View source for Solidarity

{{short description|Unity of feeling or action on a common interest}}
{{About|the social principle|the Polish trade union|Solidarity (Polish trade union)|other uses}}
[[File:The hand that will rule the world.jpg|thumbnail|upright=1.4|A [[raised fist]] symbolizing solidarity of the worker movement]]

'''Solidarity''' or '''solidarism''' is an awareness of shared interests, objectives, standards, and sympathies creating a psychological sense of unity of groups or classes.<ref name="dict1">{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/solidarity|website=Merriam Webster|title=solidarity (noun)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508034958/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/solidarity |archive-date=2019-05-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/solidarity|title=solidarity|access-date=19 March 2018|via=The Free Dictionary|archive-date=27 January 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040127114556/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/solidarity|url-status=live}}</ref> True solidarity means moving beyond individual identities and single issue politics.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mohanty |first1=Chandra |last2=Carty |first2=Linda |title=Feminist Freedom Warriors: Genealogies, Justice, Politics, and Hope |date=2018 |publisher=Haymarket Books |location=ProQuest Ebook Central |pages=15 |url=https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5355743 |access-date=20 May 2025}}</ref> Still, solidarity does not reject [[individual]]s and sees individuals as the basis of [[society]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Douwes|first1=Renate|last2=Stuttaford|first2=Maria|last3=London|first3=Leslie|date=2018-10-01|title=Social Solidarity, Human Rights, and Collective Action: Considerations in the Implementation of the National Health Insurance in South Africa|url=https://www.hhrjournal.org/2018/10/social-solidarity-human-rights-and-collective-action-considerations-in-the-implementation-of-the-national-health-insurance-in-south-africa/|access-date=2021-08-30|journal=[[Health and Human Rights]]|volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=185–196 |pmid=30568412 |pmc=6293357 |language=en|archive-date=2019-01-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107152601/https://www.hhrjournal.org/2018/10/social-solidarity-human-rights-and-collective-action-considerations-in-the-implementation-of-the-national-health-insurance-in-south-africa/|url-status=live}}</ref> It refers to the [[social relations|ties in a society]] that bind people together as one. The term is generally employed in [[sociology]] and the other [[social sciences]], as well as in [[philosophy]] and [[bioethics]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Social Security in Poland – cultural, historical and economical issues|first1=Stanisław|last1=Adamiak|first2=Ewa|last2=Chojnacka|first3=Damian|last3=Walczak|date=1 December 2013|journal=Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting|volume=2|issue=2|pages=11–26|doi=10.12775/cjfa.2013.013|doi-access=free}}</ref> It is a significant concept in [[Catholic social teaching]] and in [[Christian democracy|Christian democratic]] political ideology.<ref name="FitzpatrickKwon2013">{{cite book |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Tony |last2=Kwon |first2=Huck-ju |last3= Manning |first3=Nick |author4=James Midgley, Gillian Pascall |title= International Encyclopedia of Social Policy |date= 4 July 2013 |publisher= Routledge |language=en |isbn= 978-1-136-61003-5|page=1866}}</ref> Although closely related to the concept of [[Charity (practice)|charity]], solidarity aspires to change whole systems, not merely to help individuals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shallwani |first=Sadaf |date=2022-08-11 |title=Solidarity over charity: Prioritising long-term shifts over band-aid responses |url=https://www.alliancemagazine.org/blog/solidarity-over-charity-prioritising-long-term-shifts-over-band-aid-responses/ |access-date=2024-04-12 |website=Alliance magazine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Solidarity, Not Charity in Philanthropy {{!}} Northern California Grantmakers |url=https://ncg.org/news/solidarity-not-charity-philanthropy |access-date=2024-04-12 |website=ncg.org |language=en}}</ref>

{{Christian democracy sidebar}}

Solidarity is also one of six principles of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]],<ref>[[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union#The text|Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]], Title IV</ref> and [[International Human Solidarity Day]] is recognized each year on December 20 as an [[international observance]]. Solidarity is not mentioned in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] nor in the United Nations' [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and therefore has lesser legal meaning when compared to basic rights.

Concepts of solidarity are mentioned in the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D31058%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |title=Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights |access-date=2019-05-02 |archive-date=2017-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010174232/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D31058%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |url-status=live }}</ref> but not defined clearly.<ref name=PB2012>{{Cite journal|last1=Prainsack|first1=Barbara|last2=Buyx|first2=Alena|year=2012|title=Solidarity in Contemporary Bioethics—towards a New Approach|journal=Bioethics|volume=26|issue=7|pages=343–350|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01987.x|pmid=22827315|s2cid=3463430}}</ref> As biotechnology and biomedical enhancement research and production increase, the need for a distinct definition of solidarity within healthcare system frameworks will be important.{{editorializing|date=August 2023}}

{{Labor|expanded=unions}}

==History==

===Socialisation of the concept===
The terms [[wiktionary:solidaire#French|solidaire]] and [[wiktionary:solidairement|solidairement]] already appeared in French legal language in the 16th century. They are related to the Roman legal concept in solidum, which was derived from the [[Latin]] word solidus, meaning "on behalf of the whole". In the [[Napoleonic Code|Napoleonic code]], solidarity meant the joint liability of debtors towards a common creditor and was not a primary legal principle.<ref name=":1">Jussi Vanamo 1997. Durkheimilainen sosiologia ja vuosisadanvaihteen radikalismi. [http://www.vanamo.net/Jussi/DURKHEIMILAINEN_SOSIOLOGIA_JA_VUOSISADANVAIHTEEN_RADIKALISMI.pdf University of Helsinki, Faculty of Political Science, doctoral dissertation].</ref>

[[Conservatism]], following the [[French Revolution]], introduced the concept of "solidarity", which was detached from the [[legal system]], as a [[Reactionism|reaction]] against rapid [[social change]] and as a longing for a stable society. During the [[July Monarchy]], [[Pierre Leroux]], a [[Utopian socialism|utopian socialist]] who is also said to have coined the term [[socialism]], also introduced the concept of non-legal solidarity.<ref name=":1" /> [[Auguste Comte]], the so-called founder of [[sociology]], adopted the concept in the sense of social interdependence between people. Comte linked solidarity to the concept of [[altruism]] as the opposite of [[egoism]]. Instead of emphasising the [[individual]], altruism emphasises common responsibility and solidarity. The interpretations of Pierre Leroux and Auguste Comte gave rise to the idea of a specific social solidarity as the basis of the [[social order]].<ref name=":2">[http://blogs.helsinki.fi/jliukko/files/2008/04/ewald-vakuutus-ja-solidaarisuus-valmis.pdf Jyri Liukko 2008. François Ewald, vakuutus ja solidaarisuuden liberaali kohtalo. Science and Progress 1/2008] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151027015628/http://blogs.helsinki.fi/jliukko/files/2008/04/ewald-vakuutus-ja-solidaarisuus-valmis.pdf|date=27 October 2015}})</ref>

After the [[French Revolution]], new scientific and ideological interpretations of solidarity emerged in France. The concept took on sociological, economic, legal, and political variants. Thinkers with different emphases shaped the meaning of the concept of solidarity to suit their own purposes.

The [[Communards|Paris Communards]], for example, exchanged the revolutionary slogan of "[[fraternity]]" for "solidarity". Some French [[liberal economists]] also began to use the term "solidarity", but they changed its meaning in an individualistic direction. [[Liberalism|Liberalists]] argued that interdependence between people meant that people also had to take responsibility for their actions without the state intervening.<ref name=":1" /> Charles Gide, an economist who opposed liberalism, developed his own interpretation of the concept and even proposed solidarity as the name of a new school of economics.<ref name=":2" />

Through these stages, by the turn of the 20th century, solidarity had become a generic term that could be associated with almost everything that was considered good and [[progress]]ive. The [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|Paris World Fair]] in 1900 was accompanied by a congress on "social education and the new solidarity". The [[Catholic Church]] also began to use the popular concept of solidarity. According to sociologist [[Steven Lukes]], solidarity played a role in France at the time that was almost as strong and influential as individualism did in the [[United States]] at the same time.<ref name=":1" />

===Émile Durkheim===
According to [[Émile Durkheim]], the types of social solidarity correlate with [[Types of societies|types of society]]. Durkheim introduced the terms [[mechanical and organic solidarity|''mechanical'' and ''organic solidarity'']]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thijssen|first=Peter|date=November 2012|title=From mechanical to organic solidarity, and back: With Honneth beyond Durkheim.|journal=European Journal of Social Theory|volume=15|pages=454–470|via=EBSCO|doi=10.1177/1368431011423589|s2cid=147685052}}</ref> as part of his theory of the development of societies in ''[[The Division of Labour in Society]]'' (1893). In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals—people feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in traditional small-scale societies.<ref name="dict2">{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Jary|first2=Julia|last2=Jary|chapter=mechanical and organic solidarity|title=Collins Dictionary of Sociology|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|year=2005|isbn=9780007183999|pages=381–82}}</ref> In [[tribalism|tribal]] society, solidarity is usually based on [[kinship]] ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development which occurs in modern and industrial societies.<ref name="dict2" />

Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interests, the order and solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks. "Organic" refers to the interdependence of the component parts, and thus social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts (e.g., farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food).

===Léon Bourgeois===
Although the concept of solidarity had already been used in the [[Labour movement|labor movement]] in the mid-19th century, it was only the liberal republicans who brought solidarity into the mainstream of French political debate. In 1896, [[Léon Bourgeois]] published his book ''Solidarité'', which introduced the concept of solidarity into political language. Bourgeois's solidarity was based primarily on the interdependence between people, a double-edged sword that produced both security and threats. However, it was also based on the idea of social debt. According to Bourgeois, man owes society the technical and [[intellectual capital]] that [[Social Development|social development]] has produced for him.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

Bourgeois also introduced the term solidarism to describe a [[political ideology]] based on solidarity. Solidarism was a precise and clear structure of ideas which [[Radicalism (politics)|radicalism]] was also able to assimilate, and it came to regard it as its own ideological expression. After the turn of the century, Bourgeois solidarism came to be regarded almost as an official idea of the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]]. His solidarism combined elements of [[Durkheim]]'s theory of solidarity with the theories of [[Louis Pasteur]] and [[Charles Darwin]], and constituted an alternative to the confrontation between [[classical liberalism]] and workers [[collectivism]]. Bourgeois emphasised the solidarity generated by interdependence between people as a positive factor for all [[Developmental psychology|human growth]]. Solidarism thus combined the natural interdependence of human beings with solidarity as a moral goal. Although the idea of solidarity had different successors and interpretations, they had in common the emphasis on both the [[social responsibility]] of the state and the [[cooperation]] of citizens.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

===Charles Gide===
Solidarity also played a central role in the thinking of the French economist [[Charles Gide]] (1847–1932). Gide set out to challenge the dominance of the liberal [[school of economics]] in France. His thinking was influenced by both [[biology]] and [[sociology]]. He was particularly influenced by [[Charles Fourier]], who had criticised the [[social ills]] created by [[Free market competition model|free market competition]]. Solidarity became a fundamental concept in Gide's thinking. He found manifestations of solidarity in nature, in the economy and in the social interdependencies of society, but for him solidarity was only ethically valuable when it was consciously voluntary. He created his own national economic doctrine, called Solidarism, according to which society could gradually move towards a [[Cooperative economic|cooperative economy]] in which workers themselves controlled the [[means of production]]. In Gide's thinking, the values and goals of solidarity could be pursued through cooperative associations, 'the voluntary association of well-meaning people'.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Inkinen |first=Karl |title=CHARLES GIDE rakensi osuustoiminnalle teorian |url=https://www.pellervo.fi/otlehti/uotneuvonta/sankareita/6_06gide.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305064541/http://pellervo.fi/otlehti/uotneuvonta/sankareita/6_06gide.htm |archive-date=5 March 2016 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=pellervo.fi |language=fi}}</ref>

In Gide's solidarity, the [[common property]] created by free cooperative associations is their own and the added value created by their activities is returned in the form of [[profit sharing]]. Solidarism preserved the foundations of the free market economic system and also accepted differences in people's economic status. However, large income disparities were not in line with the idea of solidarity, as Gide considered them to break the ties that bind the [[individual]] to [[society]].<ref name=":3" /> Gide is considered a major representative of the [[French historical school]], and his ideas were different from the mainstream [[liberal economics]] of the time. Gide's [[social philosophy]] was close to that of [[Léon Walras]], the developer of [[Neoclassical economics|neoclassical]] [[general equilibrium theory]], and he was one of the few supporters of Walras during his lifetime.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The French Historical School |url=http://homepage.newschool.edu/het//schools/frenchist.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707013641/http://homepage.newschool.edu/het//schools/frenchist.htm |archive-date=7 July 2010 |access-date=20 December 2023}}</ref>

Solidarity is still the core value underlying cooperatives today, alongside self-reliance, [[ownership]], [[Social equality|equality]], and [[justice]]. [[Cooperative]] members have a duty to emphasise the common interest and to ensure that all members are treated as fairly as possible. In addition to solidarity with its own members, the cooperative now also emphasises [[social responsibility]] beyond the cooperative itself.

===Peter Kropotkin===
Anarchist theorist [[Peter Kropotkin]] (1842–1921) connected the biological and the social in his formulation of solidarity. In his book, ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' (1902), written partly in response to Huxleyan Social Darwinism, Kropotkin studied the use of cooperation as a survival mechanism in human societies at their various stages, as well as with animals. According to him, [[mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]], or cooperation, within a species has been an important factor in the evolution of social institutions. Solidarity is essential for mutual aid; supportive activity towards other people does not result from the expectation of reward, but rather from instinctive feelings of solidarity.

In his introduction to the book, Kropotkin wrote:
{{blockquote|The number and importance of mutual-aid institutions which were developed by the creative genius of the savage and half-savage masses, during the earliest clan-period of mankind and still more during the next village-community period, and the immense influence which these early institutions have exercised upon the subsequent development of mankind, down to the present times, induced me to extend my researches to the later, historical periods as well; especially, to study that most interesting period—the free medieval city republics, whose universality and influence upon our modern civilization have not yet been duly appreciated. And finally, I have tried to indicate in brief the immense importance which the mutual-support instincts, inherited by mankind from its extremely long evolution, play even now in our modern society, which is supposed to rest upon the principle "every one for himself, and the State for all," but which it never has succeeded, nor will succeed in realizing".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kropotkin|first=Peter|title=Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution|location=New York|publisher=McClure Phillips & Co.|year=1902|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924030243640/mode/2up?q=%22earliest+clan-period%22|page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924030243640/page/n18/mode/1up xv]}}</ref>}}
Kropotkin advocated an alternative economic and social system, which would be coordinated through a horizontal network of voluntary associations with goods distributed in compliance with the physical needs of the individual, rather than according to labor.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Efremenko|first1=D.|last2=Evseeva|first2=Y.|title=Studies of Social Solidarity in Russia: Tradition and Modern Trends|journal=American Sociologist|volume=43|year=2012|number=4|pages=349–365|location=New York|publisher=Springer Science+Business Media|doi=10.1007/s12108-012-9165-2 |s2cid=255519594 }}</ref>

==Solidarity in the insurance system==
The [[political philosophy]] of the early twentieth century, condensed into the concept of solidarity, sought to offer both a [[scientific theory]] of social interdependence and a [[Molal solution|moral solution]] to [[social problems]]. According to some scholars, the emergence of this new rationality was made possible by the concept of social risk and the idea and technology of insurance developed to manage it. Social risk is defined as the risk to a group of people, statistically speaking, which is caused in one way or another by their living together and which can be mitigated by a technique of joint and several [[Liability insurance|liability]] such as [[insurance]].<ref name=":2" />

It has been said that insurance can be seen as one of the institutions of the [[social contract]]. The way insurance works requires individuals to take a [[collective responsibility]] or the events they feel the need to prepare for. Society can be said to have become 'modern' when insurance becomes social insurance and when, thanks to the techniques and institutions of insurance, the insurance model becomes both a symbolic and a functional basis for the social contract.<ref name=":2" />

Solidarity and [[justice]] are key principles underpinning the insurance system, according to [[:fi:Risto Pelkonen|Risto Pelkonen]] and Timo Somer. In the context of voluntary personal insurance, solidarity means that the insured share the benefits and costs between themselves, while justice means that each insured contributes to the costs according to the actuarial probability. Social insurance, on the other hand, is available to all citizens, regardless of their choice and health status, as the costs are covered by [[tax revenue]]s and [[statutory]] contributions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1995 |title=Riskin arviointi ja vastuunvalinta |url=https://www.duodecimlehti.fi/duo50386 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=duodecimlehti.fi |language=fi}}</ref>

==Solidarity as the foundation of the welfare state==
Solidarity, or solidarism, is widely seen as the central foundation of the [[welfare state]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>Mikko Lång 2003. Suomalaisen hyvinvointivaltion legitimiteetti nyt ja tulevaisuudessa. [https://jyx.jyu.fi/dspace/bitstream/handle/123456789/12894/G0000408.pdf?sequence=1 University of Jyväskylä, Pro gradu thesis]</ref><ref>Forma, Pauli: Mureneeko solidaarisuus, polarisoituuko yhteiskunta? Yhteiskuntapolitiikka 2/1999</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nyyssölä |first=Kari |date=2006 |title=Kriisi ja sosiaalinen pääoma hyvinvointivaltiossa |url=https://www.tieteessatapahtuu.fi/0106/nyyssola.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060813230327/http://www.tieteessatapahtuu.fi/0106/nyyssola.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2006 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=tieteessatapahtuu.fi}}</ref> Among other things, the advent of statutory [[social insurance]] and [[social law]] in the 20th century changed [[social thinking]] and enabled the breakthrough of the solidarity paradigm. The emergence of solidarity in social law can be thought of as being based on the norm of collective provisioning as the foundation of [[social justice]]. However, it can be argued that the justification for social regulation and solidarity is not necessarily a [[Positive statement|positive]] [[Normative statement|normative logic]], but rather general [[civil rights]]. [[Human rights]] are intended to apply equally to all people and are more akin to a legal 'law' than to a normative logic. The formation of welfare policy can therefore be thought of as being based on [[Human rights|human]] and civil rights with a completely different logic, rather than on a collective norm.<ref name=":2" />

According to Professor Heikki Ervast, however, three basic concepts can be associated with [[Nordic welfare state]]s: macro-collectivism, universalism and solidarism. In simple terms, macro-collectivism means that recipients and payers of transfers do not need to know each other. Universalism means that the [[social protection]] and [[Social services|services]] of the [[welfare state]] apply to all citizens. Solidarism means that the welfare state is not simply an instrument designed to guarantee social peace, but is based on solidarity, human dignity, and equality. Pauli Forma, Associate Professor of Social Policy at the [[University of Turku]], has summarised the central role of solidarity as the ethical basis of the welfare state: 'The welfare state is an institution of collective solidarity'. In other words, a welfare state is a [[Democracy|democratic]] and [[Prosperity|prosperous]] state that [[collective]]ly shows solidarity by taking responsibility for the social security and [[Social equality|equality]] of its citizens and for helping the disadvantaged. The welfare state can be said to be the "invisible hand of solidarity", in the same way that the "[[invisible hand of the market]]" is at work in a [[free market economy]].

== Solidarity tax ==
{{Main|Solidarity tax}}
A solidarity tax is a [[fee]] imposed by the government of some countries to finance projects that serve, in theory, to unify or solidarize the country. It is usually imposed for a short period of time in addition on [[income tax]] of [[individual]]s, private [[Entrepreneurship|entrepreneurs]], and [[legal entities]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Kagan |first=Julia |date=28 September 2020 |title=Solidarity Tax |url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/solidarity-tax.asp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202012131/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/solidarity-tax.asp |archive-date=2 February 2023 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=Investopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=solidarity tax |url=http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/solidarity-tax.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724022133/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/solidarity-tax.html |archive-date=24 July 2020 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=BusinessDictionary}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012 |title=Solidarity Tax |url=https://investment_terms.enacademic.com/13078/Solidarity_Tax |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127095525/https://investment_terms.enacademic.com/13078/Solidarity_Tax |archive-date=27 January 2020 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=enacademic.com}}</ref>

In [[Germany]], the solidarity tax was first introduced after [[German reunification]]. The tax amounted to 7.5% of the amount of income tax payable (for individuals) and income tax payable (for legal entities). It was later abolished and reintroduced from 1995 to December 31, 1997, after which it was reduced to 5.5% on January 1, 1998.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solidaritätszuschlag |url=http://www.steuerberaten.de/tag/solidaritaetszuschlag/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127095556/https://www.steuerberaten.de/tag/solidaritaetszuschlag/ |archive-date=27 January 2020 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=steuerberaten.de |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Solidaritätszuschlag 2024, 2023 und 2022 |url=https://steuerrechner.com.de/Solidaritaetszuschlag.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219223730/https://steuerrechner.com.de/Solidaritaetszuschlag.php |archive-date=19 December 2023 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=steuerrechner.com.de}}</ref> The legality of the tax was repeatedly challenged, but it was recognized by the German Federal Financial Court as not contrary to the [[German Constitution]]. The long-term assessment of the solidarity tax was considered unconstitutional in Germany.<ref name=":0" />

In [[Italy]], the solidarity tax was first introduced in 2012. All individuals whose annual [[gross income]] exceeds €300,000 are required to pay a 3% tax on the amount exceeding this amount.<ref>{{Cite web |title=La tassazione delle persone fisiche (IRPEF) |url=http://www.camera.it/leg17/465?area=25&tema=710&La+tassazione+delle+persone+fisiche+(IRPEF)#paragrafo2623 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713125301/http://www.camera.it/leg17/465?area=25&tema=710&La+tassazione+delle+persone+fisiche+%28IRPEF%29#paragrafo2623 |archive-date=13 July 2014 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=Camera dei Deputati |language=it}}</ref>

In [[France]], the [[solidarity tax on wealth]] was introduced in 1981; in September 2017, the French government abolished the solidarity tax and replaced it with a wealth tax on real estate starting in 2018. It was paid by all citizens and married couples whose property exceeded 1.3 million euros on January 1. The tax ranged from 0.5% to 1.5% of the value of property exceeding 800,000 euros.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Impôt de Solidarité sur la Fortune |url=http://www.impots.gouv.fr/portal/dgi/public/particuliers.impot?espId=1&pageId=part_isf&impot=ISF&sfid=50 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627200331/http://www.impots.gouv.fr/portal/dgi/public/particuliers.impot?espId=1&pageId=part_isf&impot=ISF&sfid=50 |archive-date=27 June 2014 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=impots.gouv.fr}}</ref>

In 2013 the solidarity tax was also introduced in the [[Czech Republic]] in response to [[economic recession]] and was cancelled in 2021. In this country it was 7% for all residents earning more than [[CZK]] 100,000 per month.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solidarity Tax In The Czech Republic – What Is It? |url=https://pexpats.com/Solidarity-tax |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925053327/https://pexpats.com/Solidarity-tax |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=Pexpats}}</ref>

==Bioethics==
Solidarity is discussed in philosophy within its various sub-fields of law, [[ethics]], and [[political philosophy]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Solidarity|year=1999|editor-last=Bayertz|editor-first=Kurt|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-7923-5475-8}}</ref> Ancient philosophers such as [[Socrates]] and [[Aristotle]] discuss solidarity from within a [[virtue ethics]] framework, because in order to live a good life one must perform actions and behave in a way that is in solidarity with the community.{{citation needed|reason=where specifically in Plato's & Aristotle's works is solidarity discussed?|date=August 2023}}

An approach in [[bioethics]] is to identify solidarity as a three-tiered practice enacted at the interpersonal, communal, and contractual and legal levels.{{r|PB2012}} This approach is driven by the quest to differentiate between the diverse applications of the concept and to clarify its meaning, both historically and in terms of its potential as a fruitful concept for contemporary moral, social, and political issues.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Prainsack|first1=Barbara |last2=Buyx|first2=Alena |year=2011 |title=Solidarity: reflections on an emerging concept in bioethics |publisher=Nuffield Council on Bioethics |location=London |url=https://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/publications/solidarity |access-date=2013-11-04 |isbn=978-1-904384-25-0 |archive-date=2014-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817233344/http://nuffieldbioethics.org/project/solidarity/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The modern practice of bioethics is significantly influenced by Immanuel [[Immanuel Kant|Kant's]] concept of the [[Categorical imperative|Categorical Imperative]]. Pastor and philosopher Fritz Jahr's article "Bio-Ethics: A Review of the Ethical Relationships of Humans to Animals and Plants" refines Kant's original Categorical Imperative discourse<ref name=HMS2007>{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=[[Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal]]|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref> by including the notion of the Bioethical Imperative{{Definition needed|date=August 2023}}.<ref name="Sass 2014 221–228">{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=2014|title=Bioethik – Bioethics|journal=Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte|volume=56|pages=221–228|jstor=24361919}}</ref> Biomedical technology has also further introduced solidarity as the pivotal concept in bioethics. Another scholar, Meulen ter Ruud, discusses the need for solidarity within European health and social care systems, through organizations like [[Solidar]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bristol |first=University of |title=Honorary staff and affiliates Ruud {{!}} Bristol Medical School: Population Health Sciences {{!}} University of Bristol |url=https://www.bristol.ac.uk/population-health-sciences/centres/ethics/people/ruud-ter-meulen/honorary-staff-and-affiliates-ruud/#:~:text=Though%20he%20retired%20in%202015,BSL/Springer%20Press,%202020.&text=Meulen,%20R%20ter,%20Mohammed,,,%20Oxford%20University%20Press,%202017.&text=Huxtable,%20R.,%20Meulen,,,%202015,%201-20.&text=Meulen,%20RHJ%20ter,,%20Arts,:%20Georgetown%20University%20Press,%201995. |access-date=2025-01-22 |website=www.bristol.ac.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> 

===Imperative===
Fritz Jahr describes bioethics as ultimately made up of "academic discipline, principle, and virtue".{{r|HMS2007}} This echoes back{{How|date=August 2023}} to the influence [[Socrates]] has on the norms of bioethics and its practices. Jahr utilizes Kant's Categorical Imperative to demonstrate the obligatory, yet innately{{citation needed|reason=|date=August 2023}} human practice of the Bioethical Imperative:<blockquote>[T]he guiding principle for our actions is the ''Bioethical Imperative'': Respect every living being in general as an end in itself, and treat it if possible, as such{{r|HMS2007}}</blockquote>as it{{ambiguous|reason=what is "it"?|date=August 2023}} arises in the relationships not only between people, but also with plants and other animal species.{{Sentence fragment|date=August 2023}} Jahr believes that in order to practice bioethics, one must be in solidarity with all forms of life.{{r|HMS2007}} If one only decides to be in solidarity in humans, then one should{{ambiguous|reason=prescriptive or descriptive "should"?|date=August 2023}} not behave virtuously in any manner.<ref name="Sass 2014 221–228"/>

==Catholic social teaching==
{{Social teachings of the popes}}
{{Integralism}}
Solidarity is an element of [[Catholic social teaching]]. According to [[Pope Francis]]:
{{blockquote|No one can remain insensitive to the inequalities that persist in the world... the Brazilian people, particularly the humblest among you, can offer the world a valuable lesson in solidarity, a word that is too often forgotten or silenced because it is uncomfortable... I would like to make an appeal to those in possession of greater resources, to public authorities and to all people of good will who are working for social justice: never tire of working for a more just world, marked by greater solidarity<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicsocialteaching.org.uk/themes/solidarity/|title=Solidarity|website=Catholic Social Teaching|access-date=19 March 2018|archive-date=20 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320135740/http://www.catholicsocialteaching.org.uk/themes/solidarity/|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}

The Church's teaching on solidarity is explained in the [[Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church]], and briefly summarised in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Social justice|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=2020-04-12|archive-date=2013-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105063620/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{blockquote|
; 1939: The principle of solidarity, also articulated in terms of "friendship" or "social charity," is a direct demand of human and Christian brotherhood
; 1940: Solidarity is manifested in the first place by the distribution of goods and remuneration for work. It also presupposes the effort for a more just social order where tensions are better able to be reduced and conflicts more readily settled by negotiation. 
; 1941: Socio-economic problems can be resolved only with the help of all the forms of solidarity: solidarity of the poor among themselves, between rich and poor, of workers among themselves, between employers and employees in a business, solidarity among nations and peoples. International solidarity is a requirement of the moral order; world peace depends in part upon this
; 1942: The virtue of solidarity goes beyond material goods. In spreading the spiritual goods of the faith, the Church has promoted, and often opened new paths for, the development of temporal goods as well. And so throughout the centuries has the Lord's saying been verified: "Seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things shall be yours as well."}}

==Islamic Solidarity==
Solidarity is an important part of the teachings God sent down to the [[Prophet Muhammad]]. Indeed, Muslims were called upon in the [[Qur'an]] to unify under one banner, that of Islam, as equals before God. This centred around principles of brotherhood (''ukhuwwa''), social responsibility (''al-takaful al-ijtima'i'') and almsgiving (''[[zakat]]'' or ''[[sadaqa]]''). The central teaching to Islam is to subject oneself to God, and that, in this pursuit, all are equal before Him.

; IX, 60: "Alms are meant only for the poor, the needy, those who administer them, those whose hearts need winning over, to free slaves and help those in debt, for God's cause, and for travellers in need. This is ordained by God; God has the knowledge to decide."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abdel Haleem |first1=M.A.S. |title=The Qur'an: English Translation and Parallel Arabic Text |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=197}}</ref>

; XVI, 90: "God commands justice, doing good, and generosity towards relatives and He forbids what is shameful, blameworthy, and oppressive."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abdel Haleem |first1=M.A.S. |title=The Qur'an: English Translation and Parallel Arabic Text |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=278}}</ref>

; LIX, 7: "Whatever gains God has turned over to His Messenger from the inhabitants of the villages belong to God, the Messenger, kinsfolk, orphans, the needy, the traveller in need - this is so that they do not just circulate among those of you who are rich - so accept whatever the Messenger gives you, and abstain from whatever he forbids you."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abdel Haleem |first1=M.A.S. |title=The Qur'an: English Translation and Parallel Arabic Text |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=547}}</ref>

This is not only applicable to the Muslim community. Other religious communities, especially the [[people of the book]], are traditionally accepted as true believers and protected communities. This lesson is drawn from [[Al-Ma'idah|Surat al-Ma'ida]], verse 48.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abdel Haleem |first1=M.A.S. |title=The Qur'an: English Translation and Parallel Arabic Text |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=117}}</ref>  Although opinions differ on this matter, [[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] notes that the majority opinion of Islamic scholars is that this verse pertains to a universal acceptance of other religions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nasr |first1=Seyyed Hossein |title=The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary |date=2015 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=9780061125881}}</ref>

===Pan-Islamism===
In modern history, [[pan-Islamism]] was an important driver of inter-Islamic solidarity movements. This movement sought to mobilize a trans-national [[imagined community]] in the wake of a perceived decline of the Muslim world to regain its former political glory. Pan-Islamism is often associated with anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ryad |first1=Umar |editor1-last=Motadel |editor1-first=David |title=Islam and the European Empires |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter=Anti-Imperialism and the Pan-Islamic Movement}}</ref> Whilst this is true for later period, early pan-Islamic thinkers such as [[Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī]] and [[Syed Ameer Ali]] sought to make use of pan-Islamic ideals to fight for Muslim rights within the colonial framework of the United Kingdom and the [[concert of Europe]]  of which the [[Ottoman Caliphate]] was a part.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aydin |first1=Cemil |title=The Idea of the Muslim World: A Global Intellectual History |date=2017 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=82–90}}</ref> In the 1920s, the [[Khalifat Movement]] made use of British concessions during World War I to combat the [[Treaty of Sèvres]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aydin |first1=Cemil |title=The Idea of the Muslim World: A Global Intellectual History |date=2017 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=122–126}}</ref> And, in the 1930s, the [[World Islamic Congress]] was held in Jerusalem to negotiate a settlement for [[Palestinian independence]] within the confines of the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matthews |first1=Weldon C |title=Pan-Islam or Arab Nationalism? The Meaning of the 1931 Jerusalem Islamic Congress Reconsidered |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |date=February 2003 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–22|doi=10.1017/S0020743803000011 }}</ref> Pan-Islamist ideas of society (Ar. ''umma'', ''mujtamiʿ'', or ''al-hayʾa al-ijtimāʿiyya'') were characterised by [[Islamic Modernism|modernist interpretations of Islam]] and a general acceptance of other religions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zemmin |first1=Florian |title=Modernity in Islamic Tradition: The Concept of 'Society' in the Journal al-Manar (Cairo, 1898–1940) |date=2018 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=9783110545845 |pages=425}}</ref>

Others in that period sought to implement Islamic solidarity principles from the bottom up. In Egypt, [[Hassan al-Banna]] established the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] in 1928 to organize society on the basis of Islamic ethical and social values, including social welfare and solidarity with the disenfranchised.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rock-Singer |first1=Aaron |title=The Rise of Islamic Society: Social Change, State Power, and Historical Imagination |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |date=2022 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=1006}}</ref> Operating in the capitalist setting of interwar Egypt and drawing on Islamic rights to property, they made the pragmatic decision to advocate an Islamic economy that stressed Egyptian ownership over factories and emphasized social welfare.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kourgiotis |first1=Panos |title=Understanding Egyptian capitalism through the Muslim Brotherhood's eyes |journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies |date=2018 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=464–479|doi=10.1080/13530194.2017.1320973 }}</ref>

===Al-Takāful al-Ijtimāʿī and Islamic Socialism===
''Takāful'' is a difficult to translate word that might best be translated as a combination of solidarity, mutual responsibility, and cooperative insurance. Thinkers like [[Mustafa al-Siba'i]], the leader of the [[Syrian Muslim Brotherhood]], have employed the term to argue for [[Islamic Socialism]], arguing that socialism was most in line with Islamic teachings on al-takāful al-ijtimāʿī (En. social solidarity).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hanna |first1=Sami A. |title=Al-Takaful al-Ijtima'i and Islamic Socialism |journal=The Muslim World |date=1969 |volume=59 |issue=3–4 |pages=275–286|doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.1969.tb02639.x }}</ref> Al-Siba'i identified ten levels of social responsibility and solidarity:<ref>{{cite book |last1=al-Sibāʿī |first1=Muṣṭafā |title=Ishtirākiyyat al-islām |date=1962 |publisher=Maktabat al-Ittiḥād wa al-Qawmī |pages=179–184 |edition=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hanna |first1=Sami A. |editor1-last=Hanna |editor1-first=Sami A. |editor2-last=Gardner |editor2-first=George H. |title=Arab Socialism: A Documentary Survey |date=1969 |publisher=Brill |pages=153–156}}</ref>

#al-takāful al-adabī (Solidariy in mannerisms)
#al-takāful al-ʿilmī (Solidarity in providing education)
#al-takāful al-siyāsī (Political solidarity)
#al-takāful al-difāʿī (Solidarity in defence [of one's community])
#al-takāful al-jināʾī (Solidarity in [solving] crime)
#al-takāful al-akhlāqī (Solidarity in upholding morality)
#al-takāful al-iqtiṣādī (Economic solidarity)
#al-takāful al-ʿabādī (Solidarity in worship)
#al-takāful al-ḥaḍārī (Solidarity amongst societal groups)
#al-takāful al-maʿāshī (Solidarity with respect to living, i.e. taking care of the needy)

Since the 1970s, ''takāful'' became theorised in Islamic finance as "a scheme where the participants are the insureds as well as the insurers and therefore share in the loss or profit of the operator, unlike insurance companies, where the risk is borne solely by the insurers"<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thanasegaran |first1=Haemala |last2=Shaiban |first2=Mohammed |title=Harmonisation of "Takaful" (Islamic Insurance) Regulation—A Realistic Goal or Improbable Ideal? |journal=Singapore Journal of Legal Studies |date=2014 |page=331 |jstor=24872163 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24872163}}</ref>

===Solidarity and the Palestinian Cause===
The Palestinian cause has taken central stage in expressions of solidarity in the Islamic world. Although solidarity with Palestinians is not exclusively an Islamic matter, the land of Palestine holds extra significance for many Muslims due to the city of Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |title=What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam: Answers to Frequently Asked Questions, from One of America's Leading Experts |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |pages=188-190 |edition=2}}</ref> Expressions of solidarity have taken several forms:

====State-Level Diplomacy====
[[The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], a intergovernmental organisation of Muslim majority countries, has resisted and spoken out against Israeli violence against Palestinians,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ali |first1=Wajid |last2=Alam |first2=Ayesha |last3=Shah |first3=Gulam Mujtaba |title=Assessing the OIC's Role in the Israel-Palestine Conflict: Challenges and Effectiveness |journal=Social Science Review |date=2025 |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=1958-1966 |url=https://policyjournalofms.com/index.php/6/article/view/505}}</ref> though they have been criticised for neglecting minority rights in own member states. Additionally, in the 1970s the [[PLO]] earned a spot at the United Nations Council through the anti-colonialist movement in the [[Global South]] during that time.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erakat |first1=Noura |title=Justice for Some: Law and the Question of Palestine |date=2019 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=9781503608832 |page=95-134}}</ref>

====Armed Resistance Groups====

Solidarity with the Palestinian cause has played a central role in Hizballah's legitimation in Lebanon,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khalili |first1=Laleh |title=‘Standing with My Brother’: Hizbullah, Palestinians, and the Limits of Solidarity |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |date=2007 |volume=49 |issue=2 |page=276-303}}</ref> with their genesis in the second Israeli invasion of Lebanon and their resistance to the subsequent occupation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Khayyat |first1=Munira |title=A Landscape of War: Ecologies of Resistance and Survival in South Lebanon |date=2022 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520389991 |page=55-63}}</ref> Hizballah was supported by the 'axis of resistance' which is central to Iran's Islamically inspired militant opposition to colonial presence in the region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Warnaar |first1=Maaike |title=Iranian Foreign Policy During Ahmadinejad: Ideology and Actions |date=2013 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=87-88}}</ref> In the past, secular opposition also called on anti-colonial and third world solidarity to justify their armed resistance.

====Activism====
Popular protests, bringing together intersectional solidarity networks, have been a recurring expression of solidarity with wars in Palestine.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abu-Ayyash |first1=Shadi |title=The Palestine Solidarity Movement, Human Rights and Twitter |journal=Networking Knowledge |date=2015 |volume=8 |issue=2 |url=https://doi.org/10.31165/nk.2015.82.374}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chenoweth |first1=Erica |last2=Hammam |first2=Soha |last3=Pressman |first3=Jeremy |last4=Ulfelder |first4=Jay |title=Protests in the United States on Palestine and Israel, 2023–2024 |journal=Social Movement Studies |date=2024 |page=1-14}}</ref> Organizations such as [[Samidoun]], the [[Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions Movement]], [[Islamic Relief Worldwide]], and [[Jewish Voice for Peace]] have played important roles in the West in terms of raising awareness and funds for the Palestinian cause. Universities have also been home to student protests.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nadeau |first1=Mary-Jo |last2=Sears |first2=Alan |title=The Palestine Test: Countering the Silencing Campaign |journal=Studies in Political Economy |date=2010 |volume=85 |page=7-33 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19187033.2010.11675033}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Regan |first1=Helen |title=Where pro-Palestinian university protests are happening around the world |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2024/05/03/world/pro-palestinian-university-protests-worldwide-intl-hnk |access-date=15 May 2025 |agency=CNN}}</ref>  They call for the breaking of ties with Israeli universities because of their alleged complicity in oppressing Palestinian students and knowledge production.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wind |first1=Maya |title=Towers of Ivory and Steel: How Israeli Universities Deny Palestinian Freedom |date=2024 |publisher=Verso |isbn=978-1-80429-174-0}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="250" heights="351">
File:Helsingin Kaupunginteatteri solidarity for Ukraine RL-220309-2215.jpg|The [[Helsinki City Theatre]] in [[Helsinki|Helsinki, Finland]] illuminated in the colors of the [[flag of Ukraine]], in solidarity with [[Ukraine]] during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]
File:PraxisGermany - Copy.png|[[Anarchist]] banner [[Dresden]] [[Germany]], translating to "Solidarity must become practice"
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Conservatism in Poland}}
{{Portal|Society}}
*[[Altruism]]
*[[Autarky]]
*[[Classism]]
*[[Corporatism]]
*[[Generalized exchange]]
*[[Group cohesiveness]]
*[[Groupthink]]
*[[Entitativity]]
*[[Hierarchy]]
*[[Linked fate]]
*[[Pan-Islamism]]
*[[Solidarism]]
*[[Solidarity economy]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book | last=Ankerl | first=Guy | title=Towards a Social Contract on a World-wide Scale | date=1980 | publisher=International Institute for Labour Studies | isbn=92-9014-165-4}}
*{{cite journal | last1=Davies | first1=Ben | last2=Savulescu | first2=Julian | title=Solidarity and Responsibility in Health Care | journal=Public Health Ethics | publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) | volume=12 | issue=2 | date=1 July 2019 | issn=1754-9981 | doi=10.1093/phe/phz008 | pages=133–144| pmid=31384302 | pmc=6655468 }}
*{{citation | last=Kołtan | first=Jacek | chapter=What Solidarity of the Future?|title=Solidarity and the Crisis of Trust|editor-first=Jacek|editor-last=Kołtan|publisher=[[European Solidarity Centre]]|location=Gdansk|year=2016|pages=133–143|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318012758}}
*{{citation|url=http://www.socialpolicy.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/141330/JWI_Solidarity_Obligations_and_Expressions.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Solidarity: Obligations and Expressions|first=Ashley|last=Taylor|publisher=Just World Institute|date=May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807082827/http://www.socialpolicy.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/141330/JWI_Solidarity_Obligations_and_Expressions.pdf|archive-date=2020-08-07}}
*{{cite journal|url=https://ugp.rug.nl/GROJIL/article/view/35459|title=Solidarity as a Principle of International Law: Its Application in Consensual Intervention|first=Themistoklis|last=Tzimas|journal=Groningen Journal of International Law|volume=6|number=2|year=2018}}

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