ethiopians used the SSDF rebels to attack WSLF camps within Somalia.<ref name="Hughes 28">{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=Geraint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNXFEAAAQBAJ |title=My Enemy's Enemy: Proxy Warfare in International Politics |date=2012-03-13 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-1-83764-186-4 |pages=28 |language=en}}</ref> With Ethiopian assistance,{{Sfn|Issa-Salwe|1996|pp=128–129}} the SSDF began to launch [[Guerrilla warfare|guerilla attacks]] across the border on Somali army bases and civilian targets.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Farah |first=Ibrahim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLeczQEACAAJ |title=Somali Foreign Policy, 1960 – 1990: An Analysis of Thirty Years of Diplomatic History |date=2020 |publisher=Adonis & Abbey Publishers |isbn=978-1-909112-77-3 |pages=86 |language=en |quote=The SSDF soon began to launch guerrilla raids on Somali army bases and civilian targets across the Ethiopian-Somali border.}}</ref>

The Ethiopian army intended to us the Somali Salvation Democratic Front to overthrow Barre and install a friendly regime.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=25 August 1982 |title=Somalia: Taking Stock |journal=[[Africa Confidential]] |volume=23 |issue=17 |pages=8 |quote=the Ethiopian aim was to provide the DFSS with the wherewithal to overthrow President Siad Barre}}</ref> The guerrillas were trained by Ethiopian officers and during the 1982 invasion of Somalia, SSDF forces were directly integrated into much larger Ethiopian army units.<ref name="clapham 19982">{{Cite book |title=African guerrillas |date=1998 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-85255-816-4 |editor-last=Clapham |editor-first=Christopher |pages=75–77}}</ref> In late June 1982, 15,000 Ethiopian army troops and thousands of SSDF rebels invaded Somalia in the [[Hiran, Somalia|Hiran]] and [[Mudug]] region. The [[Offensive (military)|offensives]] initially aimed for [[Galkayo]] in the north-east, and [[Beledweyne]] in central Somalia. According to [[Gérard Prunier]], "The plan was to cut Somalia into two by driving the troops all the way to the ocean, but the plan backfired."<ref name="prunier 2021">{{Cite book |last=Prunier |first=Gérard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynEhEAAAQBAJ |title=The Country that Does Not Exist: A History of Somaliland |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-78738-203-9 |pages=52 |language=en}}</ref> In spite of losses taken four years earlier during 1978 from the Ethiopian-Cuban counter offensive during the [[Ogaden War]], the Somali army had regrouped and the invasion led to a large increase in volunteers joining the army. The Ethiopian/SSDF attack had played out to Barres advantage,<ref name="laitin 1987">{{Cite book |last1=Laitin |first1=David D. |title=Somalia: Nation in Search of a State |last2=Samatar |first2=Said S. |date=1987 |publisher=Avalon Publishing |isbn=978-0-86531-555-6 |series=Profiles |pages=159 |quote=Yet Siyaad surprised friends and foes alike by turning both events to advantage. His army vigorously repulsed the invaders...}}</ref> as his declining regime found a significant upsurge in support.<ref name="prunier 20212">{{Cite book |last=Prunier |first=Gérard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynEhEAAAQBAJ |title=The Country that Does Not Exist: A History of Somaliland |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-78738-203-9 |pages=52 |language=en}}</ref> The Ethiopian and SSDF forces never reached their objectives of [[Galkayo]] and [[Beledweyne]], but were instead halted to a stalemate at border towns of [[Balanbale, Togdheer|Balanbale]] and [[Galdogob]].<ref name="prunier 20212" />

=== Decline and resurgence ===
During 1982, the Barre regime successfully split the SSDF and most its members surrendered to the government following an amnesty and payment offer.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Dualeh |first=Hussein Ali |url= |title=From Barre to Aideed: Somalia : the Agony of a Nation |date=1994 |publisher=Stellagraphics Limited |isbn=978-9966-834-40-9 |pages=137 |language=en}}</ref> By 1983 the bulk of the SSDF had rejoined the regime.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Ingiriis |first=Mohamed Haji |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vzi6CwAAQBAJ |title=The Suicidal State in Somalia: The Rise and Fall of the Siad Barre Regime, 1969–1991 |date=2016-04-01 |publisher=UPA |isbn=978-0-7618-6720-3 |pages=199 |language=en}}</ref> Irritated by this development, the Ethiopian government put the head of the SSDF [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed|Abdullahi Yusuf]] in jail, where he remained until the [[Fall of the Derg regime]] in 1991.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Mukhtar |first=Mohamed Haji |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC |title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia |date=2003-02-25 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6604-1 |pages=16, 238 |language=en}}</ref> During SSDF internal fighting during 1983 and 1984, Ethiopian security forces entered their camps and arrested the rebels central committee members.<ref name="clapham 19983">{{Cite book |title=African guerrillas |date=1998 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-85255-816-4 |editor-last=Clapham |editor-first=Christopher |pages=75–77}}</ref> After the rebels had no longer become useful to [[Mengistu Haile Mariam|Mengistu]], he had members of the organization killed, imprisoned or dispersed.<ref>{{Cite book |url= |title=African guerrillas |date=1998 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-85255-816-4 |editor-last=Clapham |editor-first=Christopher |pages=80}}</ref> The SSDF would not recover as an organization until relations with Ethiopia normalized during the tenure of [[Meles Zenawi]].<ref name="gabrewold-tochalo 20092">{{Cite book |last=Gebrewold-Tochalo |first=Belachew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COOdPffopS0C |title=Anatomy of Violence: Understanding the Systems of Conflict and Violence in Africa |date=2009 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7546-7528-0 |pages=193 |language=en}}</ref> 

By 1985 SSDF had ceased most of their military operations against the [[Siad Barre]] regime.{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}} In 1986 an SSDF congress was held, which elected Dr. [[Hassan Ali Mire]] as chairman. He resigned in 1988, leaving a power vacuum in the organization. Musse Islan was elected leader by the SSDF Central Committee to hold the position until a Congress was convened.{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}

In 1988 the governments of Somalia and Ethiopia made some agreements to cease hostilities. The Ethiopian government started closing SSDF camps, arresting its leaders and seizing weapons. The Ethiopian government also closed the SSDF radio station, Radio Halgan, which had been broadcasting since 1981.{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}

In 1988 SSDF guerrillas started taking control over the western districts of [[Mudug]] and the southern areas of [[Nugaal]] and [[Bari Region|Bari]] regions.{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}

==Post-1991==
After the fall of the Barre regime, the SSDF (based largely in northeastern Somalia) was divided in two factions. One was led by General [[Mohamed Abshir Muse]] (chairman), who at the time was based in [[Saudi Arabia]], and the other was led by [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]] (deputy chairman). The general secretary was [[Mohamed Abshir Waldo]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}

A congress was held in August 1994. Former Prime Minister of Somalia, [[Abdirizak Haji Hussein]], was offered the chairmanship of the SSDF by a group of clan leaders, but declined.<ref name="Prunier">{{cite web | author=Gérard Prunier | title=Somalia: Civil War, intervention and withdrawal 1990–1995 (July 1995), p. 6 | work=Writenet Country Papers, UK | url=http://www.asylumlaw.org/docs/somalia/country_conditions/Prunier.pdf | access-date=1 January 2006 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060107144921/http://www.asylumlaw.org/docs/somalia/country_conditions/Prunier.pdf | archive-date=7 January 2006 }}</ref>

Over the next several years, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed would emerge as the pre-eminent leader in northeastern Somalia. In 1992, he marshalled forces to successfully expel an Islamist extremist group linked to [[Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya]] that had taken over [[Bosaso]], a prominent port city and the commercial capital of the northeastern part of the country.<ref name="Prunier"/>

== Notable personnel ==
{{Main|Category:Somali Salvation Democratic Front politicians}}

* [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]]
* [[Mohamed Abshir Muse]]
* [[Mohamed Abshir Waldo]]
* [[Hassan Ali Mire]]
* [[Hirsi Ali Magan]]
* [[Said Mohamed Hersy]]
* [[Abdullahi Muhamed Ahmed Afgab]]

==Puntland==
In 1998, a homegrown constitutional conference was held in [[Garowe]] over a period of three months. Attended by SSDF representatives, traditional elders (''Issims''), members of the business community, intellectuals and other civil society members, the autonomous [[Puntland|Puntland State of Somalia]] was subsequently officially established so as to deliver services, offer security, facilitate trade, and interact with both domestic and international partners.<ref name="Speipbasb">[http://www.garoweonline.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=575:somalia-puntlands-experience-in-peace-building-and-state-building&catid=55:somalia&Itemid=79 Somalia: Puntland's Experience in Peace-building and State-building ]</ref> Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed was appointed as the nascent polity's first President.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n88WAQAAIAAJ|title=Proceedings of the Conference on African Conflicts: Their Management, Resolution and Post-conflict Reconstruction, Held at the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 13–15 December 2000|date=2001|publisher=Development Policy Management Forum (DPMF)|language=en}}</ref>

After serving two terms as President of Puntland, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed was elected in 2004 as President of the [[Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG), an interim federal administrative body that he had helped establish earlier in the year.<ref name="Spmoarc">{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-11/13/content_2213479.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041121085231/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-11/13/content_2213479.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 21, 2004|title=:: Xinhuanet – English ::|access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Raphael Chijioke|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0xzLttlApVwC|title=The History of Somalia|date=2013-02-20|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-37858-4|language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===

* {{Cite book |last=Issa-Salwe |first=Abdisalam M. |url=https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/bitstream/2307/5265/1/The%20Collapse%20of%20The%20Somali%20State%20-The%20Impact%20of%20the%20Colonial%20Legacy.pdf |title=The collapse of the Somali state: the impact of the colonial legacy |date=1996 |publisher=Haan |isbn=978-1-874209-91-1 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Drysdale |first=John |author-link=John Drysdale (historian) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IXYwAQAAIAAJ |title=Whatever happened to Somalia? |publisher=HAAN |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-874209-51-5 |location=London |oclc=30736422}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dool |first=Abdullahi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SdktAQAAIAAJ |title=Failed states: when governance goes wrong! |date=1998 |publisher=Horn Heritage |isbn=978-0-9525241-9-9 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ghalib |first=Jama Mohamed |url=https://archive.org/details/costofdictatorsh0000ghal |title=The cost of dictatorship: the Somali experience |date=1995 |publisher=L. Barber Press |isbn=978-0-936508-30-6 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Simons |first=Anna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fXekDwAAQBAJ |title=Networks of Dissolution: Somalia Undone |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-429-72083-3 |language=en}}

[[Category:Factions in the Somali Civil War]]
[[Category:1978 establishments in Somalia]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1978]]
[[Category:Political parties disestablished in 2001]]
[[Category:Socialism in Somalia]]